Types of Research Designs - Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper - Research Guides at University of Southern California

2/20/2021 Types of Research Designs - Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper - Research Guides at University of Southern California
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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Search this Guide Search
Paper
Offers detailed guidance on how to develop, organize, and write a college-level research paper in the
social and behavioral sciences.
Purpose Introduction
of
Before beginning your paper, you need to decide how you plan to design the

Guide
Types of
study.

Research The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate
Designs the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby,
ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the
Design
blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. Note that the
Flaws
research problem determines the type of design you should use, not the other
to
way around!
Avoid
Independent
De Vaus, D. A. Research Design in Social Research. London: SAGE, 2001;
and
Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.
Dependent
Variables
Glossary General Structure and Writing Style

of
Research The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained
Terms enables you to effectively address the research problem logically and as
unambiguously as possible. In social sciences research, obtaining information
1. relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of
Choosing evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately
a describe and assess meaning related to an observable phenomenon.
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchdesigns 1/32
Research
With this in mind, a common mistake made by researchers is that they begin
Problem
their investigations far too early, before they have thought critically about what
Reading information is required to address the research problem. Without attending to
Research these design issues beforehand, the overall research problem will not be
Effectively adequately addressed and any conclusions drawn will run the risk of being weak
Narrowing and unconvincing. As a consequence, the overall validity of the study will be
a undermined.
Topic The length and complexity of describing research designs in your paper can
Idea vary considerably, but any well-developed description will achieve the
Broadening following:
a
1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,
Topic
particularly in relation to any valid alternative designs that could have
Idea
been used,
Extending 2. Review and synthesize previously published literature associated with
the the research problem,
Timeliness
of a
Topic
3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions]
central to the problem,
4. Effectively describe the information and/or data which will be


Idea necessary for an adequate testing of the hypotheses and explain how
such information and/or data will be obtained, and
2.
5. Describe the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in
Preparing
determining whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.
to Write
Academic The research design is usually incorporated into the introduction. You can get an
Writing overall sense of what to do by reviewing the literature of studies that have
Style utilized the same research design. This can provide help you develop an
outline to follow for your own paper.
Choosing
a NOTE: Use the SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases and the SAGE
Title Research Methods Videos databases to search for scholarly resources on how
to apply specif ic research designs and methods. The Research Methods Online
Making
database contains links to more than 175,000 pages of SAGE publisher's book,
an
journal, and reference content on quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research
Outline
methodologies. Also included is a collection of case studies of social research
Paragraph projects that can be used to help you better understand abstract or complex
Development methodological concepts. The Research Methods Videos database contains
hours of tutorials interviews video case studies and mini-documentaries
hours of tutorials, interviews, video case studies, and mini-documentaries
3. The covering the entire research process.
Abstract
Executive
Creswell, John W. and J. David Creswell. Research Design: Qualitative,
Summary
Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA:
4. The Sage, 2018; De Vaus, D. A. Research Design in Social Research. London: SAGE,
Introduction 2001; Gorard, Stephen. Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the
Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Leedy, Paul D. and Jeanne Ellis
The
Ormrod. Practical Research: Planning and Design. Tenth edition. Boston, MA:
C.A.R.S.
Pearson, 2013; Vogt, W. Paul, Dianna C. Gardner, and Lynne M. Haeffele. When
Model
to Use What Research Design. New York: Guilford, 2012.
Background
Information
The
Action Research Design
Research Def inition and Purpose
Problem/Question

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby
Theoretical
initially an exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem 
Framework
is developed and plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then
5. The the intervention is carried out [the "action" in action research] during which
Literature time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new
Review interventional strategies are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats,
continuing until a suff icient understanding of [or a valid implementation
Citation
solution for] the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in
Tracking
nature and is intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation,
Content starting with conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving
Alert through several interventions and evaluations.
Services
What do these studies tell you?
Evaluating
1. This is a collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to
Sources
use in work or community situations.
Primary 2. Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes
Sources rather than testing theories.
Secondary 3. When practitioners use action research, it has the potential to increase
Sources the amount they learn consciously from their experience; the action
research cycle can be regarded as a learning cycle.
4. Action research studies often have direct and obvious relevance to
improving practice and advocating for change.

Tiertiary
5. There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the
Sources
researcher.
What
Is What these studies don't tell you?
Scholarly
1. It is harder to do than conducting conventional research because the
vs.
researcher takes on responsibilities of advocating for change as well as
Popular?
for researching the topic.
6. The 2. Action research is much harder to write up because it is less likely that
Methodology you can use a standard format to report your f indings effectively [i.e.,
data is often in the form of stories or observation].
Qualitative
3. Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
Methods
4. The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of
Quantitative action [e.g. change] and research [e.g. understanding] is time-
Methods consuming and complex to conduct.
5. Advocating for change usually requires buy-in from study participants.
7. The

Results
Coghlan, David and Mary Brydon-Miller. The Sage Encyclopedia of Action

Using
Non- Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2014; Efron, Sara Efrat and Ruth Ravid.
Textual Action Research in Education: A Practical Guide. New York: Guilford, 2013; Gall,
Elements Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 18, Action Research.

