TURBINE

INTRODUCTION
Efforts to design a working gas turbine engine
had been under way for years prior to World War
II. Engineers eventually succeeded in placing a
few engines in combat aircraft briefly during the
closing stages of the war. The war effort had
brought about many advances in gas turbine
technology which could now be used for
commercial aircraft design. Turbine engines
offered many advantages over reciprocating
engines and airlines were interested. Increased
reliability, longer mean times between overhaul,
higher airspeeds, ease of operation at high
altitudes, and a high power to engine weight
ratio made turbine power very desirable. Aircraft
such as Lockheed's Super Constellation
represented the practical limits of piston power
technology and required frequent engine
maintenance; therefore, air carriers turned to gas
turbine engines for solutions. During the decade
of the 50's, a gradual transfer from piston power
to gas turbine jets and turboprops started taking
place. Old workhorses such as the Douglas DC-3
and DC-7 gave way to the Boeing 707 and
Douglas DC-8.
Newton's third law
of motion states
that for every
action, there is an
equal and opposite
reaction. Jet
propulsion applies
this law by taking in Figure 3-1. Many
a quantity of air and technological
accelerating it developments were
made by observing
through an orifice nature in action. A
or nozzle. The squid propels itself
acceleration of the through the water by
jet reaction in much
air is the action and the same way a
forward movement turbojet engine propels
is the reaction. In an aircraft.
nature, a squid
propels itself As early as 250 B.C.,
through the water a writer and
using a form of jet mathematician
propulsion. A squid named Hero devised
takes sea water into a toy that used the
its body and uses its reaction principle.
muscles to add The toy, called the
energy to the water, aeolipile, consisted
then expels the of a covered kettle
water in the form of of water that was
a jet. This action heated to produce
produces a reaction steam. The steam
that propels the was then routed
squid forward. through two vertical
[Figure 3-1] tubes and into a
spherical container.
Attached to the
spherical container
were several
discharge tubes
arranged radially
around the
container. As steam
filled the container,
it would escape
through the
discharge tubes and
cause the sphere to
rotate. [Figure 3-2]

A more modern
example of
Newton's reaction
principle is
observed when the
end of an inflated
balloon is released.
As the air in the
balloon rushes out
the opening, the
balloon flies wildly Figure 3-2. Hero's
around a room. In aeolipile, conceived
long before the
spite of the
acceptance of
everyday examples, Newton's Laws of
scientists' efforts to Motion, proved that
apply Newton's power by reaction was
possible.
reaction principle to
mechanical designs HISTORY OF
met with little
JET
success until this
century. PROPULSION
The history of
mechanical jet
propulsion began in
1900, when Dr.
Sanford Moss
submitted his
masters thesis on
gas turbines. Later,
Dr. Moss became an
engineer for the
General Electric
Company in
England. While
there, Dr. Moss had
the opportunity to
apply some of his
concepts in the
development of the
turbo-supercharger.
This unique
supercharger
consisted of a small
turbine wheel that Frank Whittle of
was driven by England in the
exhaust gases. The development of
turbine was then what became the
used to drive a first successful
supercharger. turbojet engine. Dr.
Whittle was granted
Research done by his first patent for
Dr. Moss influenced the jet engine
3
-

England, Hans Von

Ohain, a German
engineer, designed
and built a jet
engine that
produced 1,100
pounds of thrust.
This engine was
installed in the
Heinkel He-178
aircraft and made a
successful flight on
August 27, 1939. As
a result, it became
recognized as the
first practical flight
by a jet propelled
aircraft. [Figure 3-4]

Figure 3-3. Dr. Frank In the United

Whittle of England
patented the first States, research in
turbojet engine, the the field of jet
Whittle W1, in 1930. Its
first flight occurred in a propulsion was
Gloster E28/39 aircraft lagging. Most of
in 1941.
the country's

in 1930 and eleven

years later, his
engine completed
its first flight in a
Gloster model
E28/39 aircraft. The
engine produced
about one
thousand pounds of Figure 3-4. German
thrust and engineer Hans Von
Ohain designed and
propelled the built the turbojet
aircraft at speeds engine that powered
the Heinkel He-178 to
over 400 miles per the world's first jet-
hour. [Figure 3-3] powered flight in 1939.

While Whittle was

developing the gas
turbine engine in
 JET
PROPULSION
TODAY
Today, the majority
of commercial
Figure 3-5. First flown in aircraft utilize some
1942, the Bell XP-59 was
the first American jet-
form of jet
powered aircraft. propulsion. In
addition, there are
efforts were being currently several
directed toward the manufacturers that
development and produce entire lines
production of high of jet powered
powered aircraft that cruise in
reciprocating excess of 600 miles
engines. However, in per hour and carry
1941 the General more than four
Electric Company hundred passengers
received a contract or several tons of
to research and cargo.
develop a gas
turbine engine. Another step in the
General Electric was progression of
chosen for this commercial and
important project military aviation was
because of its the ability to
extensive produce an engine
experience in that would propel
building electrical an aircraft faster
generating turbines than the speed of
and turbo- sound. Today, there
superchargers. The are several military
result was the GE-lA aircraft that travel at
engine, a speeds in excess of
centrifugal- Mach one. One such
compressor type aircraft is the SR-71
engine that Blackbird which flys
produced in excess of Mach
approximately 1,650 five. In commercial
pounds of thrust. aviation however,
Two of these there is currently
engines were used only one aircraft
to power the Bell that flies faster than
XP-59 "Airacomet" Mach one. This
which flew for the aircraft, the
first time in October Concorde, was built
1942. The Airacomet by the British and
proved the concept French and placed
of jet powered into service in the
flight, but was never mid seventies.
used in combat due Currently, there are
to its limited flight more than ten
time of 30 minutes. Concordes in service
[Figure 3-5] that are capable of
flying at 2.2 times
the speed of sound. business jets. These
two and three
In addition to engine aircraft have
military and become extremely
commercial aviation, popular in recent
jet propulsion has years due in part to
become extremely the efficiency and
popular for use on reliability of jet
engines.
T

an oxidizer and
formed into a specific
shape that promotes
an optimum burning
rate. Once ignited,
the fuel produces an
extremely high
velocity discharge of
gas through a nozzle
at the rear of the
TYPES OF JET rocket body. The
PROPULSION reaction to the rapid
discharge is forward
Newton's reaction
motion of the rocket
principle has been
body. Solid fuel
applied to several
rockets are used
propulsive devices
primarily to propel
used in aviation. All
some military
produce thrust in the
weapons and, at
same manner, they
times, provide
accelerate a mass of
additional thrust for
gases within the
takeoff of heavily
engine. The most
loaded aircraft. These
common types of
booster rockets
propulsive engines
attach to an aircraft
are the rocket, the
structure and provide
ramjet, the pulsejet,
the additional thrust
and the gas turbine.
needed for special-
condition takeoffs.
ROCKET
[Figure 3-6]
A rocket is a
nonairbreathing The second type of
engine that carries its rocket is the liquid-
own fuel as well as fuel rocket, which
the oxygen needed uses fuel and an
for the fuel to burn. oxidizing agent such
There are two types as liquid oxygen. The
of rockets in use: two liquids are carried
solid-propellant in tanks aboard the
rockets and liquid- rocket. When the
propellant rockets. liquids are mixed, the
Solid-propellant reaction is so violent
rockets use a solid that a tremendous
fuel that is mixed with amount of heat is
generated. The
resulting high velocity
gas jet behind the
rocket provides
enough thrust to
propel an object.

