Scientific Article Notes, Question and Answers, June 2015 Unit 5, by Dr. Stafford Valentine Redden (B.Sc. (Hons.) B.Ed. M.Sc. M.Ed. M.A. PH.D)

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Scientific Article Notes, Question and answers, June 2015 Unit 5,

by Dr. Stafford Valentine Redden (B.Sc.(Hons.); B.Ed.; M.Sc.; M.Ed.; M.A.; Ph.D)
Drugs and Sport
1. There are three reasons why athletes and sports people may take drugs: Commented [sr1]: A drug is an externally administered
chemical which alters metabolic activity in the body. It may
2. As medication for disease: they are as entitled to treatment of a medical condition as anyone else but be pharmaceutical (medicinal) or narcotic (numbs the
both the competitor and the doctor must be aware of the rules about banned substances. Failure to heed senses).
them can have serious consequences. An athlete could receive either a temporary or permanent ban from
competing in that sport. If the doctor is at fault, there is potential for litigation irrespective of whether the Commented [sr2]: Filing of a lawsuit
individual is an amateur or professional competitor.
Commented [sr3]: a person who engages in a sport for
pleasure rather than for financial benefit
3. To enhance performance: in doing so this could give an unfair advantage. Doctors who prescribe or
collude in the provision of drugs or treatment with the intention of improperly enhancing an individual’s Commented [sr4]: following an occupation as a means of
performance in sport would be contravening the GMC’s guidance and such actions would usually raise a livelihood or for financial gain
question of a doctor’s continued registration. This does not preclude the provision of any care or treatment Commented [sr5]: participant in a competition
where the doctor’s intention is to protect or improve the patient’s health.
Commented [sr6]: To act together, often in secret, to
achieve an illegal or improper purpose
1. Using information from the article and your own knowledge, discuss the ethics of using performance-enhancing
Commented [sr7]: in violation of
drugs in sports.
Why doping may be unethical? Why doping may be considered ethical? Commented [sr8]: prevent someone from doing
something
Athletes have a right of access to fair competition Athletes have the right to achieve the best
(doping is unfair to those who do not do it). Doping performance they can. Doping gives people a chance
might be good (from the point of view of success in to be as good as their potential allows. It removes
competition) for the few athletes that do it, but is bad “unfair” genetic advantages.
for the many that do not.
Athletes have the right to be protected from harmful Athletes have a duty to sponsors to achieve their best
drugs. Sports governing bodies have a duty to ensure performances. Economic benefits are too lucrative to
that athletes do not take drugs. It is unethical for ignore.
athletes to play against the rules.
Many athletes who take drugs are not really doing so It should be up to the individual athlete to decide for
intentionally or willingly. They are usually under themselves whether they will take drugs to improve
pressure from coaches to do so. Many athletes may their performance or not. Especially if the drug is not
not have given their informed consent. banned and is not harmful.
Many spectators are disappointed to find that a Individuals have different ‘codes of ethics’. If you
successful athlete has taken drugs. Athletes know that believe the anti-doping rules are pointless or
there are rules against taking certain drugs. An honest misguided, then there is no point in following the
and sincere athlete follows the rules. rules.
Many drugs have harmful side-effects. These drugs are

often taken by athletes without medical supervision,
which could lead to irreversible harm.
2. List the classes of performance enhancing drugs and explain how they can enhance performance of athletes
during an event.
• Anabolic steroids – build muscle mass
• Stimulants e.g. caffeine – increase heart rate to improve alertness
• Beta-2 agonists – dilate airways, allowing more oxygen into lungs
• Beta-blockers – slow down heart rate and reduce trembling
• Hormones and their releasing factors – increase the effects of natural, endogenous hormones
• Narcotics – allow athletes to ignore pain
• Diuretics – cause excess urination to eliminate drug traces in the urine
• Erythropoietin – increases Red blood cell count to carry oxygen rapidly to cells.
• Creatine – increases the level of creatinine phosphate in fast twitch muscles to prevent cramping.
Author of A Level biology text books and practical workbooks, global academic consultant. Books available at http://staffordeducationalservices.com/book-
categories/a-level/ Consultancy at https://www.facebook.com/groups/biologywithstafford/ Etuition at http://staffordeducationalservices.com/etuition/
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4. As recreational drugs: for example, cannabis is a banned substance even though it is not considered a Commented [sr9]: A psychoactive drug. Also known as
performance-enhancing drug. The authorities say that it is necessary to take such steps, as athletes and Marijuana or Hashish oil.
sports people are role models for young people and hence should not take illicit drugs. However, they do Commented [sr10]: forbidden by law, rules, or custom
not suggest how young people would know that their heroes take drugs if they were not tested and positive
results made public.
Drug testing
5. All elite athletes competing at international level and professional sportspeople are likely to be routinely Commented [sr11]: The selected part of a group that is
tested. However, testing may go down to much lower levels and include young competitors. Sometimes superior to the rest in terms of ability or qualities or has
testing may be anticipated. It is common practice to test all who have won medals in major events but more privilege than the rest.
random drug testing can also take place. Elite athletes may also be visited by representatives from their Commented [sr12]: expected or predicted
governing body for out-of-season testing.
6. Some drugs are permissible when not competing but not during competition. Others, such as anabolic Commented [sr13]: allowed
steroids are banned at all times.
Commented [sr14]: “Anabolic steroids” is the
familiar name for synthetic variants of the male
3. How do anabolic steroids (steroid hormones) have an effect on cells? sex hormone testosterone.
1. Steroid hormone binds to specific receptor on target cell and enters the cytoplasm, as the membrane is
permeable to steroid hormones, like testosterone or oestrogen.
2. The steroid hormone will bind to a transcription factor in the cytoplasm.
3. The transcription factor and the hormone bind to other transcription factors (TF1 to TF6, in this case) and
complete the formation of the Transcription Initiation Complex.
4. The formation of the Transcription Initiation Complex ensures that the gene is ‘SWITCHED ON’.
5. Transcription of the gene begins and mRNA is formed.
7. Some drugs are banned in some sports but not in others. Banned substances can include alcohol and
caffeine above a certain level. Beta-blockers would impair performance of an endurance athlete but Commented [sr15]: to damage or make worse
suppression of tremor gives unfair advantage in shooting events.
Commented [sr16]: the quality of continuing for a long
time
4. Using your knowledge about the action of Beta-blockers, explain how ‘Beta-blockers would impair performance
of an endurance athlete’. Commented [sr17]: stopping or reduction
Adrenaline is released in large quantities during an athletic performance. Adrenaline stimulates the sympathetic Commented [sr18]: a trembling or shaking usually from
nervous system to increase the cardiac output and minute ventilation rate. This is an advantage for the athlete physical weakness, emotional stress, or disease
during an athletic performance as the muscles receive a rapid supply of oxygenated blood. Beta-blockers will bind
to beta adrenergic receptors and prevent adrenaline from acting. The athlete then cannot benefit from the effects
of adrenaline and the performance is impaired.
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5. Explain how the ‘suppression of tremors’ is possible and suggest why it is an advantage in shooting events.
Stimulation of the sympathetic nerves by adrenaline can result in tremors. Beta-blockers block the beta-adrenergic
receptors and prevent adrenaline from binding to the receptors. So, tremors are prevented. This is an advantage
as it helps an athlete overcome the nervousness associated with an event and give a steady hand for shooting.
6. Tremors are also a symptom of Parkinson’s disease. It is associated with lack of dopamine in the brain. Describe
the action of a drug used for treatment of Parkinson’s diseases.
• L-dopa: L-dopa (levodopa) is a precursor of dopamine. Dopamine is too large to cross the blood-brain
barrier in the brain. However L-dopa is small enough to cross the barrier and enter the neurones. It is
then converted to dopamine and secreted. This relieves the symptoms.
• Dopamine agonists: these drugs bind with dopamine receptors and mimic the action of dopamine.
• Monoamine oxidase B (MAOB) Inhibitors: Monoamine oxidase B is an enzyme in the brain, which breaks down
dopamine in the brain. MAO B Inhibitors are drugs which inhibit the action of MAO B. The level of dopamine remains
high and the symptoms are relieved.
8. Drug testing does not apply simply to sports such as athletics and football but may include snooker,
bridge and chess played at the highest levels.
Therapeutic use exemption
9. If a doctor believes that there is a good reason why his patient needs a banned substance, it is possible
to issue a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) certificate – for example, the one used for football is found at Commented [sr19]: relating to the treatment of illness
the FIFA website. They may be temporary for a single spell of illness or of longer duration. They must be
Commented [sr20]: freedom from being required to do
issued in good faith, stating that alternative medication is inappropriate – for example, if a snooker player something that others are required to do
has hypertension, does he really need a beta-blocker?
Commented [sr21]: a blood pressure of 140/90 or
above is considered hypertension
7. Paragraph 9 states ‘if a snooker player has hypertension, does he really need a beta-blocker?’ Describe the
alternative treatments available for treatment of hypertension and explain why beta-blockers are not a fair choice.
The table below summarises the effects of antihypertensives and the risks and benefits.
Mode of action Benefits Risks
a. Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (A2RBs) ARBs are used for Dizziness, headache,
Angiotensin is a substance produced by the liver and controlling high blood drowsiness, diarrhoea,
kidneys collectively. It causes vessels to constrict by pressure, treating heart abnormal taste sensation
binding with receptors on smooth muscles of the failure, and preventing (metallic or salty taste),
arteries. This elevates the blood pressure. Angiotensin kidney failure in people and rash.
receptor blockers (ARBs) block the action of with diabetes or high
angiotensin. So, ARBs lower the blood pressure by blood pressure.
preventing constriction of the blood vessels.
b. ACE Inhibitors ARBs are used for Skin rash, hay-fever-like
ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme - produced by the controlling high blood symptoms (sneezing,
lungs and kidneys) is used in the formation of pressure, treating heart
blocked or runny nose,
angiotensin. ACE(angiotensin converting enzyme) failure, and preventing
inhibitors are used to treat high blood pressure and kidney failure in people itchy eyes), swelling of
weakened heart muscles. ACE inhibitors slow (inhibit) with diabetes or high your sinuses (sinusitis),
the activity of the enzyme (angiotensin converting blood pressure. sore throat or dry cough,
enzyme), which produces angiotensin. As a result, the feeling sick or vomiting,
blood vessels dilate, and blood pressure is reduced. In indigestion
addition, these drugs decrease sodium and water
retention.
c. Diuretics Diuretics are commonly Weakness, Muscle
Diuretics act on the kidneys to help rid the body of used to treat high blood cramps, Skin rash,
excess water and sodium and consequently lower the pressure (hypertension), Diarrhoea, muscle
blood pressure as well. congestive heart failure cramps and dizziness.
(CHF), and water
retention and swelling.
d. Beta-Blocking Drugs Beta-blockers are used to Fatigue, depression,
Beta-adrenergic receptors are receptors found on many treat a variety of memory loss, dizziness,
cells in the body. These receptors bind with the conditions including high
hormone adrenaline. This allows adrenaline to cause blood pressure
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constriction of the arteries and to increase the (hypertension), chest diarrhoea or
heartbeat rate. Beta-blockers block the beta-adrenergic pain (angina), constipation.
receptors (beta-adrenergic blocking drugs) and slow the arrhythmias, congestive
heart rate and decrease blood pressure. They do this by heart failure (CHF), and
blocking the effects of adrenaline on the body's beta mitral valve prolapse.
receptors. This slows the nerve impulses that travel These drugs are specially
through the heart, thus easing the heart's pumping useful to treat angina
action and widening blood vessels. caused by stress or
psychological shock.
e. Calcium Channel Blocking Agents They are prescribed to Calcium-channel