8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Gorard, Stephen. Research
8. The Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks,
Discussion CA: Sage, 2013; Kemmis, Stephen and Robin McTaggart. “Participatory Action
Limitations Research.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research. Norman Denzin and Yvonna S.
of Lincoln, eds. 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000), pp. 567-605; McNiff,
the Jean. Writing and Doing Action Research. London: Sage, 2014; Reason, Peter
Study and Hilary Bradbury. Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and
Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001.
9. The
Conclusion
Appendices Case Study Design

10. Def inition and Purpose
Proofreading
Your A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a
Paper sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often

used to narrow down a very broad f ield of research into one or a few easily
y y
Common researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for testing
Grammar whether a specif ic theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real
Mistakes world. It is a useful design when not much is known about an issue or
phenomenon.
Writing
Concisely What do these studies tell you?
11. 1. Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue

Citing through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or
Sources conditions and their relationships.
Avoiding 2. A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of
Plagiarism methodologies and rely on a variety of sources to investigate a research
problem.
Footnotes
3. Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known
or
through previous research.
Endnotes?
4. Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to
Further examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the

Readings application of concepts and theories and the extension of
methodologies. 
Annotated
5. The design can provide detailed descriptions of specif ic and rare cases.
Bibliography
Giving What these studies don't tell you?

an Oral
1. A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing
Presentation
reliability or to generalize the f indings to a wider population of people,
Group places, or things.
Presentations 2. Intense exposure to the study of a case may bias a researcher's
interpretation of the f indings.
Dealing
3. Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.
with
4. Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
Nervousness
5. The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem
Using being investigated.
Visual 6. If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very
Aids unusual or unique phenomenon or problem for study, then your
interpretation of the f indings can only apply to that particular case.
Grading
Someone
Else's Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Anastas, Jeane W.
Paper Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services. Chapter 4, Flexible
M th d C
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchdesigns
St d D i d d N Y k C l bi U i it P 5/32
Methods: Case Study Design. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999;
How to
Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American
Manage
Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Greenhalgh, Trisha, editor.
Group
Case Study Evaluation: Past, Present and Future Challenges. Bingley, UK:
Projects
Emerald Group Publishing, 2015; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden
Types Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
of Publications, 2010; Stake, Robert E. The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand
Structured Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1995; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Theory.
Group Applied Social Research Methods Series, no. 5. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Activities SAGE, 2003.
Group
Project
Survival
Causal Design
Skills Def inition and Purpose
Writing
Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of
a Book
conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used
Review
Multiple
Book
to measure what impact a specif ic change will have on existing norms and
assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of
hypotheses. Causal effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in


Review one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in

Essay variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.
Reviewing Conditions necessary for determining causality:

Collected
Empirical association -- a valid conclusion is based on f inding an
Works
association between the independent variable and the dependent
Writing variable.
a Case Appropriate time order -- to conclude that causation was involved, one
Study must see that cases were exposed to variation in the independent
variable before variation in the dependent variable.
Writing
Nonspuriousness -- a relationship between two variables that is not
a Field
due to variation in a third variable.
Report
About What do these studies tell you?

Informed
1. Causality research designs assist researchers in understanding why the
Consent
world works the way it does through the process of proving a causal link
between variables and by the process of eliminating other possibilities.
2. Replication is possible.
Writing
3. There is greater conf idence the study has internal validity due to the
Field
systematic subject selection and equity of groups being compared.
Notes
Writing What these studies don't tell you?

a Policy
1. Not all relationships are causal! The possibility always exists that, by
Memo
sheer coincidence, two unrelated events appear to be related [e.g.,
Writing Punxatawney Phil could accurately predict the duration of Winter for
a f ive consecutive years but, the fact remains, he's just a big, furry
Research rodent].
Proposal 2. Conclusions about causal relationships are diff icult to determine due to
a variety of extraneous and confounding variables that exist in a social
Acknowledgments
environment. This means causality can only be inferred, never proven.
Bibliography 3. If two variables are correlated, the cause must come before the effect.
However, even though two variables might be causally related, it can
sometimes be diff icult to determine which variable comes f irst and,
therefore, to establish which variable is the actual cause and which is
the actual effect.


Beach, Derek and Rasmus Brun Pedersen. Causal Case Study Methods:
Foundations and Guidelines for Comparing, Matching, and Tracing. Ann Arbor,
MI: University of Michigan Press, 2016; Bachman, Ronet. The Practice of
Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice. Chapter 5, Causation and
Research Designs. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2007; Brewer,
Ernest W. and Jennifer Kubn. “Causal-Comparative Design.” In Encyclopedia of
Research Design. Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp.
125-132; Causal Research Design: Experimentation. Anonymous SlideShare
Presentation; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter
11, Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs. 8th ed. Boston, MA:
Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods
Knowledge Base. 2006.
Cohort Design
Def inition and Purpose
Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social
pp
sciences, a cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of
time involving members of a population which the subject or representative
member comes from, and who are united by some commonality or similarity.
Using a quantitative framework, a cohort study makes note of statistical
occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united by same or similar
characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being investigated,
rather than studying statistical occurrence within the general population. Using
a qualitative framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of
observation. Cohorts can be either "open" or "closed."
Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of

Los Angeles] involve a population that is def ined just by the state of
being a part of the study in question (and being monitored for the
outcome). Date of entry and exit from the study is individually def ined,
therefore, the size of the study population is not constant. In open
cohort studies, researchers can only calculate rate based data, such as,
incidence rates and variants thereof.
Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into
a clinical trial] involve participants who enter into the study at one
def ining point in time and where it is presumed that no new


participants can enter the cohort. Given this, the number of study
participants remains constant (or can only decrease).
1. The use of cohorts is often mandatory because a randomized control

study may be unethical. For example, you cannot deliberately expose
people to asbestos, you can only study its effects on those who have
already been exposed. Research that measures risk factors often relies
upon cohort designs.
2. Because cohort studies measure potential causes before the outcome
has occurred, they can demonstrate that these “causes” preceded the
outcome, thereby avoiding the debate as to which is the cause and
which is the effect.
3. Cohort analysis is highly flexible and can provide insight into effects
over time and related to a variety of different types of changes [e.g.,
social, cultural, political, economic, etc.].
4. Either original data or secondary data can be used in this design.
What these studies don't tell you?
1. In cases where a comparative analysis of two cohorts is made [e.g.,

studying the effects of one group exposed to asbestos and one that has
not], a researcher cannot control for all other factors that might differ
between the two groups. These factors are known as confounding
variables.
2. Cohort studies can end up taking a long time to complete if the
researcher must wait for the conditions of interest to develop within the
group. This also increases the chance that key variables change during
the course of the study, potentially impacting the validity of the
f indings.
3. Due to the lack of randominization in the cohort design, its external
validity is lower than that of study designs where the researcher
randomly assigns participants.