RAMJET
A ramjet engine is an
athodyd, or aero-
thermody-
Figure 3-6. RATO, or Figure 3-7. As a
rocket assisted takeoff ramjet moves forward,
devices are small, solid air enters the intake
propellant rocket motors and proceeds to a
that are attached to an combustion chamber
airplane to provide where fuel is added.
additional thrust for high Once ignited, the heat
altitude or overweight from the burning fuel
takeoff conditions. accelerates the flow of
namic-duct. Ramjets air through a venturi to
are air-breathing produce thrust.
engines with
no moving parts.
However, since a
ramjet has no
rotating compressor
to draw air into the
engine, a ramjet
must be moving
forward at a high
velocity before it
can produce thrust.
Once air enters the
engine, fuel is
injected and ignited
to provide the heat
needed to
accelerate the air
and produce thrust.
Because ramjets
must be moving
forward to produce
thrust, they are
limited in their use.
At present, ramjets
are used in some
military weapons
delivery systems
where the vehicle is
accelerated to a
high initial velocity
so the ramjet can
take over for
sustained flight.
[Figure 3-7]
PULSEJET will produce thrust
Pulsejet engines are prior to being
similar to ramjets accelerated to a
except that the air high forward speed.
intake duct is [Figure 3-8]
equipped with a
series of shutter GAS TURBINE
valves that are ENGINE
spring loaded to the The gas turbine
open posti-tion. Air engine is by far the
drawn through the most practical form
open valves enters of jet engine in use
a combustion today. In fact, the
chamber where it is turbine engine has
heated by burning become the
fuel. As the air standard on nearly
within the all transport
combustion category, business,
chamber expands, and military
the air pressure aircraft. Because of
increases to the this, the discussion
point that the presented in this
shutter valves are section will focus on
forced closed. Once the gas turbine
closed, the engine. The four
expanding air most common
within the chamber types of gas turbine
is forced rearward engines are the
to produce thrust. A turbojet, turbo-
pulsejet is typically propeller,
considered more turboshaft, and
useful than a ramjet turbofan.
because pulsejets
3
-

Figure 3-8. (A) In the

pulsejet engine, air is
drawn into the
combustion chamber
and mixed with fuel
when the shutter produces thrust.
valves open. (B) As
the fuel burns, the air
pressure within the When discussing a
chamber increases turbojet engine
and forces the shutter
valves to close. Once you must be
closed, the expanding familiar with the
air within the engine
accelerates rearward
term engine
through the exhaust pressure ratio, or
nozzle to produce
thrust.
EPR. An engine's
EPR is the ratio of
TURBOJET ENGINES the turbine
discharge pressure
The basic operating to the engine inlet
principles of a air pressure. EPR
turbojet engine are gauge readings are
relatively straight an indication of the
forward; air enters amount of thrust
through an inlet being produced for
duct and proceeds a given power lever
to the compressor setting. Total
where it is pressure pickups,
compressed. Once or EPR probes,
compressed, the measure the air
air flows to the pressure at two
combuster section points in the
where fuel is engine; one EPR
added and ignited. probe is located at
The heat generated the compressor
by the burning fuel inlet and a second
causes the EPR probe is
compressed air to located just aft of
expand and flow the last stage
toward the rear of turbine in the
the engine. As the exhaust section.
air moves EPR readings are
rearward, it passes often used as
through a set of verification of
turbine wheels that power settings for
are attached to the take-
same shaft as the
compressor blades.
The expanding air
spins the turbines
which, in turn,
drives the
compressor. Once
past the turbines,
the air proceeds to
exit the engine at a
much higher
velocity than the
incoming air. It is
this difference in
velocity between
the entering and
exiting air that
off, climb, and cruise. TURBOSHAFT
ENGINES
EPR readings are
affected by and are A gas turbine engine
dependent on that delivers power to
pressure altitude and a shaft that can drive
outside air something else is
temperature (OAT). referred to as a
turboshaft engine.
TURBOPROP The biggest difference
ENGINES between a turbojet
A gas turbine engine and turboshaft engine
that delivers power to is that on a turboshaft
a propeller is referred engine, most of the
to as a turboprop energy produced by
engine. Turboprop the expanding gases
engines are similar in is used to drive a
design to turbojet turbine rather than
engines except that produce thrust. Many
the power produced helicopters use a
by a turboprop turboshaft type of gas
engine is delivered to turbine engine. In
a reduction gear addition, turboshaft
system that spins a engines are widely
propeller. Reduction used as auxiliary
gearing is necessary power units and in
in turboprop engines industrial applications
because optimum to drive electrical
propeller generators and
performance is surface
achieved at much transportation
slower speeds than systems. Output of a
the engine's turboprop or
operating rpm. turboshaft engine is
Turboprop engines measured by shaft
are used extensively horsepower rather
in business and than thrust.
commuter type
aircraft because the TURBOFAN ENGINES
Figure 3-9. Turboprop
combination of jet powerplants have become
power and propeller a popular choice on
corporate twin-engine
efficiency provides aircraft.
good performance
characteristics at A turbofan engine
speeds between 300 consists of a multi-
and 400 miles per bladed ducted
hour. In addition, propeller driven by a
most turboprop gas turbine engine.
engines provide the Turbofans were
best specific fuel developed to provide
consumption of any a compromise
gas turbine engine. between
[Figure 3-9]
T
u
 Figure 3-10. (A) A forward-fan turbofan engine uses a
relatively large diameter ducted fan that produces thrust
and provides intake air to the compressor. (B) An aft-
fan turbofan engine has a fan mounted on the aft
turbine. This arrangement is rarely used, since an aft
fan cannot contribute to air compression at the inlet.

the best features of fuel efficient.