Also called calcium antagonists or calcium blockers, treat chest pain (angina), blockers can also slow
these medications affect the movement of calcium into high blood pressure the heart down and
the cells of the heart and blood vessels. As a result, they (hypertension) and some cause headaches,
relax blood vessels and increase the supply of blood and irregular heartbeats constipation, flushing
oxygen to the heart, while reducing its workload. (arrhythmias). They are and fluid retention.
Calcium-channel blockers can cause a big drop in blood not usually prescribed for
pressure. This can cause dizziness while standing up. So, people with heart failure
after taking a dose, patients need to get up slowly and or other structural
stay next to your chair or bed until the dizziness wears damage to the heart.
off.
Beta blockers are an unfair choice as they prevent tremors and give an unfair advantage to snooker players who
are on beta-blockers.
10. The problems faced by a doctor may be for relatively minor treatments such as decongestants, Commented [sr22]: a medicine that helps stop thick
analgesics and medication for asthma. As mentioned above, some drugs are permissible in some sports fluid from building up in your nose, throat, or chest when
and not in others. Some are permissible out of competition but not whilst competing. you have a cold or similar illness
Commented [sr23]: a drug that relieves pain
8. Decongestants stop mucus from building up in the nose, throat and chest. Suggest why these drugs may be
Commented [sr24]: a chronic lung disorder that is
prescribed to cystic fibrosis patients. marked by recurring episodes of airway obstruction
In cystic fibrosis the CFTR protein is defective due to a mutation in the CFTR gene. The protein cannot secrete
chloride ions into the mucus and the mucus becomes thick and sticky. This causes the mucus to build up and block
airways. Decongestants can be used to relieve these symptoms.
9. Analgesics are pain killers. Using your knowledge about synaptic transmission, suggest how analgesics may
reduce pain.
Pain is caused by stimulation of sensory receptors. These impulses are carried by sensory neurones to the brain.
The sensory neurone connects with other neurones in the brain to give a sensation of pain. Analgesics block the
postsynaptic receptors at the synapses and prevent neurotransmitters from binding with these receptors. This
numbs the sensation of Pain.
10. Suggest why the numbing of pain could aggravate an injury.

The athlete can perform even with the injury. This could lead to further wear and tear of tissue.
11. Medicines for asthma have a broncho-dilatory effects. Suggest why it would be unfair for an athlete to use
bronchodilators just before an athletic event.
Bronchi and bronchioles will open wider and air flow into and out of the lungs will be very rapid. Blood gets
oxygenated more rapidly and carbon dioxide is removed from the blood rapidly due to greater ventilation. The
muscles receive a continuous supply of oxygen rich blood and will not cramp easily. This gives the athlete an unfair
advantage over others.
11. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) produces a full list of prohibited drugs every year. Doctors Commented [sr25]: forbidden; banned
need to be aware of the possibility that patients may use an element of deceit to acquire prescriptions Commented [sr26]: cheating or trickery
for substances that they know they should not have.
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12. Describe the code that doctors should follow when prescribing drugs for athletes.
Doctors should use all diagnostic tools available to diagnose the condition. Appropriate drugs can then be
prescribed based on the results of the test rather than the symptoms reported by patient and they should also
consider whether the drug is on the list of prohibited drugs by WADA.
13. State three reasons that may persuade an athlete to inject painkillers and perform.
Pressure from sponsors, financial gain, fame.
12. Athletes often suffer injuries and analgesics may be appropriate. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs) are the group of choice and are always permissible, as is paracetamol. Commented [sr27]: Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
treats pain mainly by blocking COX-2 mostly in the
central nervous system, but not much in the rest of the
13. Opiate-related analgesics are more problematic. Codeine is not on the WADA list of banned body.
substances and combinations such as co-codamol appear acceptable. It is the stronger narcotic Commented [sr28]: a drug (such as morphine or
agents that are banned. However, screening does not always differentiate adequately between the codeine) that is made from opium and that is used to
various narcotic --- or codeine-related compounds and they are best avoided. reduce pain or cause sleep
Commented [sr29]: a combination of codeine
14. Suggest how opiates relieve pain. phosphate and paracetamol
It block receptors on the neurones that are responsible for the sensation of pain. Commented [sr30]: a drug that is given to people in
small amounts to make them sleep or feel less pain
14. Sometimes an athlete will ask the doctor to give an injection into an injured part to permit
competition. Pain is an important warning that something is wrong and if a significant injury is
pain-free this is a potentially dangerous situation. Steroid injections may also weaken ligaments
and should not be given into tendons or ligaments.
15. State the functions of tendons and ligaments.

Ligaments join bone to bone.
Tendons join bone to muscle.
16. State the features of ligaments and tendons that enable them to carry out their function.
• Ligaments are strong and elastic. The strength is needed to withstand the large forces and the elasticity allows
movement of bones at the joints.
• Tendons are also strong but inelastic. The strength is needed to withstand the large forces exerted by the
muscle. Inelasticity is to transmit the force from muscle to bone.
17. In cruciate ligament damage a tendon from a person’s knee is grafted in place of the ligament. Suggest one
disadvantage of this and explain how this can be overcome.
• The tendons are inelastic and will restrict the movement at the joint. This can be overcome by prolonged
physiotherapy.
18. Suggest two advantages of using the tendon in place of the ligament.
• Tendon is stronger than the ligament.
• There will be no tissue rejection.
19. Name the 4 ligaments in the knee joint.
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15. The main reason for wishing to use diuretics is to produce more dilute urine so that illicit substances Commented [sr31]: A diuretic is any substance that
are not detected. For this reason they are banned. They may also be used in sports with weight promotes the production of urine.
categories, such as judo and weightlifting. The competitor can dehydrate, make the weight at the Commented [sr32]: Remove water
weigh-in and then rehydrate before the competition, as even mild dehydration can ebb fitness Commented [sr33]: Replenish water in the body
significantly. Jockeys have used diuretics for many years. Masking substances to hide the use of
Commented [sr34]: lower
illicit drugs include probenecid and this is also banned.
Commented [sr35]: people who ride horses
20. Suggest why ‘even mild dehydration can ebb fitness significantly’. Commented [sr36]: probenecid removes uric acid from
The blood volume decreases and the blood gets thicker. The heart has to exert a greater force to pump the blood the blood into the urine. It is used in the treatment of gout.
This reduces the amount of other substances in the urine.
into the arteries. The heart may overwork itself and increase the risk of myocardial infarction. The rate of flow of
blood also decreases and oxygen supply to muscles may be lower than demand. An oxygen debt may build up, Commented [sr37]: lower
leading to fatigue and lethargy. Cells may lose water and cytoplasm may become highly concentrated. This can
increase metabolism significantly and exhaust all intra-cellular resources rapidly. This can lead to exhaustion.
21. Suggest two advantages of using probenecid.