Healy P, Devane D. “Methodological Considerations in Cohort Study Designs.”
Nurse Researcher 18 (2011): 32-36; Glenn, Norval D, editor. Cohort Analysis. 2nd 
edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Levin, Kate Ann. Study Design IV:
Cohort Studies. Evidence-Based Dentistry 7 (2003): 51–52; Payne, Geoff. “Cohort
Study.” In The SAGE Dictionary of Social Research Methods. Victor Jupp, editor.
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), pp. 31-33; Study Design 101. Himmelfarb
Health Sciences Library. George Washington University, November 2011; Cohort
Study. Wikipedia.
Cross-Sectional Design
Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time

dimension; a reliance on existing differences rather than change following
intervention; and, groups are selected based on existing differences rather than
random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure differences
between or from among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than
a process of change. As such, researchers using this design can only employ a
relatively passive approach to making causal inferences based on f indings.

1. Cross-sectional studies provide a clear 'snapshot' of the outcome and

the characteristics associated with it, at a specif ic point in time.
2. Unlike an experimental design, where there is an active intervention by
the researcher to produce and measure change or to create differences,
cross-sectional designs focus on studying and drawing inferences from
existing differences between people, subjects, or phenomena.
3. Entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While
longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended
period of time, cross-sectional research is focused on f inding
relationships between variables at one moment in time.
4. Groups identif ied for study are purposely selected based upon existing
differences in the sample rather than seeking random sampling.
5. Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of
subjects and, unlike observational studies, is not geographically bound.
6. Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample
is usually taken from the whole population.
7. Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to
gather data, they are relatively inexpensive and take up little time to 

conduct.
1. Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar

except in one specif ic variable can be diff icult.
2. Results are static and time bound and, therefore, give no indication of a
sequence of events or reveal historical or temporal contexts.
3. Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.
4. This design only provides a snapshot of analysis so there is always the
possibility that a study could have differing results if another time-
frame had been chosen.
5. There is no follow up to the f indings.
Bethlehem, Jelke. "7: Cross-sectional Research." In Research Methodology in the

Social, Behavioural and Life Sciences. Herman J Adèr and Gideon J
Mellenbergh, editors. (London, England: Sage, 1999), pp. 110-43; Bourque, Linda
B. “Cross-Sectional Design.” In The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science
Research Methods. Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Tim Futing Liao.
Research Methods. Michael S. Lewis Beck, Alan Bryman, and Tim Futing Liao.
(Thousand Oaks, CA: 2004), pp. 230-231; Hall, John. “Cross-Sectional Survey
Design.” In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods. Paul J. Lavrakas, ed.
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 173-174; Helen Barratt, Maria Kirwan.
Cross-Sectional Studies: Design, Application, Strengths and Weaknesses of
Cross-Sectional Studies. Healthknowledge, 2009. Cross-Sectional Study.
Wikipedia.
Descriptive Design
Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who,

what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a
descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive
research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the
phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions
in a situation.



1. The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged

natural environment. True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data,
often adversely influence the normal behavior of the subject [a.k.a., the
Heisenberg effect whereby measurements of certain systems cannot be
made without affecting the systems].
2. Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitative
research designs with the general overview giving some valuable
pointers as to what variables are worth testing quantitatively.
3. If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing
a more focused study.
4. Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important
recommendations in practice.
5. Appoach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
1. The results from a descriptive research cannot be used to discover a

def initive answer or to disprove a hypothesis.
2 B
d i ti d ig ft tili b ti l th d [ 11/32
2. Because descriptive designs often utilize observational methods [as
opposed to quantitative methods], the results cannot be replicated.
3. The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on
instrumentation for measurement and observation.
Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services.
Chapter 5, Flexible Methods: Descriptive Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1999; Given, Lisa M. "Descriptive Research." In Encyclopedia of
Measurement and Statistics. Neil J. Salkind and Kristin Rasmussen, editors.
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007), pp. 251-254; McNabb, Connie. Descriptive
Research Methodologies. Powerpoint Presentation; Shuttleworth, Martyn.
Descriptive Research Design, September 26, 2008. Explorable.com website.
Experimental Design
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control

over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the


researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental
research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause
precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will
always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great.
The classic experimental design specif ies an experimental group and a control
group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and
not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same dependent
variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more
measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control,
randomization, and manipulation.
1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In

so doing, it allows researchers to answer the question, “What causes
something to occur?”
2. Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships
between variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment
effects.
3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative

explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the study.
4. Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
1. The design is artif icial, and results may not generalize well to the real
world.
2. The artif icial settings of experiments may alter the behaviors or
responses of participants.
3. Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are
needed.
4. Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment
because of ethical or technical reasons.
5. Diff icult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to
experimentally designed studies.
Chapter 7, Flexible Methods: Experimental Research. 2nd ed. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1999; Chapter 2: Research Design, Experimental


Designs. School of Psychology, University of New England, 2000; Chow, Siu L.

"Experimental Design." In Encyclopedia of Research Design. Neil J. Salkind,
editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 448-453; "Experimental Design." In
Social Research Methods. Nicholas Walliman, editor. (London, England: Sage,
2006), pp, 101-110; Experimental Research. Research Methods by Dummies.
Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Kirk, Roger
E. Experimental Design: Procedures for the Behavioral Sciences. 4th edition.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Trochim, William M.K. Experimental Design.
Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Rasool, Shafqat. Experimental
Research. Slideshare presentation.
Exploratory Design
An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are

few or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome. The
focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken
focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken
when research problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation. Exploratory
designs are often used to establish an understanding of how best to proceed in
studying an issue or what methodology would effectively apply to gathering
information about the issue.
The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following

possible insights:
Familiarity with basic details, settings, and concerns.

Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
Generation of new ideas and assumptions.
Development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
Issues get ref ined for more systematic investigation and formulation of
new research questions.
Direction for future research and techniques get developed.


1. Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a
particular topic.
2. Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of
all types (what, why, how).
3. Provides an opportunity to def ine new terms and clarify existing
concepts.
4. Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and
develop more precise research problems.
5. In the policy arena or applied to practice, exploratory studies help
establish research priorities and where resources should be allocated.
1. Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus,

f indings are typically not generalizable to the population at large.
2. The exploratory nature of the research inhibits an ability to make
def initive conclusions about the f indings. They provide insight but not
def initive conclusions.
3. The research process underpinning exploratory studies is flexible but
often unstructured, leading to only tentative results that have limited
value to decision makers
value to decision-makers.
4. Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering
and analysis because one of the areas for exploration could be to
determine what method or methodologies could best f it the research
problem.
Cuthill, Michael. “Exploratory Research: Citizen Participation, Local

Government, and Sustainable Development in Australia.” Sustainable
Development 10 (2002): 79-89; Streb, Christoph K. "Exploratory Case Study." In
Encyclopedia of Case Study Research. Albert J. Mills, Gabrielle Durepos and
Eiden Wiebe, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 372-374; Taylor, P.
J., G. Catalano, and D.R.F. Walker. “Exploratory Analysis of the World City
Network.” Urban Studies 39 (December 2002): 2377-2394; Exploratory
Research. Wikipedia.
Field Research Design
Def inition and Purpose 


Sometimes referred to as ethnography or participant observation, designs
around f ield research encompass a variety of interpretative procedures [e.g.,
observation and interviews] rooted in qualitative approaches to studying
people individually or in groups while inhabiting their natural environment as
opposed to using survey instruments or other forms of impersonal methods of
data gathering. Information acquired from observational research takes the
form of “f ield notes” that involves documenting what the researcher actually
sees and hears while in the f ield. Findings do not consist of conclusive
statements derived from numbers and statistics because f ield research involves
analysis of words and observations of behavior. Conclusions, therefore, are
developed from an interpretation of f indings that reveal overriding themes,
concepts, and ideas. More information can be found HERE.
1. Field research is often necessary to f ill gaps in understanding the

research problem applied to local conditions or to specif ic groups of
people that cannot be ascertained from existing data.
2. The research helps contextualize already known information about a
research problem, thereby facilitating ways to assess the origins,

scope, and scale of a problem and to gage the causes, consequences,
and means to resolve an issue based on deliberate interaction with
people in their natural inhabited spaces.
3. Enables the researcher to corroborate or conf irm data by gathering
additional information that supports or refutes f indings reported in
prior studies of the topic.
4. Because the researcher in embedded in the f ield, they are better able
to make observations or ask questions that reflect the specif ic cultural
context of the setting being investigated.
5. Observing the local reality offers the opportunity to gain new
perspectives or obtain unique data that challenges existing theoretical
propositions or long-standing assumptions found in the literature.
What these studies don't tell you
1. A f ield research study requires extensive time and resources to carry

out the multiple steps involved with preparing for the gathering of
information, including for example, examining background information 
about the study site, obtaining permission to access the study site, and
building trust and rapport with subjects.
2. Requires a commitment to staying engaged in the f ield to ensure that
you can adequately document events and behaviors as they unfold.
3. The unpredictable nature of f ieldwork means that researchers can
never fully control the process of data gathering. They must maintain a
flexible approach to studying the setting because events and
circumstances can change quickly or unexpectedly.
4. Findings can be diff icult to interpret and verify without access to
documents and other source materials that help to enhance the
credibility of information obtained from the f ield [i.e., the act of
triangulating the data].
5. Linking the research problem to the selection of study participants
inhabiting their natural environment is critical. However, this specif icity
limits the ability to generalize f indings to different situations or in other
contexts or to infer courses of action applied to other settings or
groups of people.
6. The reporting of f indings must take into account how the researcher
themselves may have inadvertently affected respondents and their
behaviors
behaviors.
Bailey, Carol R. and Carol A. Bailey. A Guide to Qualitative Field Research.

Thousand Oals, CA: Sage, 2017; Burgess, Robert G. In the Field: An Introduction
to Field Research. New York: Routledge, 2002; "Conducting Field Research."
Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Crump, Larry. "Conducting Field
Research Effectively." American Behavioral Scientist 64 (2020): 198–219; "Field
Research Methods." In World of Sociology. Gale, Joseph M. Palmisano, editor.
Detroit, MI: Gale Group, 2001; Feldman, Elliot J. A Practical Guide to the
Conduct of Field Research in the Social Sciences. New York: Routledge, 2019;
Lee, Raymond M. "Problems in Field Research: Some Simple Teaching
Techniques." Teaching Sociology 15 (1987): 151-156; Reyes-García, Victoria and
William D. Sunderlin. Measuring Livelihoods and Environmental Dependence:
Methods for Research and Fieldwork. Report. Angelsen Arild, Larsen Helle
Overgaard, Lund Jens Friis, Smith-Hall Carsten, and Wunder Sven, editors.
(Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research, 2011), pp. 17-32;
Van de Ven, Andrew H. and Marshall Scott Poole. "Field Research Methods." In
The Blackwell Companion to Organizations. Joel A. C. Baum, editor. (Malden,
MA: Blackwell, 2017): pp. 867-888. 

Historical Design
The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize

evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It
uses secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such
as, diaries, off icial records, reports, archives, and non-textual information
[maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources
must be both authentic and valid.
1. The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does

not affect the results of the study.
2. The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
3. Historical records can add important contextual background required
to more fully understand and interpret a research problem.
4. There is often no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could
4 p y j
affect the f indings.
5. Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research
problems or to replicate a previous study.
1. The ability to fulf ill the aims of your research are directly related to the
amount and quality of documentation available to understand the
research problem.
2. Since historical research relies on data from the past, there is no way to
manipulate it to control for contemporary contexts.
3. Interpreting historical sources can be very time consuming.
4. The sources of historical materials must be archived consistently to
ensure access. This may especially challenging for digital or online-only
sources.
5. Original authors bring their own perspectives and biases to the
interpretation of past events and these biases are more diff icult to
ascertain in historical resources.
6. Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical research is
very weak with regard to the demands of internal validity.


