BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 17 HYDRAULICS

Engr. Hebe M. Cuenco-Uy, MECE

College of Engineering
2 | Hydraulics

Learning Packet 2
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES
 2 | Hydraulics 12

UNIT 2: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES

2.0 Intended Learning Outcome

Identify the principles of total hydrostatic pressure, Archimedes and the stability of floating
bodies.

2.1 Introduction

Introduction to concepts related to pressures throughout a fluid at rest and the pressure
forces on finite surfaces. First, we describe the principles of total hydrostatic pressure. Next,
calculate pressure forces and center of pressure on a surface immersed in a liquid. Then,
discuss Archimedes’ principle of Buoyancy. Finally, determine if floating objects are stable
or unstable.

PRE – ASSESSMENT
Answer the following in your own perspective:

1. Describe Hydrostatic Pressure.

2. Identify the various forces acting on a submerged body.
3. Define Buoyant Force.
4. Explain what makes a floating object stable.

Evaluation Criteria:
Quality/Craftmanship 40%
Creativity/Originality 30%
Effort/Perseverance 20%
Timeliness 10%
Total 100%

2.2 Topics/Discussion

The air around us at sea level presses down on us at ~14.7 pounds per square inch. We do
not feel this pressure since the fluids in our body are pushing outward with the same force.
But if you swim down into the ocean just a few feet and you will start to notice a change.
You will start to feel an increase of pressure on your eardrums. This is because of an increase
in hydrostatic pressure which is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid on an object. The
 2 | Hydraulics 13

deeper you go under the sea, the greater the pressure pushing on you will be. For every 33
feet (10.06 meters) you go down, the pressure increases by 14.5 psi (1 bar).

2.2.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point
within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic pressure increases in proportion to
depth measured from the surface because of the increasing weight of fluid exerting
downward force from above.

If a fluid is within a container then the depth of an object placed in that fluid can be measured.
The deeper the object is placed in the fluid, the more pressure it experiences. This is because
the weight of the fluid is above it. The denser the fluid above it, the more pressure is exerted
on the object that is submerged, due to the weight of the fluid.

Hydrostatic pressure in a liquid can be calculated as:

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ Eq. 2.01

where,
𝑝 = pressure in liquid (𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝑃𝑎, 𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑓𝑡 2 , 𝑝𝑠𝑓)
𝜌 = density of liquid (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡 3 )
𝑔 = acceleration of gravity (9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 , 32.17405 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 )
ℎ = height of fluid column or depth in the fluid where pressure is measured (𝑚, 𝑓𝑡)

The pressure due to the liquid alone (i.e. the gauge pressure) at a given depth depends only
upon the density of the liquid, the acceleration of gravity and the distance below the surface
of the liquid.

If the container is open to the atmosphere above, the added atmospheric pressure must be
added if one is to find the total pressure on an object. The pressure at a given depth in a static
liquid is a result the weight of the liquid acting on a unit area at that depth plus any pressure
acting on the surface of the liquid.

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 Eq. 2.02a

𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 Eq. 2.02b
𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ Eq. 2.02c

When pressure is less than atmospheric, the pressure can be described using vacuum
pressure. Vacuum pressure is defined as the difference between atmospheric pressure and
actual pressure. Vacuum pressure is a positive number and equals the absolute value of gage
pressure (which will be negative). For example, if a gage connected to a tank indicates a
vacuum pressure of 31.0 kPa, this can also be stated as 70.0 kPa absolute, or –31.0 kPa gage.

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑝𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 Eq. 2.02d

𝑝𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 = −𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 Eq. 2.02e
 2 | Hydraulics 14

Figure 2.1
Example of Pressure Relations

Pascal’s Law:
At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all directions.
This means it is independent of the orientation of the surface around the point.

Consider two points 1 and 2 lie in the ends of fluid prism having a cross-sectional area dA and
length L. The difference in elevation between these two points is ℎ as shown in Figure 2.2
below. The fluid is at rest and its surface is free. The prism is therefore in equilibrium and
all forces acting on it sums up to zero.