The illicit drug will not be detected in urine.
The illicit drug remains in blood and has a prolonged effect on enhancing performance.
22. If you were to analyse a muscle sample from a weight-lifter or a judo competitor, what type of muscle fibres
would be more prominent? Why? What are the properties of these types of fibres? (5)
• fast-twitch/glycolytic fibres
• useful for fast, powerful muscle contractions (in judo etc)
• glycolytic (produce ATP by using a shorter respiratory pathway)
• low levels of myoglobin (to stimulate anaerobic respiration)
• less blood capillaries (which favours anaerobic respiration)
16. The problem of stimulants in sport reached public attention in 1960 when the Danish cyclist Knut Commented [sr38]: stimulants increase alertness,
Jenson died in the Rome Olympics and it transpired that he had been taking amfetamines. The attention, and energy, as well as elevate blood pressure,
heart rate, and respiration.
problem for doctors is not usually with amfetamines, as these now have few indications but with
decongestants that may be requested or bought over the counter to clear the airways of an athlete Commented [sr39]: became known
with a cold. Commented [sr40]: Amphetamines stimulate the central
nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system.
Amphetamines enhance the synaptic activity of three
23. MDMA (3,4-methylene-dioxy-methamphetamine), also known as ‘Ecstasy’, is a semi-synthetic amphetamine. neurotransmitters - dopamine, serotonin and
It is used in the treatment of depression. Describe the action of MDMA and explain how it helps to reduce the norepinephrine.
symptoms of depression.
Depression is caused by the lack of serotonin in the synapses of the neurones in the brain. MDMA is a selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitor which blocks serotonin reuptake channel proteins in the presynaptic neurones. This
helps to increase the serotonin levels in the synapses and relieve the symptoms of depression.
24. Explain how having a cold could reduce athletic performance.

During a cold, the airways are blocked with mucus and airflow into the lungs is reduced. This results in lack of
Commented [sr41]: Phenylephrine is a selective α1-
oxygenation of the blood and subsequent lack of energy in the cells.
adrenergic receptor agonist of the phenethylamine class
used primarily as a decongestant, as an agent to dilate the
25. Amfetamines are known to increase heartbeat rate, High blood pressure and coagulation of blood. Explain how pupil, and to increase blood pressure.
this could have led to the death of the Danish cyclist Knut Jensen. Commented [sr42]: Pseudoephedrine is a decongestant
Increased heartbeat can lead to anaerobic respiration and lactic acid accumulation. This increases the risk of that shrinks blood vessels in the nasal passages. Dilated
cramping of cardiac muscle and subsequent cardiac arrest. High blood pressure increases the risk of atheroma blood vessels can cause nasal congestion (stuffy nose).
formation, which can block coronary arteries. This increases the risk of myocardial infarction. Increased risk of Commented [sr43]: Ephedrine is an amine commonly
blood clotting and can form clots in the coronary arteries, increasing the risk of heart attacks. used as a stimulant. It works mainly by increasing the
activity of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) on adrenergic
receptors
17. Substances containing phenylephrine and pseudoephedrine should be avoided. Ephedrine is
prohibited when its concentration in urine is >10 micrograms per millilitre. This probably means Commented [sr44]: Ipratropium is a drug that relieves
bronchial spasms. It is an anticholinergic drug used for the
that 0.5% ephedrine nasal drops are safe. Saline nasal drops are certainly safe and allowed but less treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and
effective. If a pharmacological agent is required, an anticholinergic such as ipratropium spray may acute asthma. It blocks the muscarinic acetylcholine
be used. receptors in the smooth muscles of the bronchi in the lungs,
opening the bronchi.
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26. Anticholinergic agents block the action of acetylcholine. Explain how Anticholinergic agents like ipratropium Commented [sr45]: Ipratropium is a drug that relieves
can be used an bronchodilators. bronchial spasms. It is an anticholinergic drug used for the
Acetyl choline is released at the neuromuscular junction. It binds to cholinergic receptors on the muscle treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and
acute asthma. It blocks the muscarinic acetylcholine
cells and stimulates the release of calcium ions. This stimulates muscle contraction as shown below. receptors in the smooth muscles of the bronchi in the lungs,
Ipratropium binds to anticholinergic receptors on the muscles attached to the C-shaped rings of cartilage on the Commented [sr46]: Ipratropium is a drug that relieves
bronchi and prevents these muscles from contracting. So, the bronchi are dilated. bronchial spasms. It is an anticholinergic drug used for the
treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and
18. Beta-2 agonists are banned substances but they may be used if delivered by inhaler to a patient with acute asthma. It blocks the muscarinic acetylcholine
asthma and a TUE is issued. Corticosteroids are also banned but if anyone needs them, whether receptors in the smooth muscles of the bronchi in the lungs,
they are otherwise fit to compete at top level needs to be questioned. A TUE may be issued. Topical
steroids are permitted. Commented [sr47]: Corticosteroids are a class of
chemicals that includes the steroid hormones that are
27. Beta-2 agonists cause hyperpolarisation of smooth muscle cell membranes. How might they achieve this? produced in the adrenal cortex of vertebrates.
• bind to receptor protein (on membrane surface) Corticosteroids are involved in a wide range of physiological
processes, including stress response, immune response, and
• cause opening of potassium channels
regulation of inflammation, carbohydrate metabolism,
• cause opening of chloride channels protein catabolism, blood electrolyte levels, and behavior.
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19. For endurance events, a high haematocrit enhances performance. There are three ways to achieve
this:
o Training at altitude in a low PO2 stimulates endogenous erythropoietin. Commented [sr48]: Partial pressure of oxygen. A measure
of the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere.
o Recombinant erythropoietin is effective, especially if combined with supplementary iron.
Commented [sr49]: Erythropoietin is
o Blood doping means removal of a unit of blood, perhaps 4 to 6 weeks before competition, the a glycoprotein hormone that controls erythropoiesis, or
body replaces the lost blood and shortly before competition the blood is transfused (autologous red blood cell production. It is a cytokine (protein
transfusion). signaling molecule) for erythrocyte (red blood cell)
precursors in the bone marrow.
28. The haematocrit is the proportion of red blood cells in a blood sample. Why might a high haematocrit be
dangerous for an athlete.
The blood is thicker and will not flow easily. The heart will have to exert a greater force to pump the blood around
the body. The risk of blood clotting also increases. The clots can block the coronary arteries or cerebral arteries
leading to myocardial infarction or stroke respectively.
29. the production of recombinant human erythropoietin is currently being investigated using transgenic sheep.
The human erythropoietin will be secreted into the sheep’s milk and purified. Explain how such an animal could
be produced.
Commented [sr50]: Autologous blood transfusion is the

collection of blood from a single patient and retransfusion
back to the same patient when required.
Commented [sr51]: happen
20. Of these three techniques, only altitude training is legal. Substances to enhance oxygen uptake
Commented [sr52]: any of a group of usually synthetic
and haemoglobin substitutes are also banned. Although it was hoped that techniques to detect hormones that are derivatives of testosterone, are used
blood doping by autologous transfusion would be ready by the 2012 Olympics, this did not medically especially to promote tissue growth, and are
transpire. Research on this and on other method of detecting illicit methods of oxygen transfer sometimes abused by athletes to increase the size and
strength of their muscles and improve endurance
enhancement are ongoing.
Commented [sr53]: any of several structural or functional
diseases of heart muscle marked especially by hypertrophy
30. Explain how autologous blood transfusion is of benefit to an athlete. and obstructive damage to the heart
The number of red blood cells increases. This increases the rate of oxygen supply to the cells and aerobic Commented [sr54]: an arteriosclerosis characterized by
respiration continues. The body is more resistant to fatigue and endurance increases. atheromatous deposits in and fibrosis of the inner layer of
the arteries
21. Anabolic steroids are a generic term for male hormones. The idea behind their abuse in sport is Commented [sr55]: increased risk of blood clotting
that they promote muscle growth and protein synthesis. However, abuse also has side-effects
Commented [sr56]: liver malfunction
such as cardiomyopathy, atherosclerosis, hypercoagulopathy, hepatic dysfunction and psychiatric
Commented [sr57]: the medical specialty devoted to
and behavioural disturbances. They may be used for hypogonadism or diseases such as aplastic the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of
anaemia but such people are unlikely to compete at an elite level. mental disorders.
Commented [sr58]: Reduced function of gonads (testes
31. Using your knowledge about muscle structure explain how anabolic steroids can promote muscle growth. and ovaries)
Muscles are made of sarcomeres which are made of up actin, myosin, troponin and tropomyosin. ATP synthase is
Commented [sr59]: Aplastic anemia (AA) is a disease in
an enzyme which plays a big role in muscle structure and functions. All of these are controlled by genes which which the bone marrow, and the blood stem cells that reside
can be switched on by steroids which cause the trasnscription factors to be activated. Anabolic steroids will bind there, are damaged. This causes a deficiency of all three
with receptors on target cells. They can then enter the cells and activate specific transcription factors. These blood cell types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and
transcription factors will then switch on the genes for mitosis and for the formation of actin, myosin, troponin, platelets. Aplastic refers to inability of the stem cells to
generate the mature blood cells.
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tropomyosin and ATP synthase, which are essential for the formation of muscle cells. The process is illustrated
below.
1. Steroid hormone binds to specific receptor on target cell and enters the cytoplasm, as the membrane is
permeable to steroid hormones, like testosterone or oestrogen.
2. The steroid hormone will bind to a transcription factor in the cytoplasm.
3. The transcription factor and the hormone bind to other transcription factors (TF1 to TF6, in this case) and
complete the formation of the Transcription Initiation Complex.
4. The formation of the Transcription Initiation Complex ensures that the gene is ‘SWITCHED ON’.
5. Transcription of the gene begins and mRNA is formed.
6. Proteins (actin, myosin, troponin, tropomyosin) are produced to form muscle cells.
32. Explain how atherosclerosis occurs and state the consequences of atherosclerosis.
The wall of an artery is composed of several layers. The lining or inner layer (endothelium) is usually smooth and
unbroken. Atherosclerosis begins when the endothelium is injured or diseased. Then certain white blood cells
called monocytes and T cells are activated and move out of the bloodstream and through the lining of an artery
into the artery's wall, this is called as the inflammatory response. Inside the lining, they are transformed into foam
cells, which are cells that collect fatty materials, mainly cholesterol. In time, smooth muscle cells move from the
middle layer into the lining of the artery's wall and multiply there. Connective and elastic tissue materials also
accumulate there, as may cell debris, cholesterol crystals, and calcium. This accumulation of fat-laden cells, smooth
muscle cells, and other materials forms a patchy deposit called an atheroma or atherosclerotic plaque, as shown
in below.
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are diseases associated with the coronary circulation or diseases of the major
arteries, like arteries in the heart or brain. The sequence of events is shown below.
33. Explain the causal link between atherosclerosis and psychiatric and behavioural disorders.
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Strokes can lead to necrosis of brain cells. Specific areas of the brain may malfunction and cause psychiatric or
behavioural problems.
34. Para 21 states ‘diseases such as aplastic anaemia but such people are unlikely to compete at an elite level’. Commented [sr60]: Aplastic anemia (AA) is a disease in
During aplastic anaemia the stem cells in the bone marrow cannot differentiate into the different types of blood which the bone marrow, and the blood stem cells that reside
cells. Describe how stem cells can differentiate into different types of blood cells. there, are damaged. This causes a deficiency of all three
blood cell types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and
In order for cells to differentiate certain genes must somehow be activated, while others remain inactive. The platelets. Aplastic refers to inability of the stem cells to
active genes will produce active mRNA. The active mRNA will produce specific proteins needed for the cells to generate the mature blood cells.
differentiate into the different types of blood cells.
The process by which a gene is switched on is show below.
‘Switching on a gene’ – Gene induction or activation
Transcription of a gene is initiated by RNA polymerase and transcription factors binding to a promoter region. The
gene is ‘switched on’ when all the transcription factors, in their active form, are present. The process of gene
induction is illustrated in fig. 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3.
RNA Polymerase + Transcription factors = Transcription Initiation Complex
In eukaryotes, a number of proteins, called