7. It is rare that the entirety of historical documentation needed to fully
address a research problem is available for interpretation, therefore,
gaps need to be acknowledged.
Howell, Martha C. and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction

to Historical Methods. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001; Lundy, Karen
Saucier. "Historical Research." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research
Methods. Lisa M. Given, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 396-400;
Marius, Richard. and Melvin E. Page. A Short Guide to Writing about History. 9th
edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2015; Savitt, Ronald. “Historical Research in
Marketing.” Journal of Marketing 44 (Autumn, 1980): 52-58; Gall, Meredith.
Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 16, Historical Research. 8th ed.
Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007.
Longitudinal Design

A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated
observations. For example, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people
is interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over
time and to relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur.
Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish
the direction and magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on
each variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher
to measure change in variables over time. It is a type of observational study
sometimes referred to as a panel study.
1. Longitudinal data facilitate the analysis of the duration of a particular

phenomenon.
2. Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal
explanations usually attainable only with experiments.
3. The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a
variable from one period to another [i.e., the description of patterns of
change over time].
4. Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based


upon earlier factors.
1. The data collection method may change over time.

2. Maintaining the integrity of the original sample can be diff icult over an
extended period of time.
3. It can be diff icult to show more than one variable at a time.
4. This design often needs qualitative research data to explain fluctuations
in the results.
5. A longitudinal research design assumes present trends will continue
unchanged.
6. It can take a long period of time to gather results.
7. There is a need to have a large sample size and accurate sampling to
reach representativness.
Chapter 6, Flexible Methods: Relational and Longitudinal Research. 2nd ed. New
York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Forgues, Bernard, and Isabelle

Vandangeon-Derumez. "Longitudinal Analyses." In Doing Management Research.
Raymond-Alain Thiétart and Samantha Wauchope, editors. (London, England:
Sage, 2001), pp. 332-351; Kalaian, Sema A. and Rafa M. Kasim. "Longitudinal
Studies." In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods. Paul J. Lavrakas, ed.
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 440-441; Menard, Scott, editor.
Longitudinal Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Ployhart, Robert E. and
Robert J. Vandenberg. "Longitudinal Research: The Theory, Design, and Analysis
of Change.” Journal of Management 36 (January 2010): 94-120; Longitudinal
Study. Wikipedia.
Meta-Analysis Design
Meta-analysis is an analytical methodology designed to systematically evaluate

and summarize the results from a number of individual studies, thereby,
increasing the overall sample size and the ability of the researcher to study 
effects of interest. The purpose is to not simply summarize existing knowledge,
but to develop a new understanding of a research problem using synoptic
reasoning. The main objectives of meta-analysis include analyzing differences in
the results among studies and increasing the precision by which effects are
estimated. A well-designed meta-analysis depends upon strict adherence to the
criteria used for selecting studies and the availability of information in each
study to properly analyze their f indings. Lack of information can severely limit
the type of analyzes and conclusions that can be reached. In addition, the more
dissimilarity there is in the results among individual studies [heterogeneity], the
more diff icult it is to justify interpretations that govern a valid synopsis of
results.
A meta-analysis needs to fulf ill the following requirements to ensure the

validity of your f indings:
Clearly def ined description of objectives, including precise def initions

of the variables and outcomes that are being evaluated;
A well-reasoned and well-documented justif ication for identif ication
and selection of the studies;
Assessment and explicit acknowledgment of any researcher bias in the
Assessment and explicit acknowledgment of any researcher bias in the
identif ication and selection of those studies;
Description and evaluation of the degree of heterogeneity among the
sample size of studies reviewed; and,
Justif ication of the techniques used to evaluate the studies.
1. Can be an effective strategy for determining gaps in the literature.

2. Provides a means of reviewing research published about a particular
topic over an extended period of time and from a variety of sources.
3. Is useful in clarifying what policy or programmatic actions can be
justif ied on the basis of analyzing research results from multiple
studies.
4. Provides a method for overcoming small sample sizes in individual
studies that previously may have had little relationship to each other.
5. Can be used to generate new hypotheses or highlight research
problems for future studies.
1. Small violations in def ining the criteria used for content analysis can


lead to diff icult to interpret and/or meaningless f indings.

2. A large sample size can yield reliable, but not necessarily valid, results.
3. A lack of uniformity regarding, for example, the type of literature
reviewed, how methods are applied, and how f indings are measured
within the sample of studies you are analyzing, can make the process of
synthesis diff icult to perform.
4. Depending on the sample size, the process of reviewing and
synthesizing multiple studies can be very time consuming.
Beck, Lewis W. "The Synoptic Method." The Journal of Philosophy 36 (1939): 337-
345; Cooper, Harris, Larry V. Hedges, and Jeffrey C. Valentine, eds. The
Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis. 2nd edition. New York:
Russell Sage Foundation, 2009; Guzzo, Richard A., Susan E. Jackson and
Raymond A. Katzell. “Meta-Analysis Analysis.” In Research in Organizational
Behavior, Volume 9. (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1987), pp 407-442; Lipsey, Mark
W. and David B. Wilson. Practical Meta-Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, 2001; Study Design 101. Meta-Analysis. The Himmelfarb Health
Sciences Library, George Washington University; Timulak, Ladislav. “Qualitative