the turbojet and the
turboprop.
A turbofan engine
Turbofan engines
may have the fan
have turbojet-type
mounted to either
cruise speed
the front or back of
capability, yet retain
the engine. Engines
some of the short-
that have the fan
field takeoff
mounted in front of
capability of a
the compressor are
turboprop. Nearly
called forward-fan
all present day
engines, while
airliners are
turbofan engines
powered by
that have the fan
turbofan engines for
mounted to the
the reasons just
turbine section are
mentioned as well
called aft-fan
as the fact that
engines. [Figure 3-
turbo-fans are very
10]
The inlet air that One stream passes
passes through a through the engine
turbofan engine is core while a second
usually divided into stream coaxially
two separate bypasses the engine
streams of air. core. It is this bypass
stream of air that is
responsible for the
term bypass engine.
When discussing
bypass engines there
are three terms you
must be familiar
with; they are thrust
ratio, bypass ratio,
and fan pressure
ratio. A turbofan
engine's thrust ratio
is a comparison of
the thrust produced
by the fan to the
thrust produced by
the engine core
exhaust. On the
other hand, a
turbofan's bypass
ratio refers to the
ratio of incoming air
that bypasses the
core to the amount
of air that passes
through the engine
core. Turbofans in
civil aircraft are
generally divided into
three classifications
based on bypass
ratio:

1. Low bypass (1:1)

2. Medium bypass
(2:1 or 3:1)
3. High bypass (4:1 or
greater)
3
-
 discharge nozzle
that increases
velocity and
produces reactive
thrust. [Figure 3-11]

Medium or
intermediate bypass
engines have
airflow bypass ratios
ranging from 2:1 to
3:1. These engines
have thrust ratios
similar to their
bypass ratios. The
fans used on these
engines have a
Figure 3-11. (A)
Bypass air is ejected
larger diameter
directly overboard in than the fans used
forward-fan engines on low bypass
with a short fan duct. engines of
(B) However, in a
ducted fan, bypass air comparable power.
is ducted along the Fan diameter
engine's entire length. determines a fan's
bypass ratio and
Generally, airflow thrust ratio.
mass in the fan
section of a low High bypass
bypass engine is the turbofan engines
same as airflow have bypass ratios
mass in the of 4:1 or greater and
compressor. The fan use the largest
discharge could be diameter fan of any
slightly higher or of the bypass
lower depending on engines. High bypass
the engine model, turbines offer higher
but bypass ratios propulsive
are approximately efficiencies and
1:1. In some engines better fuel economy
the bypass air is than low or medium
ducted directly bypass turbines.
overboard through Consequently, they
a short fan duct. are the engines of
However, in a choice on large
ducted fan engine, airliners used for
the bypass air is long flights. Some
ducted along the common high
entire length of the bypass turbofan
engine. Full fan engines include
ducts reduce Pratt and Whitney's
aerodynamic drag JT9D and PW4000,
and noise emissions. the Rolls-Royce RB-
In either case, the 211, and the
end of the duct General Electric CF6.
usually has a One version of
converging
 higher aspect ratio
than a short blade
with a wide chord.
Although high
aspect ratio fan
blades are used
most often, low
aspect ratio blades
are coming into
wider use today.
Technological
advances in blade
Figure 3-12. All high construction have
bypass turbofan overcome the
engines use large weight problems
diameter fans that
produce bypass ratios associated with low
of 4:1 or greater. aspect ratio blades
in the past. Weight
the JT9D has a savings in low
bypass ratio of 5:1 aspect ratio blades
with 80 percent of have been achieved
the thrust provided with hollow
by the fan, and only titanium blades
20 percent by the having composite
core engine. [Figure inner reinforcement
3-12] materials.
Additionally, low
Another term you aspect ratio blades
must be familiar are desirable
with is fan pressure because of their
ratio which is the resistance to foreign
ratio of air pressure object damage,
leaving the fan to especially bird
the air pressure strikes.
entering the fan.
The fan pressure UNDUCTED FAN
ratio on a typical ENGINES
low bypass fan is
Recent
approximately 1.5:1,
developments have
whereas for some
produced new
high bypass fans the
engine designs with
fan pressure ratio
higher efficiencies
may be as high as
than anything
7:1. To obtain high
currently in use. The
fan pressure ratios,
new engines are
most high bypass
designated ultra
engines are
high bypass (UHB)
designed with high
propfan and
aspect ratio blades.
unducted fan
Aspect ratio is the
engine (UDF). These
ratio of a blade's
new designs utilize
length to its width,
titanium,
or chord. Therefore,
lightweight stainless
a long blade with a
steel, and
narrow chord has a
composite materials
 to surpass the fuel designers have
economy of several achieved 30:1
high bypass bypass ratios by
turbofan engines by incorporating single
more than 15 or dual propellers
percent. Engine with composite

COMPONENTS
All gas turbine
engines consist of
the same basic
components.
However, the
nomenclature used
to describe each
component does
Figure 3-13. Unducted vary among
fan engines may manufacturers.
eventually power Nomenclature
transport aircraft at
high speeds with differences are
substantial fuel reflected in
savings. applicable
maintenance
blades that are 12 to manuals. The
15 feet in diameter. following discussion
The use of composite uses the terminology
blades reduces that is most
weight and allows commonly used in
safe operation at tip industry.
speeds higher than
conventional blades.
[Figure 3-13]

Current research and

development could
produce 10,000 to
15,000 horsepower
engines for an
aircraft that carries
150 to 200
passengers at speeds
near 0.8 Mach.
Another design
encases the propfan
in a conventional
cowl-type inlet
which can achieve
Mach 0.9. These
engines are known
as ducted ultra high
bypass engines.

ENGINE
There are seven basic
sections within every
gas turbine engine.
They are the
1. air inlet.
2. compressor
section.
3. combustion
section.
4. turbine section.
5. exhaust section.
6. accessory section.
7. systems necessary
for starting,
lubrication, fuel
supply, and
auxiliary purposes,
such as anti-
icing, cooling, and
pressurization.
Additional terms you
often hear include
hot section and cold
section. A turbine
engine's hot section
includes the
combustion, turbine,
and exhaust sections.
The cold section, on
the other hand,
includes the air inlet
duct and the
compressor section.
[Figure 3-14]
AIR INLET DUCTS
The air inlet duct on a
turbojet engine is
normally considered
to be a part of the
airframe rather than
the engine. However,
understanding the
function of an air
inlet duct and its
importance to engine
performance make it
a necessary part of
any discussion on gas
turbine engine design
and construction.
The air inlet to a
turbine engine has
several functions,
one of which is to
recover as much of
the total pressure of
the free airstream as
possible and deliver
this pressure to the
compressor. This is
known as ram
recovery or pressure
recovery. In addition
to recovering and
maintaining the
pressure of the free
airstream, many
inlets are shaped to
raise the air