transcription factors, must bind to a promoter
before RNA polymerase can bind and initiate
transcription.
Components involved in gene regulation
Transcription factors and RNA polymerase bind

Forming a transcription initiation complex to the promoter region of the gene, forming a Commented [sr61]: a male sex hormone
transcription initiation complex. Commented [sr62]: a semisynthetic anabolic steroid
C18H26O2 derived from testosterone and used chiefly in
the form of various ester derivatives
Commented [sr63]: produced within the body
Commented [sr64]: an androgenic ketosteroid C19H28O2
secreted by the adrenal cortex that is an intermediate in the
If all the transcription factors are present and in biosynthesis of testosterone
place, transcription begins and the gene is
Commented [sr65]: produced outside the body and
‘Switched on’ (transcription begins and forms injected into the body
mRNA). Otherwise, no transcription takes place Commented [sr66]: produced outside the body by
and the gene is silent. artificial means
Gene is ‘Switched on’ Commented [sr67]: a steroid sex hormone C19H26O2 that is
secreted by the testes, ovaries, and adrenal cortex and is an
intermediate in the biosynthesis of testosterone and
22. In the 1970s, athletes would take synthetic androgens such as nandrolone and these are easy to estrogen
detect without any controversy. A much more difficult problem is when an endogenous substance Commented [sr68]: a hormone that is a hydroxy
steroid ketone C19H28O2 produced especially by
such as testosterone is taken. The ratio of testosterone to dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is usually the testes or made synthetically and that is responsible
about 1:1 or 2:1. A similar ratio is expected in women. If it is over 4:1 then exogenous testosterone for inducing and maintaining male secondary sex
is likely. Some men appear to have naturally high ratios but a radiocarbon test can detect characters
synthetic testosterone. New ways are being developed to detect metabolites of androstenedione, Commented [sr69]: a biologically active metabolite
testosterone and dihydrotestosterone abuse. C19H30O2 of testosterone having similar androgenic
activity
Page 11
35. Using your knowledge about metabolic pathways explain why the ratio of testosterone to
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is usually about 1:1 or 2:1. Commented [sr70]: an androgenic ketosteroid C19H28O2
A metabolic pathway is a sequence of enzyme-controlled reactions, where every step in the pathway is controlled secreted by the adrenal cortex that is an intermediate in the
by a specific enzyme. biosynthesis of testosterone
Substrate A  Substrate B  Substrate C
Substrate A is the primary substrate, B is an intermediate compound and C is the final product. Every reaction in
the pathway is controlled by a specific enzyme. This enables the cell to have more control over metabolic reactions.
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is metabolised into testosterone. So the concentration will be more or less the Commented [sr71]: an androgenic ketosteroid C19H28O2
same. A higher ratio means that some testosterone was injected into the body. secreted by the adrenal cortex that is an intermediate in the
biosynthesis of testosterone
23. Female hormones also have anabolic effects, although not as marked as male hormones. Athletes
who return to training after pregnancy often find that they are stronger than they were before. Oral
contraceptives are permitted substances and may well be desirable. They tend to reduce menstrual Commented [sr72]: birth control methods
loss and hence any tendency to iron deficiency. As well as making menstruation more tolerable,
they can be used to adjust its timing so that the competitor is not premenstrual or menstruating
during an important event. Their value as a contraceptive is also appreciated.
36. Explain why menstruating during an athletic event could be a disadvantage for an athlete.
Commented [sr73]: Selective estrogen receptor
Menstruation leads to blood loss. Haemoglobin concentration is reduced and oxygen carrying capacity of blood modulators, called SERMs for short, block the effects of
decreases. The rate of carbon dioxide removal from the cells also decreases. Cells respire anaerobically and estrogen in the breast tissue.
fatigue easily due to lactic acid formation.
Commented [sr74]: Aromatase inhibitors work by
inhibiting the action of the enzyme aromatase, which
24. Other banned substances include tibolone, which has some anabolic effect, and anti-oestrogens converts androgens into estrogens by a process called
including the selective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) and aromatase inhibitors. If there aromatization. As breast tissue is stimulated by estrogens,
decreasing their production is a way of suppressing
are genuine reasons to prescribe such drugs, a TUE can be issued. recurrence of the breast tumor tissue.
Commented [sr75]: They are used for the treatment of
37. SERMs are drug molecules that bind to the oestrogen steroid hormone receptor. What effects would this symptoms of the metabolic syndrome, mainly for
have in the cell. Explain what is meant by ‘selective’. lowering triglycerides and blood sugar.
These SERMs only block oestrogen receptors on the breast tissues but not in other organs. This stops oestrogen Commented [sr76]: GW-1516 is a selective activator of
from binding to the receptor and stops transcription of oestrogen-sensitive genes. the PPARD (Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
delta) gene, which is involved in the building and
regulation of muscle. When the PPARD is activated, it
25. New illicit performance-enhancing agents are being developed all the time. One of the most recent helps develop more slow-twitch muscle fibers and shifts
is peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-delta agonists termed GW1516. It is a constant battle the body's metabolism to burn fat for fuel, rather than
sugars or muscle. The end result is that test subjects
to develop analytical techniques which can detect these substances. In the case of GW1516, mass can cut fat while exercising without simultaneously
spectrometry is being used for this purpose. losing muscle mass.
Commented [sr77]: Human chorionic gonadotropin
26. The chemicals that we tend to think of as anabolic (the male hormones described above) are not (hCG) is produced during pregnancy. It can support
pregnancy by allowing for the production of
the only ones with anabolic properties and hence other hormones may also be abused. In 1989 progesterone, which can help to prepare the lining of
the Medical Commission of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) introduced the new doping the uterus for implantation.
class of peptide hormones and analogues. This includes: Commented [sr78]: a hormone secreted by the
o Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) and related compounds. adenohypophysis, having a stimulating effect on the
adrenal cortex.
o Corticotropins, including adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Commented [sr79]: Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) is a
o Human growth hormone (hGH), insulin-like growth factors and mechano growth factors. polypeptide hormone composed of 39 amino acids that
o All the releasing factors of these listed hormones. is secreted by corticotroph cells in the anterior pituitary
gland.
o Erythropoietin. Commented [sr80]: a peptide hormone that
o Insulins. stimulatesgrowth, cell reproduction and regeneration in
humans and other animals.
38. All the hormones mentioned in paragraph 26 are peptide hormones. Describe the structure of a protein and Commented [sr81]: a polypeptide hormone
produced mainly by the liver in response to the
explain why each polypeptide has a different structure. endocrine GH stimulus
The general structure of an amino acid is shown in fig. 14.1. The amino (- NH2) group and acid (- COOH) groups are
Commented [sr82]: Mechano Growth Factor is
involved in the formation of peptide bonds, which hold amino acids together to form a polypeptide chain.. Residual
produced by our muscles after a strenuous workout or
(R) groups are involved in hydrogen bond, ionic bond and covalent bond formation, which cause the polypeptide after our muscles have been overloaded and have
broken down.
Page 12
chain to fold.
Fig. 14.1
Amino acids are linked to each other by the formation of a peptide bond, as shown in fig.14.2. The bond forms by
a condensation reaction between the acid (- COOH) group of one amino acid and the amino (- NH2) group of
another amino acid. Two amino acids linked by a peptide bond is called a dipeptide, while many amino acids linked
by peptide bonds forms a polypeptide.
fig 14.2
Condensation is the joining of two amino acids by the removal of a water molecule to form a peptide bond.
Hydrolysis is the splitting of a dipeptide or polypeptide by the addition of water molecules to break peptide bonds.
Both condensation and hydrolysis are brought about by the action of enzymes.
Primary structure of a protein