Meta-Analysis.” In The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysis. Uwe Flick,
editor. (Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2013), pp. 481-495; Walker, Esteban, Adrian V.
Hernandez, and Micheal W. Kattan. "Meta-Analysis: It's Strengths and
Limitations." Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine 75 (June 2008): 431-439.
Mixed-Method Design
Mixed methods research represents more of an approach to examining a

research problem than a methodology. Mixed method is characterized by a focus
on research problems that require, 1) an examination of real-life contextual
understandings, multi-level perspectives, and cultural influences; 2) an
intentional application of rigorous quantitative research assessing magnitude
and frequency of constructs and rigorous qualitative research exploring the
meaning and understanding of the constructs; and, 3) an objective of drawing on
the strengths of quantitative and qualitative data gathering techniques to
formulate a holistic interpretive framework for generating possible solutions or


new understandings of the problem. Tashakkori and Creswell (2007) and other
proponents of mixed methods argue that the design encompasses more than
simply combining qualitative and quantitative methods but, rather, reflects a
new "third way" epistemological paradigm that occupies the conceptual space
between positivism and interpretivism.
1. Narrative and non-textual information can add meaning to numeric

data, while numeric data can add precision to narrative and non-textual
information.
2. Can utilize existing data while at the same time generating and testing a
grounded theory approach to describe and explain the phenomenon
under study.
3. A broader, more complex research problem can be investigated
because the researcher is not constrained by using only one method.
4. The strengths of one method can be used to overcome the inherent
weaknesses of another method.
5. Can provide stronger, more robust evidence to support a conclusion or
set of recommendations.
6. May generate new knowledge new insights or uncover hidden insights,
patterns, or relationships that a single methodological approach might
not reveal.
7. Produces more complete knowledge and understanding of the research
problem that can be used to increase the generalizability of f indings
applied to theory or practice.
1. A researcher must be prof icient in understanding how to apply multiple

methods to investigating a research problem as well as be prof icient in
optimizing how to design a study that coherently melds them together.
2. Can increase the likelihood of conflicting results or ambiguous f indings
that inhibit drawing a valid conclusion or setting forth a recommended
course of action [e.g., sample interview responses do not support
existing statistical data].

3. Because the research design can be very complex, reporting the
f indings requires a well-organized narrative, clear writing style, and 
precise word choice.
4. Design invites collaboration among experts. However, merging different
investigative approaches and writing styles requires more attention to
the overall research process than studies conducted using only one
methodological paradigm.
5. Concurrent merging of quantitative and qualitative research requires
greater attention to having adequate sample sizes, using comparable
samples, and applying a consistent unit of analysis. For sequential
designs where one phase of qualitative research builds on the
quantitative phase or vice versa, decisions about what results from the
f irst phase to use in the next phase, the choice of samples and
estimating reasonable sample sizes for both phases, and the
interpretation of results from both phases can be diff icult.
6. Due to multiple forms of data being collected and analyzed, this design
requires extensive time and resources to carry out the multiple steps
involved in data gathering and interpretation.
Burch, Patricia and Carolyn J. Heinrich. Mixed Methods for Policy Research and
Program Evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2016; Creswell, John w. et al.
g , g , ; ,
Best Practices for Mixed Methods Research in the Health Sciences. Bethesda,
MD: Off ice of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, National Institutes of
Health, 2010Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and
Mixed Methods Approaches. 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,
2014; Domínguez, Silvia, editor. Mixed Methods Social Networks Research.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014; Hesse-Biber, Sharlene Nagy.
Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory with Practice. New York: Guilford
Press, 2010; Niglas, Katrin. “How the Novice Researcher Can Make Sense of
Mixed Methods Designs.” International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches
3 (2009): 34-46; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Nancy L. Leech. “Linking
Research Questions to Mixed Methods Data Analysis Procedures.” The
Qualitative Report 11 (September 2006): 474-498; Tashakorri, Abbas and John
W. Creswell. “The New Era of Mixed Methods.” Journal of Mixed Methods
Research 1 (January 2007): 3-7; Zhanga, Wanqing. “Mixed Methods Application
in Health Intervention Research: A Multiple Case Study.” International Journal of
Multiple Research Approaches 8 (2014): 24-35.
Observational Design


This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a

control group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the
experiment. There are two general types of observational designs. In direct
observations, people know that you are watching them. Unobtrusive measures
involve any method for studying behavior where individuals do not know they
are being observed. An observational study allows a useful insight into a
phenomenon and avoids the ethical and practical diff iculties of setting up a
large and cumbersome research project.
1. Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need

to be structured around a hypothesis about what you expect to observe
[data is emergent rather than pre-existing].
2. The researcher is able to collect in-depth information about a particular
behavior.
3. Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group
interactions.
4. You can generalize your results to real life situations.
5. Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be
important before applying other methods like experiments.
6. Observation research designs account for the complexity of group
behaviors.
1. Reliability of data is low because seeing behaviors occur over and over
again may be a time consuming task and are diff icult to replicate.
2. In observational research, f indings may only reflect a unique sample
population and, thus, cannot be generalized to other groups.
3. There can be problems with bias as the researcher may only "see what
they want to see."
4. There is no possibility to determine "cause and effect" relationships
since nothing is manipulated.

5. Sources or subjects may not all be equally credible.
6. Any group that is knowingly studied is altered to some degree by the 
presence of the researcher, therefore, potentially skewing any data
collected.
Atkinson, Paul and Martyn Hammersley. “Ethnography and Participant

Observation.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research. Norman K. Denzin and
Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 248-261;
Observational Research. Research Methods by Dummies. Department of
Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Patton Michael Quinn.
Qualitiative Research and Evaluation Methods. Chapter 6, Fieldwork Strategies
and Observational Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Payne,
Geoff and Judy Payne. "Observation." In Key Concepts in Social Research. The
SAGE Key Concepts series. (London, England: Sage, 2004), pp. 158-162;
Rosenbaum, Paul R. Design of Observational Studies. New York: Springer,
2010;Williams, J. Patrick. "Nonparticipant Observation." In The Sage
Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. Lisa M. Given, editor.(Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 562-563.
Philosophical Design
Philosophical Design
Understood more as an broad approach to examining a research problem than a

methodological design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is intended to
challenge deeply embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an
area of study. This approach uses the tools of argumentation derived from
philosophical traditions, concepts, models, and theories to critically explore
and challenge, for example, the relevance of logic and evidence in academic
debates, to analyze arguments about fundamental issues, or to discuss the root
of existing discourse about a research problem. These overarching tools of
analysis can be framed in three ways:
Ontology -- the study that describes the nature of reality; for example,
what is real and what is not, what is fundamental and what is
derivative?
Epistemology -- the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for

example, by what means does knowledge and understanding depend
upon and how can we be certain of what we know? 
Axiology -- the study of values; for example, what values does an
individual or group hold and why? How are values related to interest,
desire, will, experience, and means-to-end? And, what is the difference
between a matter of fact and a matter of value?
1. Can provide a basis for applying ethical decision-making to practice.