Figure 3-14. The basic components of a gas turbine

engine include the air inlet, compressor, combustors,
turbines, and exhaust. The air inlet and compressor
section is sometimes referred to as an engine's cold
section, while the combustors, turbines, and exhaust are
sometimes referred to as an engine's hot section.
 only a small
obstruction to the
airflow inside a duct
to cause a severe
loss of efficiency. If
an inlet duct is to
deliver its full
volume of air with a
minimum of
turbulence, it must
be maintained as
close to its original
condition as
possible. Therefore,
any repairs to an
inlet duct must
retain the duct's
smooth aerodynamic
shape. To help
prevent damage or
corrosion to an inlet
duct, an inlet cover
Figure 3-15. To ensure
should be installed
the operating efficiency any time the engine
of an inlet duct, periodic
inspection for foreign
is not operating.
object damage and [Figure 3-15]
corrosion is required.
Many air inlet ducts
pressure above have been designed
atmospheric to accommodation
pressure. This ram new airframe-engine
effect results from combinations and
forward movement variations in engine
which causes air to mounting locations.
"pile up" in the inlet. In addition, air inlets
The faster the are designed to meet
aircraft flys, the certain criteria for
more air piles up, operation at
and the higher the different airspeeds.
inlet air pressure Some of the most
rises above ambient. corn-

Another function of
the air inlet is to
provide a uniform
supply of air to the
compressor so the
compressor can
operate efficiently.
Furthermore, the
inlet duct must cause
as little drag as
possible. It takes
 engine. Integral
mounting of the inlet
with an engine
reduces air inlet
length which helps to
increase inlet
efficiency. [Figure 3-
16]

Figure 3-16. A
McDonnell-Douglas DC-
10 is designed with wing
mounted engines and an
engine in the vertical
stabilizer. The air inlet
ducts on all of these
engines are mounted to
the engine and
positioned directly in
front of the compressor.
Figure 3-17. Engines
mounted on the aft
mon locations where fuselage allow for short
engine inlets are air inlet ducts that attach
to the front of each
mounted are on the engine. In this
engine, in the wing, configuration, inlet
efficiency is maintained.
and on the fuselage.
In addition to the
ENGINE-MOUNTED
INLETS wing and vertical
stabilizer mounted
Several large engines, some
commercial aircraft commercial aircraft
and large military and the majority of
aircraft use wing small business jets
mounted engines. In are fitted with aft
a few cases, such as fuselage mounted
the DC-10 and L- engines. The air inlet
1011, a combination ducts on engines
of wing mounted and mounted in this
vertical stabilizer fashion are identical
mounted engines are to air inlet ducts on
used. In both cases, wing mounted
the air inlet duct is engines in that the
located directly in duct is relatively
front of the short and is mounted
compressor and is directly to the
mounted to the engine. [Figure 3-17]
Figure 3-18. The Hawker- military aircraft were
Siddeley ou i "Nimrod"
was developed from the designed with an air
de Havilland Comet inlet duct in the nose
airframe and utilizes
wing mounted air inlets of the fuselage. In
that are aerodynamicaliy addition, some
shaped to reduce drag.
modern supersonic
WING-MOUNTED
military aircraft have
INLETS inlet ducts located
just under the
Some aircraft with
aircraft nose.
engines mounted
Although using an air
inside the wings
inlet of this type
feature air inlet
allows the aircraft
ducts in the wing's
manufacturer to
leading edge.
build a more
Aircraft such as the
aerodynamic
Aerospatiale
aircraft, the
Caravelle, de
increased length of
Havilland Comet,
the inlet does
and de Havilland
introduce some
Vampire all utilize
inefficiencies. [Figure
wing-mounted
3-19]
inlets. Typically,
wing-mounted inlets Some military
are positioned near aircraft use air inlet
the wing root area. ducts mounted on
[Figure 3-18] the sides of the
fuselage. This
FUSELAGE- arrangement works
MOUNTED INLETS well for both single
Engines mounted and twin engine
inside a fuselage aircraft. By mounting
typically use air inlet an intake on each
ducts located near side of an aircraft,
the front of the the duct length can
fuselage. For be shortened
example, many early without adding a
significant amount of Figure 3-20. The divided-
entrance duct with side-
drag to the aircraft. mounted intakes has a
However, a shorter length, providing
improved inlet efficiency.

disadvantage to this
arrangement is that
some sudden flight
maneuvers can cause
an imbalance in ram
air pressure between
the two intakes. The
Figure 3-19. The single-
enframe miei: uuu takes air pressure
full advantage of ram imbalance felt on the
effect much like engine-
mounted air inlets. compressor face
Although the aircraft is results in a slight loss
aerodynamically clean,
the length of the duct of power. [Figure 3-
makes it slightly less 20]
efficient than engine-
mounted types.
SUBSONIC INLETS

A typical subsonic air

inlet consists of a
fixed geometry duct
whose diameter
progressively
increases from front
to back. This
divergent shape
works like a venturi
in that as the intake
air spreads out, the
velocity of the air
decreases and the
pressure increases.
This added pressure
contributes
significantly to
engine efficiency
once the aircraft
reaches its design
cruising speed. At
this speed, the
compressor reaches
its optimum
aerodynamic
efficiency and
produces the most
compression for the
best fuel economy. It
is at this design
cruise speed that the
inlet, compressor,
combustor, turbine,
and exhaust duct are
designed to match
each other as a unit.
If any section to back. This
mismatches any convergent-
other because of divergent shape is
damage, used to slow the
contamination, or incoming airflow to
ambient conditions, subsonic speed
engine performance before it reaches the
suffers. For additional compressor.
information on
subsonic air inlets, In addition to the
refer to the convergent-divergent
discussion on turbine shape, many
engine induction supersonic inlets
systems in Section B employ a movable
of Chapter 5. plug or throat that
changes the duct's
SUPERSONIC INLETS
geometry. The
variable geometry is
On supersonic necessary so the duct
aircraft a typical air can be adjusted as
inlet duct has either needed to
a fixed or variable accomodate a wide
geometry whose range of flight
diameter speeds. For
progressively additional
decreases, then information on
increases from front super-

s
o
n
i
c
a
i
r

i
n
l
e
t
s
,

r
e
f
e
r

t
o

t
h
e

d
i
s
c
u
s
s
i
o
n

o
n

t
u
r
b
i
n
e

e
n
g
i
n
e

i
n
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

s
y
s
t
e
m
s

i
n

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

C
h
a
p
t
e
r

5
.

BELLMOUTH INLETS

B
e
l
l
m
o
u
t
h

i
n
l
e
t
s

h
a
v
e

c
o
n
v
e
r
g
e
n
t

p
r
o
f
i
l
e

t
h
a
t

i
s

d
e
s
i
g
n
e
d

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
a
l
l
y

f
o
r

o
b
t
a
i
n
i
n
g

v
e
r
y

h
i
g
h

a
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

w
h
e
n

s
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
r
y

o
r

i
n

s
l
o
w

f
l
i
g
h
t
.