The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. This sequence is determined by the
genetic code on DNA. Finding the primary structure of a protein is called protein sequencing. The primary structure
determines the secondary and tertiary structure of a protein.
Examples:
The eventual shape and function of both polypeptide chains is going to be different, as the primary structure is
different. However, if two polypeptides have the same primary structure then their secondary and tertiary
structure will be similar because they will form similar bo1nds between the amino acids.
Secondary structure of a protein

The secondary structure refers to the folding of the polypeptide chain (primary structure) into helices and pleated
sheets. The secondary structure is held together by hydrogen bonds between the carboxyl groups residues (-C=O)
and the amino group residues (-NH) in the polypeptide backbone. The two secondary structures are the Alpha (α)
helix and the Beta pleated (β) pleated sheet.
The alpha(α) helix. The polypeptide chain is wound to form a helix. It is held together by hydrogen bonds running
parallel with the long helical axis. There are so many hydrogen bonds that this is a very stable and strong structure.
Helices are common structures throughout biology. Example: Keratin in hair, Nails and Skin.
Page 13
Fig. 14.3 - alpha(α) helix
The β pleated - sheet. The polypeptide chain zig-zags back and forward forming a sheet. Once again it is held
together by hydrogen bonds. Example: Fibroin, in silk.
Fig. 14.4 – beta (β) pleated sheet

Tertiary structure of a protein
The tertiary structure of a protein is the complex three - dimensional globular shape the polypeptide chain takes
when the polypeptide chain twists and folds around itself. The tertiary structure is maintained by Hydrogen bonds,
disulphide bridges [covalent bonds] and ionic bonds between the Residual groups of amino acids. Hydrophobic
interactions also help to maintain the shape of globular proteins, like enzymes and trans-membrane proteins.
The specific three dimensional shape [secondary, tertiary, quaternary structure] of a protein is maintained by three
types of chemical bonds between the Residual groups of amino acids
1. Hydrogen bonds: form between some Hydrogen atoms [which bear a slight positive charge] and oxygen and
nitrogen atoms [which bear a slight negative charge]. Although these bonds are weak, the large number of
bonds provide a considerable force to maintain the three dimensional shape.
2. Ionic bonds: form between carboxyl [COOH] groups and amino [NH2] groups found in the Residual chains. They
are stronger than H bonds, but can be broken by changes in pH and high temperature
3. Disulphide bonds: Some amino acids, like cysteine and methionine contain sulphur atoms in the Residual
groups. Disulphide bonds can form between sulphur atoms of amino acids that are close together. These bonds
are strong and contribute to the strength of structural proteins like collagen. They are also useful in linking the
two polypeptide chains of insulin together.
Page 14
Fig.14.5
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions

Hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions also help to maintain the shape of globular proteins [tertiary structure]
in aqueous solutions. The hydrophobic [water hating] regions of the polypeptide chain face away from water by
folding inwards. The hydrophilic regions of the chain remain on the surface of the globular structure.
Fig.14.6
Quaternary structure of a protein
Quaternary structure is the linking together of two or more polypeptide chains.
39. Describe the process of transcription and translation.

Protein synthesis
Protein synthesis is the formation of a polypeptide chain by using the information on the DNA. The information
from the gene (DNA) is copied on to mRNA in the nucleus by a process called transcription. The mRNA is then used
on the ribosomes to form a polypeptide chain by a process called translation.
Transcription - making mRNA from DNA

1. The enzyme RNA polymerase attaches to the promoter region of DNA and begins to unwind the gene (cistron)
by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs.
2. Free ribonucleotides in the nucleus pair up with complementary bases on the antisense strand of DNA. A pairs
with U; G pairs with C; T pairs with A.
3. The free nucleotides then get linked to each other by the formation of phospho-diester bonds, formed by
condensation reactions. It is catalysed by RNA polymerase.
4. The newly formed strand of mRNA then peels away from the coding strand and the DNA rewinds. The process
continues until a stop codon is reached.
5. A primary transcript of mRNA or pre-mRNA is formed. It contains introns and exons.
6. Before leaving the nucleus, introns of mRNA are cut off. The remaining nucleotides rejoin and are called exons.
The exons (mature mRNA) leave the nucleus.
7. Poly adenine tail and guanine cap are attached to the mRNA before it diffuses out of the nucleus through the
nuclear pores. A length of DNA, called as a gene or cistron, is copied onto a single stranded mRNA molecule
during transcription.
Page 15
Fig.18.7
Translation – decoding genetic information to form a polypeptide

Using the genetic information (sequence of bases) on mRNA to form a polypeptide chain with a specific sequence
of amino acids is called translation. It occurs on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Fig.18.8 Fig.18.9
A ribosome attaches to the mRNA at an initiation The next amino acid-tRNA attaches to the adjacent
codon (AUG). The ribosome encloses two codons. met- mRNA codon (ala in this case).
tRNA diffuses to the ribosome and the anticodon
attaches to the mRNA start codon by complementary
base pairing.
Page 16
Fig.18.10 Fig.18.11
The bond between the amino acid and the tRNA is cut The ribosome moves along one codon so that a new
and a peptide bond is formed between the two amino amino acid-tRNA can attach. The polypeptide chain
acids. The free tRNA molecule leaves to collect another elongates one amino acid at a time, and peels away
amino acid. from the ribosome, folding up into a protein as it
goes. This continues until a stop codon is reached.
Note: The main function of the ribosome is to hold the mRNA molecule so that anticodons of tRNA can pair up
with complementary codons of mRNA. This brings amino acids to lie adjacent to each other so that peptide
bonds can be formed.
40. Describe how peptide hormones act on target cells (6)

The mode of action for peptide hormones and steroid hormones is entirely different.
Fig. 7.1 – A peptide hormone

1. Hormone binds to specific receptor on the cell membrane.
2. Adenyl cyclase enzyme is released from the receptor and diffuses into the cytoplasm.
3. Adenyl cyclase converts ATP into cyclic AMP (Second messenger)
4. The second messenger initiates a series of reactions in the cell and activates Transcription Factor 7,in this case.
5. The activated transcription factor (TF7) now binds to the existing Transcription factors (TF1 to TF6, in this case)
and completes the Transcription Initiation Complex. This activates RNA polymerase to become active and begin
the process of transcription of the gene. The gene is now ‘SWITCHED ON’.
27. Both hCG and luteinising hormone (LH) may also be used to enhance the endogenous production Commented [sr83]: a hormone produced
of testosterone by artificial means and are prohibited in males. by gonadotropic cells in the anterior pituitary gland. In
females, an acute rise of LH triggers ovulation and
development of the corpus luteum. In males, where LH
28. Over a period of 20 years, growth hormone (GH) has been considered as a performance-enhancing had also been called interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone (ICSH) it stimulates Leydig cell production
drug in the world of sport. A blood test for hGH was first introduced at the 2004 Summer Olympic of testosterone. It acts synergistically with FSH.
Games in Athens, Greece. Further tests are being developed to enhance the detection window for
hGH abuse.
Page 17
29. Recombinant GH abuse remains a major challenge and isoform assays have been developed to Commented [sr84]: allows measurement of isomeric
detect this. forms of molecules
41. Proteins such as recombinant human growth hormone can be made in large quantities using bacteria and
simple genetic engineering techniques. Describe you would produce this recombinant protein in bacteria (7)
• isolate the human gene/DNA for human growth hormone from human cells/DNA
• using restriction enzymes/endonucleases
• add to a plasmid/vector
• using DNA ligase
• add recombinant plasmid to bacterial cells/transform bacterial cells with the recombinant plasmid
• grow bacterial cells (in a fermenter)
• purify protein from bacterial cells/split open cells and extract the growth hormone
30. GH and insulin seem to work together to control blood glucose but the role of insulin is much
more profound than just glucose homeostasis. Insulin may be used to counter the hyperglycaemic Commented [sr85]: a condition in which an excessive
effects of GH but it is also abused by bodybuilders and there are reports of severe hypoglycaemia amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma
as a result. The legal classification of insulin has been changed from ‘P’ (for sale in pharmacies) to Commented [sr86]: low blood glucose level
‘PoM’ (prescription-only medicine).
42. What is “homeostasis”? If GH has the opposite action to insulin, with respect to glucose homeostasis,
describe how the body can use these hormones in glucose homeostasis.
• homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment
• if blood glucose increases: insulin released from pancreas (beta cells)/Islets of Langerhans
• causes conversion of glucose to glycogen in liver and muscle
• if blood glucose decreases: GH released
• (from anterior pituitary gland)
• causes conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver/muscle
43. Describe the mechanism by which glucose and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels.
44. Explain how the hyperglycaemic effects of GH may enhance growth. Commented [sr87]: a condition in which an excessive
High blood glucose  increased rate of respiration (as glucose is a primary substrate for respiration)  more amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma
ATP in cells and muscles  increased rate of mitosis  more rapid growth
Page 18
Gene doping
31. In the future, this could potentially become a new possibility for abuse as a performance enhancer
in sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency describes gene doping as ‘the non-therapeutic use of cells, Commented [sr88]: not for therapy or treatment
genes, genetic elements, or of the modulation of gene expression, having the capacity to improve Commented [sr89]: variety
athletic performance’. The potential for gene doping would be to inject ‘normal’ genes into the
body to increase the functioning of a ‘normal’ cell. For example, genes producing insulin growth
factor 1 to help muscles grow and repair.
45. Describe how gene doping for insulin growth factor 1 could be carried out on human athletes. (4)
isolate the human insulin growth factor 1 gene/DNA  using restriction enzymes/endonucleases  use a
vector/virus/injection  introduce DNA into athlete’s cells/body  proteins produced to enhance muscle
growth
46. Explain how ‘the non-therapeutic use of cells, genes, genetic elements, or of the modulation of gene
expression, having the capacity to improve athletic performance’.
• non-therapeutic use of cells: blood doping increases number of red blood cells  more oxygen carried by
blood  less fatigue  better performance
• genes: specific gene introduced into cells  specific protein produced (example insulin growth
factor 1)  more muscle growth and repair  better performance
• genetic elements: introduction of mRNA  specific protein produced (example insulin growth factor
1 / haemoglobin)  more muscle growth and repair / more red blood cells  better performance
• modulation of gene expression: hormones injected  specific genes switched on  specific protein
produced (example insulin growth factor 1 / haemoglobin)  more muscle growth and repair / more
red blood cells  better performance
Denying the charges