2. Functions as a means of gaining greater self-understanding and self-
knowledge about the purposes of research.
3. Brings clarity to general guiding practices and principles of an
individual or group.
4. Philosophy informs methodology.
5. Ref ine concepts and theories that are invoked in relatively unreflective
modes of thought and discourse.
6. Beyond methodology, philosophy also informs critical thinking about
epistemology and the structure of reality (metaphysics).
7. Offers clarity and def inition to the practical and theoretical uses of
terms, concepts, and ideas.
h h
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchdesigns di d ' ll 26/32
1. Limited application to specif ic research problems [answering the "So

What?" question in social science research].
2. Analysis can be abstract, argumentative, and limited in its practical
application to real-life issues.
3. While a philosophical analysis may render problematic that which was
once simple or taken-for-granted, the writing can be dense and subject
to unnecessary jargon, overstatement, and/or excessive quotation and
documentation.
4. There are limitations in the use of metaphor as a vehicle of
philosophical analysis.
5. There can be analytical diff iculties in moving from philosophy to
advocacy and between abstract thought and application to the
phenomenal world.
Burton, Dawn. "Part I, Philosophy of the Social Sciences." In Research Training

for Social Scientists. (London, England: Sage, 2000), pp. 1-5; Chapter 4,
Research Methodology and Design. Unisa Institutional Repository (UnisaIR),
University of South Africa; Jarvie, Ian C., and Jesús Zamora-Bonilla, editors. The


SAGE Handbook of the Philosophy of Social Sciences. London: Sage,

2011; Labaree, Robert V. and Ross Scimeca. “The Philosophical Problem of Truth
in Librarianship.” The Library Quarterly 78 (January 2008): 43-70; Maykut,
Pamela S. Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophic and Practical Guide.
Washington, DC: Falmer Press, 1994; McLaughlin, Hugh. "The Philosophy of
Social Research." In Understanding Social Work Research. 2nd edition. (London:
SAGE Publications Ltd., 2012), pp. 24-47; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University, 2013.
Sequential Design
Sequential research is that which is carried out in a deliberate, staged approach

[i.e. serially] where one stage will be completed, followed by another, then
another, and so on, with the aim that each stage will build upon the previous
one until enough data is gathered over an interval of time to test your
hypothesis The sample size is not predetermined After each sample is
hypothesis. The sample size is not predetermined. After each sample is
analyzed, the researcher can accept the null hypothesis, accept the alternative
hypothesis, or select another pool of subjects and conduct the study once
again. This means the researcher can obtain a limitless number of subjects
before making a f inal decision whether to accept the null or alternative
hypothesis. Using a quantitative framework, a sequential study generally utilizes
sampling techniques to gather data and applying statistical methods to analze
the data. Using a qualitative framework, sequential studies generally utilize
samples of individuals or groups of individuals [cohorts] and use qualitative
methods, such as interviews or observations, to gather information from each
sample.
1. The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and
the sampling schedule.
2. Due to the repetitive nature of this research design, minor changes and
adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the study to correct
and hone the research method.
3. This is a useful design for exploratory studies.
4. There is very little effort on the part of the researcher when performing


this technique. It is generally not expensive, time consuming, or

workforce intensive.
5. Because the study is conducted serially, the results of one sample are
known before the next sample is taken and analyzed. This provides
opportunities for continuous improvement of sampling and methods of
analysis.
1. The sampling method is not representative of the entire population. The

only possibility of approaching representativeness is when the
researcher chooses to use a very large sample size signif icant enough to
represent a signif icant portion of the entire population. In this case,
moving on to study a second or more specif ic sample can be diff icult.
2. The design cannot be used to create conclusions and interpretations
that pertain to an entire population because the sampling technique is
not randomized. Generalizability from f indings is, therefore, limited.
3. Diff icult to account for and interpret variation from one sample to
th
ti ti l l h i lit ti th d fd t 28/32
another over time, particularly when using qualitative methods of data
collection.
Betensky, Rebecca. Harvard University, Course Lecture Note slides; Bovaird,

James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk. "Sequential Design." In Encyclopedia of Research
Design. Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 1347-1352;
Cresswell, John W. Et al. “Advanced Mixed-Methods Research Designs.” In
Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research. Abbas
Tashakkori and Charles Teddle, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003), pp. 209-
240; Henry, Gary T. "Sequential Sampling." In The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social
Science Research Methods. Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman and Tim Futing
Liao, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004), pp. 1027-1028; Nataliya V.
Ivankova. “Using Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory Design: From Theory to
Practice.” Field Methods 18 (February 2006): 3-20; Bovaird, James A. and Kevin
A. Kupzyk. “Sequential Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design. Neil J.
Salkind, ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010; Sequential Analysis. Wikipedia.
Systematic Review