T
h
e
r
e
f
o
r
e
,

b
e
l
l
m
o
u
t
h

i
n
l
e
t
s

a
r
e

t
y
p
i
c
a
l
l
y

u
s
e
d

o
n

h
e
l
i
c
o
p
t
e
r
s
,

s
o
m
e

s
l
o
w

m
o
v
i
n
g
a
i
r
c
r
a
f
t
,

a
n
d

o
n

e
n
g
i
n
e
s

b
e
i
n
g

r
u
n

i
n

g
r
o
u
n
d

t
e
s
t

s
t
a
n
d
s
.

t
y
p
i
c
a
l

b
e
l
l
m
o
u
t
h

i
n
l
e
t

i
s

s
h
o
r
t

i
n

l
e
n
g
t
h

a
n
d

h
a
s

r
o
u
n
d
e
d

s
h
o
u
l
d
e
r
s

o
f
f
e
r
i
n
g

v
e
r
y

l
i
t
t
l
e

a
i
r

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
.

H
o
w
e
v
e
r
,

b
e
c
a
u
s
e

t
h
e
i
r

s
h
a
p
e

p
r
o
d
u
c
e
s

g
r
e
a
t

d
e
a
l

o
f

d
r
a
g
i
n

f
o
r
w
a
r
d

f
l
i
g
h
t
,

b
e
l
l
m
o
u
t
h

i
n
l
e
t
s

a
r
e

t
y
p
i
c
a
l
l
y

n
o
t

u
s
e
d

o
n

h
i
g
h

s
p
e
e
d

a
i
r
c
r
a
f
t
.

S
i
n
c
e

b
e
l
l
m
o
u
t
h

d
u
c
t

i
s

s
o
FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE
Figure 3-21. Several helicopters and turboprop aircraft utilize
inlet screens to help prevent foreign object damage.
design of a sand or ice separator consists of an air
intake with at least one venturi and a series of sharp
bends. The venturi is used to accelerate the flow of
incoming air and debris so the debris has enough
inertia that it cannot follow the bends in the intake.
This allows sand particles and other small debris to
be channeled away from the compressor and into a
sediment trap. [Figure 3-22]
P
r
e
v
e
n
t
i
o
n

o
f

f
o
r
e
i
g
n

o
b
j
e
c
t

d
a
m
a
g
e

(
F
O
D
)

i
s
a

t
o
p

p
r
i
o
r
i
t
y

a
m
o
n
g

t
u
r
b
i
n
e

e
n
g
i
n
e

o
p
e
r
a
t
o
r
s

a
n
d

m
a
n
u
f
a
c
t
u
r
e
r
s
.

O
n
e

o
f

t
h
e

e
a
s
i
e
s
t

w
a
y
s

t
o

h
e
l
p

p
r
e
v
e
n
t

f
o
r
e
i
g
n
o
b
j
e
c
t

d
a
m
a
g
e

i
s

t
o

i
n
s
t
a
l
l

a
n

i
n
l
e
t

s
c
r
e
e
n

o
v
e
r

a
n

e
n
g
i
n
e
'
s

i
n
l
e
t

d
u
c
t
.

T
h
e

u
s
e

o
f

i
n
l
e
t

s
c
r
e
e
n
s

i
s

c
o
m
m
o
n

o
n
m
a
n
y

r
o
t
o
r
c
r
a
f
t

a
n
d

t
u
r
b
o
p
r
o
p

e
n
g
i
n
e
s

a
s

w
e
l
l

a
s

o
n

e
n
g
i
n
e
s

i
n
s
t
a
l
l
e
d

i
n

t
e
s
t

s
t
a
n
d
s
.

H
o
w
e
v
e
r
,

i
n
l
e
t

s
c
r
e
e
n
s

a
r
e
s
e
l
d
o
m

u
s
e
d

o
n

h
i
g
h

m
a
s
s

a
i
r
f
l
o
w

e
n
g
i
n
e
s

b
e
c
a
u
s
e

i
c
i
n
g
a
n
d

s
c
r
e
e
n

f
a
i
l
u
r
e
s

c
a
n

c
a
u
s
e

s
e
r
i
o
u
s

e
n
g
i
n
e

d
a
m
a
g
e
.

[
F
i
g
u
r
e

3
-
2
1
]

A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l

d
e
v
i
c
e
s

t
h
a
t

h
e
l
p

p
r
e
v
e
n
t

f
o
r
e
i
g
n
o
b
j
e
c
t

d
a
m
a
g
e

i
n
c
l
u
d
e

s
a
n
d

o
r

i
c
e

s
e
p
a
r
a
t
o
r
s
.

T
h
e

b
a
s
i
c
Figure 3-22. The sand and dust separator pictured is typical
for the turbine powered helicopter. The venturi in the air inlet
accelerates the air and sand so the sand has too much inertia
to make the turn leading to the engine

Figure 3-23. When a pilot actuates this type of sand separator, a

small vane extends into the airstream. The inertia of the sand
and ice particles after they pass through the venturi carries them
past the air intake and discharges them overboard.

Another type of a movable vane

separator used on which extends into
some turboprop the inlet airstream.
aircraft incorporates Once extended, the
vane creates a more the engine is
prominent venturi operating and weight
and a sudden turn in is on the main gear.
the engine inlet. [Figure 3-24]
Combustion air can
follow the sharp
curve but sand or ice
particles cannot
because of their
inertia. The movable
vane is operated by a
pilot through a
control handle in the
cockpit. [Figure 3-23]

Some gas turbine

engine inlets have a
tendency to form a
vortex between the
ground and the inlet
during ground
operations. This
vortex can become
strong enough to lift
water and debris such
as sand, small stones,
or small hardware
from the ground and
direct it into the
engine. To help
alleviate this problem,
a vortex dissipater,
sometimes called a
vortex destroyer or
blow-away jet is
installed on some gas
turbine engines. A
typical vortex
dissipater routes high
pressure bleed air to
a discharge nozzle
located in the lower
part of the engine
cowl. This discharge
nozzle directs a
continuous blast of
bleed air between the
ground and air inlet
to prevent a vortex
from developing.
Most aircraft
equipped with a
vortex dissipater also
have a landing gear
switch that arms the
dissipater whenever
 COMPRESSOR 30 times above the
SECTION ambient air
As discussed pressure and move
earlier, a gas the air at a velocity
turbine engine of 400 to 500 feet
takes in a quantity
of air, adds energy
to it, then
discharges the air
to produce thrust.
Based on this, the
more air that is
forced into an
engine, the more
thrust the engine
can produce. The
component that
forces air into the Figure 3-24. Engines
that utilize a vortex
engine is the dissipater use high
compressor. To be pressure bleed air from
the compressor to
effective, a modern prevent the formation of
compressor must a low pressure vortex
that can suck debris into
increase the intake the engine.
air pressure 20 to

In addition to
supporting
combustion and
providing the air
necessary to produce
thrust, the
compressor section
has several secondary
functions. For
example, a
compressor supplies
bleed air to cool the
hot section and
per second. One way heated air for anti-
of measuring a icing. In addition,
compressor's compressor bleed air
effectiveness is to is used for cabin
compare the static pressurization, air
pressure of the conditioning, fuel
compressor discharge system deicing, and
with the static air pneumatic engine
pressure at the inlet. starting. There are
If the discharge air two basic types of
pressure is 30 times compressors used
greater than the inlet today; the centrifugal
air pressure, that flow compressor and
compressor has a the axial flow
compressor pressure compressor. Each is
ratio of 30:1. named according to
the direction the air compressors.
flows through the Although a two-stage
compressor, and one
or both may be used
in the same engine.