32. Sometimes when an athlete is found to have taken a banned substance, he or she admits to the
fault but very often they deny ever knowingly having taken a banned substance. Cynics are unsurprised Commented [srr90]: doubters
but often the athletes seem very genuine.
33. Elite athletes are not ‘normal’ people and so reference ranges for physiological substances need to
be determined on their peers. A cyclist who may be burning 9,000 calories a day during competition
is not a normal subject. Sprinters tend to be very muscular and have a low body fat content. Fat
is important in the metabolism of steroid hormones. The people who set such standards are
sufficiently well versed in sports medicine and exercise physiology that they set their standards by
the normal for the group that they examine. Nevertheless, if they say that their reference range will
include 99% of all those active athletes who are not taking banned substances, then 1 in 100 will
fall outside that range.
47. A cyclist who may be burning 9,000 calories a day during competition is not a normal subject. Sprinters tend
to be very muscular and have a low body fat content. Explain the link between energy consumption and BMI.
If energy consumed > energy used = overweight or obese (BMI greater than 25 0r 30 respectively)
If energy consumed < energy used = underweight (BMI less than 20)
If energy consumed = energy used, weight is constant
48. Explain the link between muscle mass and BMR.

BMR is the energy consumed when at complete rest  more muscle mass increases BMR as muscle cells use ATP
rapidly for relaxation.
49. Describe the structure of muscle cells.

The functional unit of contraction in a muscle is the sarcomere. Muscle cells contain many sarcomeres arranged in
parallel. The muscle cell takes on a characteristic banded appearance because of the regular arrangement of the
sarcomeres. This is called striation.
Page 19
Fig. 1.1 A sarcomere: Note the striated appearance of the muscle
The sarcomere contains overlapping actin and myosin. The myosin is often called the thick filament because the
myosin heads make it appear thick. The actin is, therefore, the thin filament.
Z line: a disc to which actin filaments are
attached. The sarcomere extends from one
Z disc to the next.
H Band: Region of sarcomere with myosin
only; no actin present.
I Band: Region of sarcomere with actin
only; no myosin present.
A Band: Represents the length of myosin
filaments. May or may not overlap with
actin.
When a sarcomere contracts the H band
and I band shrink, but the A band remains
unchanged. The actin slides over the
myosin towards the H zone. This pulls the Z
Fig. 1.2 – Sarcomere contracting discs closer to each other and the
sarcomere contracts, as shown in fig. 1.2.
The sarcomeres are arranged in a chain to form a myofibril. The myofibrils are bundled together and surrounded
by a sarcolemma (muscle cell membrane) to form a muscle fibre or muscle cell. The muscle fibre contains
sarcoplasm (muscle cytoplasm), nuclei, sarcoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria.
Fig. 1.3 – Structure of muscle
Page 20
50. ‘The people who set such standards are sufficiently well versed in sports medicine and exercise physiology
that they set their standards by the normal for the group that they examine’. State the parameters of exercise
physiology that would differ from normal individuals.
• Tidal volume, breathing rate, Minute ventilation rate increases significantly during performance when
compared to normal individuals.
• Stroke volume, heartbeat rate, cardiac output increases significantly during performance when
compared to normal individuals.
• Red blood cell count is higher.
• BMR is higher due to more muscle tissue.
51. Explain the following statement ‘Nevertheless, if they say that their reference range will include 99% of all
those active athletes who are not taking banned substances, then 1 in 100 will fall outside that range’.
There may be one in a hundred athletes who is a super-athlete. Most likely due to a genetic factor and influence
from the environment.
34. Most top athletes use dietary supplements and the contents of these may not be as vigorously
controlled as may be hoped. Contaminants that have been identified include a variety of anabolic
androgenic steroids including testosterone and nandrolone as well as the pro-hormones of these Commented [sr91]: pro hormones have also been
compounds, ephedrine and caffeine. This contamination may be the result of poor manufacturing used by bodybuilders, athletes, and nonmedical users
of anabolic steroids and other hormones to refer to
practice but there is some evidence of deliberate adulteration of products. The principle of strict substances that are expected to convert to active
liability that applies in sport means that innocent ingestion of prohibited substances is not an hormones in the body.
acceptable excuse and athletes testing positive are liable to penalties. Although it is undoubtedly Commented [sr92]: a bitter alkaloid C8H10N4O2 found
the case that some athletes are guilty of deliberate cheating, some positive tests are likely to be the especially in coffee, tea, cacao, and kola nuts and used
medicinally as a stimulant and diuretic
result of inadvertent ingestion of prohibited substances present in otherwise innocuous dietary
supplements. Commented [sr93]: unintentional
Commented [sr94]: harmless
52. This contamination may be the result of poor manufacturing practice but there is some evidence of
deliberate adulteration of products. Suggest one reason for deliberate adulteration of products.
The manufacturers may add banned substances to make financial gains in the short term and benefit over
competitors. There may also be influence from the coach or sponsors.
Ethical considerations
35. The position of the GMC with regard to a doctor aiding and abetting drug abuse in sport is clear. Commented [srr95]: assisting
However, a doctor may be faced with a patient who admits to using anabolic steroids. He or she
does not enter competitions and so is not tested. The patient wants the doctor to monitor their liver
function as an early warning of any damage. What is the position? The patient will continue to take
the steroids whether the doctor co-operates or not. Would it be reasonable to warn the patient of
the dangers and to check liver function and lipids? This would not be endorsing the patient’s action
any more than a needle exchange encourages intravenous drug abuse. He or she may also benefit
from the needle exchange. Is it a damage limitation exercise that can be justified?
53. Suggest the benefits of ‘needle exchange’ to intravenous drug users.

Prevents the transmission of HIV.
54. Draw the structure of a triglyceride (lipid) below.
Page 21
Getting drugs out of sport
36. There is a constant battle between those seeking new techniques to detect illicit use of performance
enhancing substances and those who wish to circumvent the rules. Testing is vigorous and can be Commented [srr96]: evade
unannounced and the penalties for being discovered are severe. Nevertheless, there are and always
will be those who attempt to use illicit ways of enhancing performance to get the necessary slight
edge that is required to win. From time to time illegal substances are discovered. In British sport
this should not be seen as evidence of widespread abuse of drugs but evidence that a vigorous and
effective system of monitoring is in place.
55. Summarise paragraph 36.
Prevention is better than cure. Monitoring for drugs users helps to deter usage.
37. Some would argue that the only way to get a ‘level playing field’ is to lift all bans on drugs and let
us push human endurance to the limit. Records have tumbled with new technologies going back Commented [srr97]: stamina and durability
to spikes and starting blocks and including modern running shoes and fibreglass poles for vaulting.
Should we encourage the same with pharmacological technology? This is a false argument, as the Commented [srr98]: the science of drugs including their
banned substances are not without significant risk. It cannot even be argued that the athlete is free origin, composition, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic use, and
toxicology.
to make his or her own choice because if the opposition use drugs to gain advantage, he or she will
have to do the same to be able to compete.
56. Describe the 3 phase drug trials.
Three-phased testing
New drugs are now tested extensively before marketing – it can take over 10 years for some drugs.
The following table summarises the process of drug testing in the UK. This process is different in other countries.
Stage Purpose of stage
Pre-clinical 1. Proposed drug is tested in a lab with cultured cells to see the general effects of the
testing drug
2. Proposed drug is given to animals to see the effects on a whole animal. Any side
effects away from target cells are noted.
Clinical Trials 1. A small group of healthy volunteers are given different doses of the drug. They are
Phase 1 told what the drug does
2. The distribution, absorbance rate, metabolism & excretion profile of the drug are
assessed.
3. The effects of the different doses are assessed to try and determine the optimum
dose
4. An independent organisation (UK Medicines Control Agency) assesses whether it is
appropriate to move to Phase 2
Clinical Trials 1. A small group of people with the disease are given the drug.
Phase 2 2. Studies are very similar to Phase 1
3. The optimum dose is worked out
Clinical Trials 1. A large group of people with the disease are given optimum doses of the drug
Phase 3 2. The patients are either given the drug or a placebo in a double-blind test
3. The results are analysed
4. If the drug has had a significant positive effect in the treatment of the disease it is
put forward to licensing authority
38. The 2012 London Olympics acted as a stimulus for UKAD, the UK anti-doping organisation affiliated
to WADA, to strengthen its anti-doping initiatives. These were brought together under the umbrella Commented [srr99]: resources
of its ‘Win Clean: Say No To Doping’ campaign.
World Anti-Doping Agency