As noted by Denyer and Tranf ield [2009], a systematic review is a specif ic

methodology that identif ies existing research about a well-def ined topic of
investigation, usually derived from a public policy or clinical, practice-based
problem. The design involves selecting and critically evaluating the
contributions of each identif ied study, analyzing and carefully synthesizing the
data, and reporting the evidence in a way that facilitates clear conclusions
about what is and is not known. A systematic review is not a traditional
literature review, but a self-contained research project that explores a clearly
def ined research problem using existing studies. The design of a systematic
review differs from other review methods because distinct and exacting
principles are applied to the evaluative process of analyzing existing literature.
NOTE: A thorough and well-designed systematic review requires extensive and

on-going consultation with a librarian to ensure that all published and
unpublished studies concerning the research problem have been located and
evaluated as to whether they should be included in your analysis. Due to the
required time commitment and workload, these types of reviews are often
conducted as a group project.
1. A systematic review synthesizes the f indings of multiple studies related

to each other by incorporating strategies of analysis and interpretation
intended to reduce biases and random errors.
2. The application of critical exploration, evaluation, and synthesis
methods separates insignif icant, unsound, or redundant research from
the most salient and relevant studies worthy of reflection.
3. They can be use to identify, justify, and ref ine hypotheses, recognize
and avoid hidden problems in prior studies, and explain data
inconsistencies and conflicts in data.
4. Systematic reviews can be used to help policy makers formulate
evidence-based guidelines and regulations.
5. The use of strict, explicit, and pre-determined methods of synthesis,

when applied appropriately, provide reliable estimates about the
effects of interventions, evaluations, and effects related to the 
overarching research problem investigated by each study under review.
6. Systematic reviews illuminate where knowledge or thorough
understanding of a research problem is lacking and, therefore, can then
be used to guide future research.
7. The accepted inclusion of unpublished studies [i.e., grey literature]
ensures the broadest possible way to analyze and interpret research on
a topic.
8. Results of the synthesis can be generalized and the f indings
extrapolated into the general population with more validity than most
other types of studies.
1. Systematic reviews do not create new knowledge per se; they are a
method for synthesizing existing studies about a research problem in
order to gain new insights and determine gaps in the literature.
2. The way researchers have carried out their investigations [e.g., the
period of time covered, number of participants, sources of data
analyzed, etc.] can make it diff icult to effectively synthesize studies.
3. The inclusion of unpublished studies can introduce bias into the review
because they may not have undergone a rigorous peer-review process

prior to publication. Examples may include conference presentations or
proceedings, publications from government agencies, white papers,
working papers, and internal documents from organizations, and
doctoral dissertations and Master's theses.
Denyer, David and David Tranf ield. "Producing a Systematic Review." In The Sage
Handbook of Organizational Research Methods. David A. Buchanan and Alan
Bryman, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2009), pp. 671-689;
Foster, Margaret J. and Sarah T. Jewell, editors. Assembling the Pieces of a
Systematic Review: A Guide for Librarians. Lanham, MD: Rowman and
Littlef ield, 2017; Gough, David, Sandy Oliver, James Thomas, editors.
Introduction to Systematic Reviews. 2nd edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage
Publications, 2017; Gopalakrishnan, S. and P. Ganeshkumar. “Systematic
Reviews and Meta-analysis: Understanding the Best Evidence in Primary
Healthcare.” Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 2 (2013): 9-14; Gough,
David, James Thomas, and Sandy Oliver. "Clarifying Differences between Review
Designs and Methods." Systematic Reviews 1 (2012): 1-9; Khan, Khalid S., Regina
Kunz, Jos Kleijnen, and Gerd Antes. “Five Steps to Conducting a Systematic


Review.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 96 (2003): 118-121; Mulrow, C.
D. “Systematic Reviews: Rationale for Systematic Reviews.” BMJ 309:597
(September 1994); Okoli, Chitu, and Kira Schabram. "A Guide to Conducting a
Systematic Literature Review of Information Systems Research." Sprouts:
Working Papers on Information Systems 10 (2010); Siddaway, Andy P., Alex M.
Wood, and Larry V. Hedges. "How to Do a Systematic Review: A Best Practice
Guide for Conducting and Reporting Narrative Reviews, Meta-analyses, and
Meta-syntheses." Annual Review of Psychology 70 (2019): 747-770; Torgerson,
Carole J. “Publication Bias: The Achilles’ Heel of Systematic Reviews?” British
Journal of Educational Studies 54 (March 2006): 89-102;Torgerson, Carole.
Systematic Reviews. New York: Continuum, 2003.
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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Search this Guide Search

Glossary General Structure and Writing Style

improving practice and advocating for change.

Elements Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 18, Action Research.

Appendices Case Study Design

Paper sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often

11. 1. Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue

Giving What these studies don't tell you?

Review one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in

Reviewing Conditions necessary for determining causality:

About What do these studies tell you?

Writing What these studies don't tell you?

Def inition and Purpose

Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of

What do these studies tell you?

1. The use of cohorts is often mandatory because a randomized control

What these studies don't tell you?

1. In cases where a comparative analysis of two cohorts is made [e.g.,

Def inition and Purpose

Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time

What do these studies tell you?

1. Cross-sectional studies provide a clear 'snapshot' of the outcome and

What these studies don't tell you?

1. Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar

Bethlehem, Jelke. "7: Cross-sectional Research." In Research Methodology in the

Def inition and Purpose

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who,

What do these studies tell you?

1. The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged

What these studies don't tell you?

1. The results from a descriptive research cannot be used to discover a

Def inition and Purpose

A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control

What do these studies tell you?

1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In

3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative

What these studies don't tell you?

Designs. School of Psychology, University of New England, 2000; Chow, Siu L.

Def inition and Purpose

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are

The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following

Familiarity with basic details, settings, and concerns.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus,

Cuthill, Michael. “Exploratory Research: Citizen Participation, Local

Field Research Design

Def inition and Purpose 

What do these studies tell you?

1. Field research is often necessary to f ill gaps in understanding the

research problem, thereby facilitating ways to assess the origins,

What these studies don't tell you

1. A f ield research study requires extensive time and resources to carry

Bailey, Carol R. and Carol A. Bailey. A Guide to Qualitative Field Research.

Def inition and Purpose

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize

What do these studies tell you?

1. The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does