CENTRIFUGAL FLOW
COMPRESSORS

The centrifugal
compressor,
sometimes called a
radial outflow
compressor, is one of
the earliest
compressor designs
and is still used today
in some smaller
engines and auxiliary
power units (APU's).
Centrifugal
compressors consist
of an impeller, a
diffuser, and a
manifold. [Figure 3-
25]
Figure 3-25. A single-
stage centrifugal
compressor consists of
an impeller, a diffuser,
and a compressor
manifold.

The impeller, or
rotor, consists of a
forged disk with
integral blades,
fastened by a splined
coupling to a
common power shaft.
The impeller's
function is to take air
in and accelerate it
outward by
centrifugal force.
Centrifugal
compressors can
have one or two
impellers.
Compressors having
only one impeller are
referred to as single-
stage compressors
while compressors
having two impellers
are referred to as
double-stage
 energy from the
engine to drive the
compressor.
[Figure 3-26]

Figure 3-26. A two-

stage impeller is
sometimes used to
obtain higher
compressor pressure
ratios. However, due
to efficiency losses, Figure 3-27. A single-
centrifugal stage, dual-sided
compressors typically impeller enables a small
do not exceed two diameter engine to
stages. produce a high mass
airflow.
impeller
compresses the air When two
more than a single- impellers are
stage impeller, the mounted back-to-
use of more than back a double-
two stages in a sided or double-
compressor is entry impeller is
typically considered created. A single-
impractical. The stage, double-sided
benefits of impeller allows a
additional stages higher mass airflow
are negated by the than that of a
energy lost when similar sized single-
the airflow slows stage, single-sided
down as it passes impeller.
from one impeller Therefore, engines
to the next. In "with double-sided
addition, the added impellers typically
weight from each have a smaller
additional impeller overall diameter.
requires more [Figure 3-27]

One drawback of the example, included in

double-sided impeller the ducting for
is that the ducting double-entry
required to get the compressor engines
intake air from one is a plenum chamber.
side of the impeller This chamber is
to the other is necessary because
complicated. For the air must enter
the engine at almost slows down, and
right angles to the increases in static
engine axis. pressure.
Therefore, in order to
give a positive flow, The compressor
the air must surround manifold distributes
the engine the air in a smooth
compressor at a flow to the
positive pressure combustion section.
before entering the The manifold has one
compressor. In outlet port for each
addition to the combustion chamber
plenum chamber, so that the air is
some double-entry evenly divided. A
compressors utilize compressor outlet
auxiliary air-intake elbow is bolted to
doors (blow-in each of the outlet
doors). These blow-in ports. The elbows act
doors admit air into as air ducts and are
the engine often referred to as
compartment during outlet ducts, outlet
ground operation elbows, or
when air combustion chamber
requirements for the inlet ducts. These
engine exceed that of outlet ducts change
the incoming airflow. the radial direction of
The doors are held the airflow to an axial
closed by spring direction. To help the
action when the elbows perform this
engine is not function in an
operating. During efficient manner,
operation, however, turning vanes or
the doors open cascade vanes are
whenever engine sometimes fitted
compartment inside the elbows.
pressure drops below These vanes reduce
atmospheric air pressure losses by
pressure. During presenting a smooth,
takeoff and flight, turning surface.
ram air pressure in [Figure 3-28]
the engine
compartment aids
the springs in holding Centrifugal flow
the doors closed. compressors offer
several advantages
including simplicity of
Once through the manufacture,
impeller, the air is relatively low cost,
expelled into a low weight, low
divergent duct called starting power
a diffuser, where it requirements, and
loses velocity and operating efficiency
increases in pressure. over a wide range of
The diffuser acts as a rotational speeds. In
divergent duct where addition, a centrifugal
the air spreads out, flow compressor's
short length and
spoke-like design
allow it to accelerate
air rapidly and
immediately deliver it
to the diffuser in a
short distance. Tip
speeds of centrifugal
compressors may
reach Mach 1.3, but
the pressure within
the compressor

Figure 3-28. The turning

vanes in a compressor
manifold help direct the
compressor outlet air to
the combustion section.
(角度要 90 度)

casing prevents
airflow separation
and provides a high
transfer of energy
into the airflow.
Although most
centrifugal
compressors are
limited to two
stages, the high
pressure rise per
stage allows
modern centrifugal
compressors to
obtain compressor
pressure ratios of
15:1.

A typical centrifugal
compressor has a
few disadvantages
that make it
unsuitable for use
in some engines.
For example, the
large frontal area
required for a given
airflow increases
aerodynamic drag.
Also, practical limits
on the number of
stages restrict its
usefulness when
designing larger
and more powerful
engines.
AXIAL FLOW The number of
COMPRESSORS
stages is
An axial flow determined by
compressor has two the amount of
main elements, a air and total
rotor and a stator. pressure rise
The rotor consists required.( 定 子
of rows of blades 導正氣流 減少速
度增加壓力減少窩
fixed on a rotating
旋)
spindle. The angle
and airfoil contour
of the blades forces Unlike a centrifugal
air rearward in the compressor, which
same manner as a is capable of
propeller. The compressor
stator vanes, on the pressure ratios of
other hand, are 15:1, a single stage
arranged in fixed in an axial flow
rows between the compressor is
rows of rotor capable of
blades and act as producing a
diffusers at each compressor
stage, decreasing pressure ratio of
air velocity and only 1.25:1.
raising pressure. Therefore, high
Each consecutive compressor
row of rotor blades pressure ratios are
and stator vanes obtained by adding
constitutes a more compressor
pressure stage. stages.

Figure 3-29. In an axial

compressor, airflow
velocity is maintained
nearly constant while
air pressure increases
as the airflow proceeds
through each stage of
compression.