39. WADA was founded with the belief that ‘athletes have a fundamental right to participate in doping
free sport and that doping endangers athlete health and the integrity of sport’. It serves as the
independent international body responsible for co-ordinating and monitoring the global fight
against doping in sport.
Page 22
A personal view on drugs prior to the Beijing Olympics by Michael Le Page
40. The Finnish cross-country skier Eero Mäntyranta won two gold medals in the 1964 Olympics and
accumulated an impressive tally of medals during his career. Later it turned out that he has a
mutation in a gene called EPOR that means he produces up to 50 per cent more red blood cells than
normal.
57. A mutation in the EPOR gene is thought to cause increased cell division in the blood cells that will
differentiate to form red blood cells. Describe the sequence of events that occurs when cells divide in this
manner.
DNA is replicated  DNA condenses around histones  chromosomes become visible  nuclear envelope and
nucleolus disappear  centrioles divide and migrate to opposite poles of the cell  spindle fibres are produced
and attach chromosomes to centrioles  chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell  sister chromatids
are pulled apart (as microtubules shorten)  nuclear envelope reforms  chromosomes decondense 
identical daughter cells form after cytokinesis
The undifferentiated daughter cells then undergo differential gene expression to form red blood cells. The
mutant EPOR gene speeds up the entire process.
41. The east African runners who dominate distance events have also been shown to have at least one
genetic advantage: their lower legs are thinner and weigh on average 400 grams less than those
of Danish athletes, which translates into a massive 8 per cent energy saving. Other people have
distinct genetic disadvantages. For instance, 1 in 5 Europeans cannot produce the alpha-actinin-3
protein found in fast-twitch muscle fibres. Very few people with this genotype excel at power Commented [sr100]: Alpha-actinin is an actin-binding
sports such as sprinting. protein with multiple roles in different cell types. This
gene expression is limited to skeletal muscle. It is
localized to the Z-disc and analogous dense bodies,
58. Distinguish between fast twitch and slow twitch fibres. where it helps to anchor the myofibrillar actin filaments.
Slow twitch and fast twitch fibres Commented [srr101]: all or part of the genetic
Muscle fibres that are adapted to undergo very rapid and powerful contractions are called as fast twitch fibres, constitution of an individual or group
where as fibres which are adapted to undergo slow and weak contractions are called as slow tiwtch fibres.
The structural and physiological differences between the two types of fibres are discussed in the table that follows.
Feature Slow twitch fibres or Type I Fast twitch fibres or Type II
(Slow Oxidative) (Glycolytic fibres)
Diameter Have a narrow diameter, as they have Thick fibres. Many myofibrils to generate
few myofibrils per fibre. maximum force.
Force Low force, Weak contractions. High Force, Strong contractions.

generated
Speed of Contracts slowly. Contracts rapidly.

contraction
Slow twitch fibres are adapted to respire Fast twitch fibres need a rapid supply of ATP. The
aerobically. This ensures that there is a aerobic pathway is too long and involves too many
continuous steady supply of ATP and reactions to produce ATP. On the other hand,
Type of lactic acid formation is minimal. anaerobic respiration produces ATP during
respiration glycolysis only, which is a much shorter pathway
and can supply ATP rapidly.
Resistance to Very resistant to fatigue (tiredness), as Low resistance to fatigue. They tire or cramp up
fatigue they do not produce lactic acid easily. easily due to lactic acid formation. The lactic acid
reduces the pH within the muscle cells and inhibits
respiratory enzymes. This results in complete lack
of ATP leading to muscle cramps.
Myoglobin Myoglobin is a dark red respiratory Fast twitch fibres are referred to as white muscle
content pigment which stores oxygen in the and is light pink in colour. It has very little
muscles. It is made up of a single myoglobin and is adapted for anaerobic
polypeptide chain associated with one respiration.
Page 23
Haem (iron containing) group. It has a
very high affinity for oxygen. It can store If myoglobin was present in abundance, then the
oxygen in the form of oxy-myoglobin. muscle will continue aerobic respiration and the
When oxygen concentration in muscles rate of ATP production would be too slow to
starts to decrease, myoglobin releases support rapid contraction.
the oxygen for the muscle to continue
aerobic respiration. Slow twitch fibres Note: the anaerobic respiration pathway is very
are referred to as red muscle as it short when compared to the aerobic pathway. This
contains lots of myoglobin. enables ATP to be produced very rapidly for muscle
contraction.
Mitochondria Have many mitochondria, which Have few mitochondria as muscles undergo
facilitate aerobic respiration. anaerobic respiration, which occurs in the
cytoplasm.
Sarcoplasmic Few sarcoplasmic reticulum, which store Have lots of sarcoplasmic reticulum, which release
reticulum and release Ca2+ ions for muscle plenty of Ca2+ ions for frequent muscle contraction.
contraction.
Glycogen Have low glycogen content, as glucose is Have Lots of glycogen, which is converted into
concentration supplied continuously by numerous glucose and used instantly for respiration. Note:
capillaries. Conversion of glycogen to glucose, in the liver, and
subsequent transfer to the muscles would be too
slow to meet the rapid demand for glucose during
anaerobic respiration.
Blood Have numerous capillaries, which Have few capillaries, which result in reduced
capillaries provide a continuous supply of oxygen oxygen supply and anaerobic respiration. The
and glucose for aerobic respiration. pathway for anaerobic respiration is very short
(Glycolysis only) and generates ATP rapidly.
Creatine Creatine phosphate is found in low Have a high concentration of creatine phosphate
phosphate concentration as these fibres undergo which reacts with ADP in a single step to form ATP
aerobic respiration. rapidly for muscle contraction.
ATPase ATPase activity is slow. ATPase ATPase activity is fast. Helps myosin to re-cock
activity hydrolyses ATP and helps the myosin rapidly and bring about another round of
head to re-cock rapidly. contraction rapidly.
42. So much for fairness in sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency says its aim is ‘‘to protect the athletes’
fundamental right to participate in doping-free sport and thus promote health, fairness, and
equality for athletes worldwide’’. Such notions are a quaint hangover from the amateur age. Sports Commented [sr102]: old fashioned
are inherently unfair. Genes alone do not make you a winner, of course, but some people’s genes Commented [sr103]: naturally
give them a massive advantage with which others struggle to compete no matter how young they
start or how hard they train.
59. Explain what is meant by a gene (cistron).