The task of an axial

compressor is to
raise air pressure
rather than air
velocity. Therefore,
each compressor
stage raises the
pressure of the
incoming air while
the air's velocity is
alternately
increased then
decreased as
airflow proceeds
through the
compressor. The
rotor blades slightly
accelerate the
airflow, then the
stator vanes diffuse Figure 3-30. In an axial
the air, slowing it flow compressor, the
divergent shape allows
and increasing the the air velocity to
pressure. The remain nearly constant,
while pressure
overall result is gradually increases.
increased air
pressure and
relatively constant
air velocity from
compressor inlet to
outlet. [Figure 3-29]

As air passes from

the front of an axial
flow com
pressor to the rear,
the space between
the rotor shaft
and the stator
casing gradually
decreases. This
shape is necessary
to maintain a
constant air veloc
ity as air density
increases with each
stage of com
pression. To
accomplish the
convergent shape,
each
stage of blades and
vanes is smaller
than the one
preceding it.
[Figure3-30]

The case on most

axial flow
compressors is
horizontally divided
into two halves,
allowing the
removal of one of the ram efficiency is
halves for inspection obtained because of
or maintenance of their straight-through
both rotor blades and design, which takes
stator vanes. The full advantage of any
compressor case also ram effect. Another
provides a means of advantage of axial
extracting bleed air flow compressors is
for ancillary their ability to obtain
functions. higher compressor
pressure ratios by
Some disadvantages adding additional
of axial flow stages. In addition,
compressors are the small frontal area
relatively high weight of an axial flow
and high starting compressor helps to
power requirements. reduce aerodynamic
Also, the low drag.
pressure rise per
stage of 1.25:1 Compressor Rotor
requires many stages Blades
to achieve high Figure 3-31. Compressor
rotor blades are twisted
compressor pressure to compensate for blade
ratios. Furthermore, velocity variations along
the length of the blade.
axial flow
compressors are The rotor blades used
expensive and in an axial flow
difficult to compressor have an
manufacture.( 壓 力 airfoil cross-section
需要一及一及往上 with a varying angle
推所以很大很貴很 of incidence, or twist.
難製造) This twist
compensates for the
In spite of the blade velocity
disadvantages just variation caused by
mentioned, axial flow its radius. In other
compressors words, the further
outperform from the axis of
centrifugal flow rotation a blade
compressors in section is, the faster it
several areas. High travels. [Figure 3-31]
 a rotor blade often
fits loosely into the
rotor disk. This
loose fit allows for
easy assembly and
vibration damping.
As the compressor
rotor rotates,
centrifugal force
keeps the blades in
their correct
position, and the
airstream over each
blade provides a
shock absorbing or
cushioning effect.
Rotor blade roots
are designed with a
number of different
shapes such as a
bulb, fir tree, or
dovetail. To
prevent a blade
from backing out of
its slot, most
methods of blade
attachment use a
pin and a lock tab or
locker to secure the
coupling. [Figure 3-
32]

Some long fan

blades have a mid-
span shroud that
helps support the
blades, making
Figure 3-32. A dovetail
them more
on the base of this resistant to the
compressor blade fits
loosely into a dovetail
bending forces
slot in the compressor created by the
wheel. A small locking airstream. The
device such as a pin,
key, or plate prevents the shrouds, however,
blade from backing out. do block some of
the airflow and
Axial flow create additional
compressors aerodynamic drag
typically have 10 to that reduces fan
18 compression efficiency. In
stages, and in the addition, when the
turbofan engine, mating surfaces on
the fan is a mid-span shroud
considered to be become excessively
the first stage rotor. worn, the shrouds
The base, or root of can overlap. This is
known as shingling addition, the thin
and can cause fan trailing edge of profile
vibration and tipped blades causes
engine damage. a vortex which
increases air velocity
Some blades are cut and helps prevent air
off square at the tip from spilling back
and are referred to over the blade tips.
as flat machine
tips. Other blades On some newer
have a reduced engines the profile
thickness at the tips tipped blades are
and are called designed with tight
profile tips. All running clearances
rotating machinery and rotate within a
has a tendency to shroud strip of
vibrate, and abradable material.
profiling a Since rotor blades are
compressor blade usually made of a
increases its natural stainless steel alloy,
vibration frequency. the shroud strip
By increasing the wears away with no
blade's natural loss of blade length if
frequency above contact loading takes
the frequency of place. Sometimes
rotation, a blades's after engine
vibration tendency shutdown, a high
is reduced. In pitched noise can be
heard as the rotor
coasts to a stop. The
noise is caused by
contact between the
blade tip and shroud
strip and is the reason
why profile tip blades
are sometimes
referred to as
squealer tips.
Figure 3-33. End bend
refers to the increased
blade camber on some
compressor blades. The
increased camber helps
prevent airflow stagnation
near the blade tips.

Another blade design

that increases
compressor efficiency
utilizes a localized
increase in blade
camber, both at the
blade tip and blade
root. The purpose of
this design is to
compensate for the
friction caused by the
boundary layer of air
near the compressor extremities appear as
case. The increased if they were bent over
blade camber helps at each corner, hence
overcome the friction the term end bend.
and makes the blade [Figure 3-33]

Compressor Stator attached in rows with

Vanes
a dovetail
Stator vanes are the arrangement and
stationary blades project radially
located between each toward the rotor axis.
row of rotating blades Stator vanes are often
in an axial flow shrouded at their tips
compressor. As to minimize vibration
discussed earlier, the tendencies. [Figure 3-
stator vanes act as 34]
diffusers for the air
coming off the rotor, The set of stator
decreasing its velocity vanes immediately in
and raising its front of the first stage
pressure. In addition, rotor blades are
the stators help called inlet guide
prevent swirling and vanes. These vanes
direct the flow of air direct the airflow into
coming off each stage the first stage rotor
to the next stage at blades at the best
the appropriate angle while imparting
angle. Like rotor a swirling motion in
blades, stator vanes the direction of
have an airfoil shape. engine rotation. This
In addition, the angle action improves the
of attack of stator aerodynamics of the
vanes can be fixed or compressor by
variable. Stator vanes reducing the drag on
are normally the first stage rotor
constructed out of blades. Some axial
steel or nickel compressors with
because those metals high compressor
have high fatigue pressure ratios utilize
strength. However, variable inlet guide
titanium may also be vanes plus several
used for stator vanes stages of variable
in the low pressure stator vanes. These
and temperature variable inlet guide
stages. vanes and stators
automatically
Stator vanes may be reposition themselves
secured directly to to maintain proper
the compressor airflow through the
casing or to a stator engine under varying
vane retaining ring, operating conditions.
which is secured to
the compressor case. The last set of vanes
Most stator vanes are the compressor air
passes through is the
outlet vane
assembly. These
vanes straighten

Figure 3-34.
Compressor stator
vanes may be
attached directly to
the compressor case
(A) or to a retaining
ring that is attached to
the case by a
retaining screw (B). In
addition, stator vanes
are sometimes
equipped with
shrouds to minimize
the effects of
vibration.IGV—direct
flow to the 1st stage
rotor at best angle

the airflow and

eliminate any
swirling motion or
turbulence. The
straightened
airflow then
proceeds to the
diffuser to prepare
the air mass for
combustion.