A gene is a sequence of bases on DNA which codes for a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
43. There is a way to level the playing field: allow athletes to make up for their natural disadvantages
by taking performance-enhancing drugs. There is not yet a ‘‘foot growth potion’’ for the rivals of Commented [srr104]: liquid medicine
Australian swimmer Ian Thorpe, who has size-17 feet, but an estimated 1 million Americans have
already taken human growth hormone, which in the US can now be prescribed for children with
‘‘idiopathic short stature’’ --- effectively anyone who is very short. No one knows how many average Commented [srr105]: arising spontaneously or from an
sized people have used growth hormone to help them make the national basketball team, but obscure or unknown cause
would it really be fair to exclude such people as cheats when, for example, players such as Pavel
Podkolzin or Sun Ming Ming owe their great height to pituitary tumours that resulted in an excess
of growth hormone?
Page 24
60. Explain what is meant by a tumour.
Tumours are formed due to uncontrolled mitosis. The cell cycle speeds up due to mutations in the tumour
suppressor genes.
44. Or take the mutation that boosted Mäntyranta’s red blood cell count. All athletes know that there
are ways of equalling or surpassing his natural advantage: take the hormone EPO, indulge in blood
doping (injecting extra red blood cells), train at high altitude or sleep in a low-oxygen tent. Only
the last two are allowed, of course, but the effect is the same. So the consequence of the ban on
EPO and blood doping is to give an unfair advantage to athletes who can afford to train at altitude
or invest in an altitude chamber --- or on cunning doctors who can help them beat drug tests.
61. Explain what is meant by a mutation. Suggest how mutations can give athletes an advantage.
A mutation is a heritable change in the DNA of a cell. Gene or point mutations result from a change in the base
sequence within a gene, usually during DNA replication. The mutant gene will produce a specific protein which
either makes muscles grow stronger or produce more red blood cells.
45. If we were really serious about making sport fair, we would try to ensure some sort of equality in
the resources athletes have access to. And when genetics becomes advanced enough, we would
introduce different divisions or some kind of handicapping system based on people’s inherited
advantages or disadvantages. After all, people who lack a Y chromosome already compete separately
from those who have one. Will it happen? Unlikely.
62. Describe the role that the Human genome project may play ‘to introduce different divisions or some kind of
handicapping system based on people’s inherited advantages or disadvantages’.
The human genome project has mapped the different alleles in the human genome and the sequence of bases in
each gene. This knowledge could be used to classify people according to their genome.
46. There is one decent argument against performance-enhancing drugs: safety. Many drugs taken
by cheating athletes are dangerous, and allowing their use would force all athletes to take them to
have any chance of winning. But the rules as they stand are clearly not designed with the safety
of athletes in mind. A good example of this is the lack of any safety limit on the concentration of
red blood cells, which beyond a certain level considerably increases the risk of heart attacks and
strokes. Dehydration resulting from exercise makes matters even worse. Yet doping authorities
allow athletes to compete no matter how high their blood cell concentration, as long as it is not due
to doping. So it is fine for athletes to risk death, just as long as it is a natural death.
63. Suggest why the concentration of Red blood cells ‘beyond a certain level considerably increases the risk of
heart attacks and strokes‘.
The blood gets thicker  The heart has to exert a greater force to pump the blood into the arteries  The heart
may overwork itself and increase the risk of myocardial infarction.
The blood gets thicker  The risk of thrombosis is higher  clots may block the coronary arteries or cerebral
arteries  increase in the risk of myocardial infarction or stroke.
47. If these arguments do not convince you that we need to rethink the ban on drugs in sport, there
is a more pragmatic one: the existing regime is not working. Clearly, many top athletes still resort Commented [sr106]: practical
to drugs. And the situation is only going to get worse. In the not too distant future, gene therapy Commented [sr107]: syatem
could be used to boost the strength of muscles. The only way to detect such modifications may be
Commented [sr108]: opt
to remove and test a piece of muscle. Are we really going to inflict that on athletes?
Page 25
64. Describe how it would be possible to use gene therapy to introduce an desirable allele of a gene for a muscle
protein into one of the muscle cell.
Obtain DNA sequence for the ‘desirable’ allele. Either cut it out from normal DNA, or, Synthesise it from normal
mRNA
Insert the ‘desirable’ allele into a vector – liposome or virus.
Vector carries ‘desirable allele’ into target cell. ‘Desirable allele’ should be incorporated into the non-coding
regions (‘Junk’) of host DNA, to avoid disruption of other genes.
‘Desirable allele’ expresses itself and produces a functional protein in the cell. The protein promotes muscle
growth and hence athletic performance.
65 Describe how the muscle proteins work together to achieve contraction of the muscle.
• calcium ions bind to troponin
• bind causes troponin to change shape
• change in shape cause it to pull tropomyosin away from myosin-binding sites on actin fibres
• myosin (heads) bind to actin/(actomyosin) cross-bridge formed
• ADP and Pi are released from myosin head
• myosin head changes position, pulling past the actin fibre
• ATP binds myosin and allows release from actin fibre
• ATP hydrolysed by myosin ATPase, producing ADP and Pi
• returns myosin head to its original position
48. There is another way: allow the use of drugs, and have sports authorities focus on testing the health
of athletes rather than their use of drugs. This is the suggestion of ethicists Julian Savulescu at the
University of Oxford and Bennett Foddy at the University of Melbourne, Australia. They argue that
any drugs that are safe should be permitted, whatever their effect on performance. Authorities
would set a safe level for, say, red blood cell concentration, and anyone exceeding it would not be
allowed to compete, whether their result was due to doping, altitude training or genetics.
49. Savulescu says he would prefer it if there were no drugs in sport. But the drugs are out there and
they are not going to go away. So let’s adopt the policy that is best for athletes and best for sport.
We cannot live in fantasy land. Savulescu thinks doping authorities will have to adopt his idea
sooner or later. Sooner would be better.
50. Consider the list of banned substances at the heart of the new world rules. It includes some 50 Commented [sr109]: a drug that people take to help
stimulants, nearly 40 anabolic steroids, 20 beta-blockers, 14 diuretics and eight narcotics. Some, them stop taking heroin
especially the steroids, certainly are performance enhancers, but many substances on the list are Commented [sr110]: Once heroin enters the brain,
there purely on suspicion of offering unfair athletic benefits. Others, including methadone and it is converted to morphine and binds rapidly to
heroin, would do just the opposite, while some substances that almost certainly can enhance opioid receptors.
performance, such as creatine monohydrate, are not listed at all. To get on the list a substance Commented [sr111]: Creatine monohydrate absorbs
has to satisfy two out of the following three criteria: taking it is harmful; it enhances performance; water from your blood stream into your muscle cells.
or it is ‘‘against the spirit of sport’’. Tobacco escapes the banned list because, though harmful, it is Commented [sr112]: decent or just
deemed to be neither a performance enhancer nor against the spirit of sport --- it gets just a single Commented [sr113]: beliefs
strike. Methadone, by contrast, is deemed to be both harmful and, unlike nicotine, against the spirit Commented [sr114]: ethical code
of sport.
Commented [sr115]: a white crystalline nitrogenous
substance C4H9N3O2 found especially in the muscles of
51. You can see the problem. ‘‘Spirit of sport’’ is not something that can be objectively measured. It is vertebrates either free or as phosphocreatine
a slippery set of moral presumptions and values. There is only one reason athletes consume lots of Commented [sr116]: improve
creatine or, if they are rich enough, train at high altitude: to enhance performance. But are these
Commented [sr117]: a glycoprotein hormone that
activities against the spirit of sport? Apparently not. Moreover, while supplements of the banned controls erythropoiesis, or red blood cell production.
substance erythropoietin (EPO) are deemed a no-no, sleeping in a decompression chamber to
Commented [sr118]: a sealed compartment that is
boost levels of the body’s own EPO is apparently fair and sporting. pressurized to mimic different levels of atmospheric
pressure
Page 26
66. Fast twitch fibres contain high concentration of creatine phosphate. Explain the advantage of consuming
creatine as a dietary supplement.
Creatine is used to form creatine phosphate in muscle cells. Creatine phosphate reacts with ADP in a single step to
form ATP rapidly for muscle contraction.
This prevents the muscle from cramping, as a rapidly supply of ATP is facilitated.
52. Such arbitrariness would be more forgivable if it were clear this style of prohibition worked. But to Commented [sr119]: unpredictability or chance
date it may simply have conditioned athletes and their coaches to use drugs in more sophisticated Commented [sr120]: complex or refined
ways. While urine tests can pick up traces of common minor stimulants, many comparatively
potent and risky substances on the WADA banned list cannot yet be tested for. Insulin, growth Commented [sr121]: effective
hormone, and insulin-like growth factor would all escape detection. Until this changes, anti-doping Commented [sr122]:
measures will remain better at catching athletes who have inadvertently taken the wrong sort of
Commented [sr123]: a protein pancreatic hormone
decongestant than at catching the serious cheats. secreted by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans
that is essential especially for the metabolism of
67. Insulin, growth hormone, and insulin-like growth factor are all polypeptide hormones. Suggest why these are carbohydrates and the regulation of glucose levels in
the blood and that when insufficiently produced results
not detectable in urine. in diabetes mellitus
Polypeptides are too large to pass out of the capillaries in the kidney and remain in the blood. Urine of a healthy
Commented [sr124]: a vertebrate polypeptide hormone
person will not contain proteins or polypeptides. that is secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland and regulates growth; a recombinant version of
References and Acknowledgements this hormone —called also somatotropin
http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/drugs-and-sport Commented [sr125]: either of two polypeptides

structurally similar to insulin that are secreted either
www.newscientist.com during fetal development or during childhood and that
The scientific article you have studied is adapted from articles in the New Scientist and the Patient.co.uk mediate growth hormone activity
website. Commented [sr126]: unintentionally
Commented [sr127]:
Author of A Level biology text books and practical workbooks, global academic consultant.
Commented [sr128]: a protein pancreatic hormone
Books available at http://staffordeducationalservices.com/book-categories/a-level/
Consultancy at https://www.facebook.com/groups/biologywithstafford/
secreted by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans
Etuition at http://staffordeducationalservices.com/etuition/ that is essential especially for the metabolism of
carbohydrates and the regulation of glucose levels in
the blood and that when insufficientlyproduced results in
diabetes mellitus
Wish all students the very best in your exams and in life thereafter.
Commented [sr129]: a vertebrate polypeptide hormone
Dr. Stafford Valentine Redden that is secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland and regulates growth; a recombinant version of
this hormone —called also somatotropin
Commented [sr130]: either of two polypeptides
structurally similar to insulin that are secreted either
during fetal development or during childhood and that
mediate growth hormone activity

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Scientific Article Notes, Question and Answers, June 2015 Unit 5, by Dr. Stafford Valentine Redden (B.Sc. (Hons.) B.Ed. M.Sc. M.Ed. M.A. PH.D)

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Scientific Article Notes, Question and answers, June 2015 Unit 5,

Many drugs have harmful side-effects. These drugs are

e. Calcium Channel Blocking Agents They are prescribed to Calcium-channel

10. Suggest why the numbing of pain could aggravate an injury.

15. State the functions of tendons and ligaments.

19. Name the 4 ligaments in the knee joint.

21. Suggest two advantages of using probenecid.

24. Explain how having a cold could reduce athletic performance.

Commented [sr50]: Autologous blood transfusion is the

RNA Polymerase + Transcription factors = Transcription Initiation Complex

In eukaryotes, a number of proteins, called

Transcription factors and RNA polymerase bind

Primary structure of a protein

Secondary structure of a protein

Fig. 14.3 - alpha(α) helix

Fig. 14.4 – beta (β) pleated sheet

Hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions

39. Describe the process of transcription and translation.

Transcription - making mRNA from DNA

Translation – decoding genetic information to form a polypeptide

40. Describe how peptide hormones act on target cells (6)

Fig. 7.1 – A peptide hormone

Denying the charges

48. Explain the link between muscle mass and BMR.

49. Describe the structure of muscle cells.

Fig. 1.1 A sarcomere: Note the striated appearance of the muscle

Fig. 1.3 – Structure of muscle

53. Suggest the benefits of ‘needle exchange’ to intravenous drug users.

54. Draw the structure of a triglyceride (lipid) below.

World Anti-Doping Agency

Force Low force, Weak contractions. High Force, Strong contractions.

Speed of Contracts slowly. Contracts rapidly.

59. Explain what is meant by a gene (cistron).

Insert the ‘desirable’ allele into a vector – liposome or virus.

http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/drugs-and-sport Commented [sr125]: either of two polypeptides

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