MULTIPLE-SPOOL
COMPRESSORS

In a basic axial flow

compressor, the
compressor and
turbine are
connected by a
single shaft and
rotate as a single
unit. Since there is
only one
compressor unit,
the compressor is
commonly referred
to as a single-spool fraction of their
compressor. While capacity, while the
single-spool forward stages are
compressors are typically
relatively simple overloaded.
and inexpensive to Furthermore, the
manufacture, they large mass of a
do have a few single-spool
drawbacks. For compressor does
example, in a long not respond quickly
axial compressor to abrupt control
the rear stages input changes.
operate at a [Figure 3-35]

Figure 3-35. In a single-spool compressor, there is only

one compressor unit that is connected by a shaft to the
turbine section.
Rear stages operate at a fraction of capacity while FWD
stage overload…..Not respond quickly to abrupt control
input change

Figure 3-36. In a dual-spool axial flow engine, the low

pressure compressor is driven by the low pressure
turbine while the high pressure turbine drives the high
pressure compressor. Splitting the compressor creates
two rotating groups, each with considerably less mass
than a single-spool compressor. The smaller mass
allows the compressors to respond more quickly to
power lever inputs and perform better at high altitudes.
 In addition, a smaller starter can be used since it turns
less mass.(small mass allow compressor to respond quickly
and easy to turn for starting)N2 speed is held relatively
constant by FCU Governor 飛 縱 控 制 N2 speed up or
slow down by ALT 高度 and FLT 飛行 maneuvering

Engine designers pressure compressor

devised a way to and tur
overcome the bine typically rotates
limitations of single- inside the shaft
spool compressors by connecting the
splitting high pressure
the compressor into compressor and
two or three turbine. On some
sections. Each sec tur-
tion is connected to a bofan engines, the
portion of the forward fan is
turbine section attached to the low
by shafts that run pressure compressor,
coaxially, one within and they both turn at
the other. the same
For example, split- speed. [Figure 3-36]
compressor engines
with two Since the spools are
compressor sections not physically
are identified as connected to one
dual-spool or another, each is free
twin-spool to seek its own best
compressors. The operating speed.
front section of a However, for any
dual- given power lever
spool compressor is setting, the high
called the low pressure compressor
pressure, low speed is held
speed, or N1 relatively constant by
compressor. This low the fuel control
pressure com governor. With a
pressor is typically constant energy level
driven by a two-stage at the turbine, the
turbine at low pressure
the rear of the compressor speeds
turbine section. The up or slows down
second compres with changes in the
sor section of a twin- inlet air flow caused
spool compressor is by atmospheric
called the
high pressure, high
speed, or N2
compressor and is
typically driven by a
single stage high-
pressure tur
bine at the front of
the turbine section.
The shaft
connecting the low
pressure fluctuations arrangement the fan
or flight is referred to as the
maneuvering. For low speed, or N1
example, low compressor. The
pressure compressor next in
compressors speed line is called the
up as the aircraft intermediate, or N2
gains altitude, since compressor, and the
the atmosphere is innermost
less dense and more compressor is the
rotational speed is high pressure, or N3
needed to force the compressor. The low
required amount of speed compressor is
air through the typically driven by a
engine. Conversely, multiple stage low
as the aircraft pressure turbine,
descends, the air while the
becomes more dense intermediate and
and easier to high pressure
compress so the low compressors are
pressure compressor driven by single stage
slows down. This turbines. [Figure 3-
way, the low 37]
pressure compressor
supplies the high COMPRESSOR STALL
pressure compressor
with a fairly constant As discussed earlier,
air pressure and compressor blades
mass airflow for each are actually small
power setting. airfoils and
therefore, are
On many turbofan subject to the same
engines, the aerodynamic
compressor section is principles that apply
divided into three to aircraft wings. Like
sections and is a wing, a compressor
referred to as a blade has an angle of
triple-spool attack, which is the
compressor. In this acute angle between
the chord
Figure 3-37. The triple-spool compressors used on
many turbofan engines allow each compressor
section to reach its optimum speed for varying power
requirements and flight conditions.(compressor stall 原
因 turbulence air in inlet abrupt FLT maneuver
abnormal acceltin 加速 or decell 檢速 direction or
damage on comp .turbine blade or vane)此時會有 pulsating
or fluttering sound Fluction RPM EGT raise

Air velocity and compressor rotational velocity

combine vector which define the AOA(angel of attack)

of the blade and can be described as

the relative wind. an imbalance
The angle of between the two
attack of a vector quantities,
compressor blade inlet velocity, and
is the result of compressor
inlet air velocity rotational speed.
and the Compressor stalls
compressor's occur when the
rotational compressor blades'
velocity. These angle of attack
two forces exceeds the critical
combine to form angle of attack. At
a vector, which this point, smooth
defines the airflow is interrupted
airfoil's actual and turbulence is
angle of attack to created with
the approaching pressure fluctuations.
inlet air. As with Compressor stalls
an aircraft wing, a cause air flowing in
compressor the compressor to
blade's angle of slow down and
attack can be stagnate, sometimes
changed. reversing direction. A
compressor stall can
usually be heard as a
A compressor stall
pulsating or fluttering way this can be done
sound in its mildest is through the use of
form to a loud variable inlet
explosion in its most guide vanes( 可
developed state. 變 進 氣 導 片 ) and
Quite often the variable stator vanes
cockpit gauges will which direct the
not show a mild or incoming air into the
transient stall but rotor blades at an
will indicate a appropriate angle.
developed stall. For example, as a
Typical instrument compressor's
indications include rotational speed
fluctuations in rpm decreases, the stator
and an increase in vanes are
exhaust gas progressively closed
temperature. Most to maintain the
transient stalls are appropriate airflow
not harmful to the angle to the
engine and often proceeding rotor
correct themselves blades. The position
after one or two of the stator vanes is
pulsations. However, controlled
severe stalls, or hung automatically by the
stalls, can fuel control unit. To
significantly impair do this, the fuel
engine performance, control unit monitors
cause loss of power, compressor inlet
and can damage the temperature and
engine. engine speed.

The only way to Another way the

overcome a stalled angle of attack can
condition is to be changed is by
reduce the angle of bleeding off some of
attack on the rotor the air pressure
blades. One within the
compressor. To do
this, some engines
incorporate
automatic air-bleed
valves which operate
during low rpm
conditions or during
engine startup. The
automatic valves
open to relieve
pressure caused by
air piling up at the
compressor's high
pressure end. This
regulation of air
pressure helps
prevent the
compressor from
stalling and allows for
easier engine sudden engine
starting. acceleration,
accompanied by
Compressor stalls incompatible engine
typically occur when rpm and airflow
the engine inlet air combinations. In
becomes turbulent or addition,
disrupted when an contamination or
aircraft flys in severe damage to
turbulence or compressor blades,
performs abrupt stator vanes, or
flight maneuvers. turbine components
Another cause is can also cause a
excessive fuel flow compressor stall.
produced by a