Figure 2.2
Forces acting on a prism of fluid at rest

Note: FFS stands for Free Fluid Surface which refers to fluid surface subject to zero-gauge pressure.
 2 | Hydraulics 15

The volume of the prism is equal to the length times the base area of the fluid.
𝑉 = 𝐿 𝑑𝐴

The weight of the fluid prism shown is equal to the product of the unit weight and volume.
𝑊=𝛾𝑉
𝑊 = 𝛾 𝐿 𝑑𝐴

Sum up all the forces in x-direction

𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐹2 = 𝐹1 + 𝑊𝑥
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃
𝑝2 𝑑𝐴 − 𝑝1 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾 𝐿 𝑑𝐴 sin 𝜃
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾 𝐿 sin 𝜃

But 𝐿 sin 𝜃 = ℎ, thus

𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾 ℎ Eq. 2.03a

Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the difference in pressure between any two
points is equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid and the difference in elevation
of the points.

If h = 0 so that points 1 and 2 are on the same horizontal plane, p2 − p1 = 0 or

p1 = p2 Eq. 2.03b

Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressures at all points along the same
horizontal plane are equal.

If point 1 lie on the FFS, the gauge pressure p1 = 0, making p2 − 0 = γh or simply

𝑝=𝛾ℎ Eq. 2.03c

This means that the pressure at any depth ℎ below a continuous free fluid surface at rest is
equal to the product of the unit weight of fluid and the depth h.

Transmission of Pressure

We can write the equation 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾 ℎ into the form

𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝛾 ℎ Eq. 2.03d

which means that any change in the pressure at point 1 would cause an equal change of
pressure at point 2. In other words, a pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is
transmitted equally and undiminished to every other point in the liquid.
 2 | Hydraulics 16

Pressure Head
The equation 𝑝 = 𝛾 ℎ may be written into the form

𝑝
ℎ= Eq. 2.03e
𝛾

where h or its equivalent p/γ is in hydraulics called the pressure head. Pressure head is the
height of column of homogeneous fluid of unit weight γ that will produce an intensity of
pressure p.

To convert pressure head of liquid A to equivalent pressure head of liquid B:

𝑠𝐴 𝜌𝐴 𝛾𝐴
ℎ𝐵 = ℎ𝐴 = ℎ𝐴 = ℎ𝐴 Eq. 2.04a
𝑠𝐵 𝜌𝐵 𝛾𝐵

To convert pressure head of any liquid to equivalent pressure head of water:

ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 ℎ𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 Eq. 2.04b

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.1 How to compute Pressure in Pascal.

Solution
ℎ = 10𝑚 of water, 𝛾 = 9.81 𝐾𝑁/𝑚3
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ = 9.81 (10) = 98.1 𝐾𝑁/𝑚3 = 9.81 𝐾𝑃𝑎

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.2 How to compute the pressure head of oil.

Solution
𝑝 = 88.1 𝐾𝑃𝑎 of oil having a relative density of 0.80
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
88100 = 9810 ℎ (0.80)
ℎ = 11.23 𝑚 of oil
 2 | Hydraulics 17

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.3 From the figure shown, the piston and the weight 𝑊 are at
the same elevation. The face of the piston has an area of 13 𝑐𝑚2 while that of the weight
is 130 𝑐𝑚2 . The intervening passages are filled with oil having specific gravity of 0.80.
What weight can be supported by a force of 𝑃 = 45 𝑘𝑔 applied at the end of the lever
shown.

Figure 2.3
Solution

𝑝1 𝐴1 = 4000
4000
𝑝1 = = 6.67 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2
600

𝑝2 = 𝑝1 − 𝛾 ℎ
(1)(2)(100)(0.8)
𝑝2 = 6.67 − = 6.51 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2
1000

𝐹2 = 𝑝2 𝐴2 = 6.51(100) = 6.51 𝑘𝑔

∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 0
𝐹 (0.60) = 𝑃 (1.80)
651(0.60) = 𝑃(1.80)
𝑃 = 217 𝑘𝑔
𝑃 = 217 (9.81)
𝑃 = 2128.77 𝑁

2.2.2 Total Hydrostatic Pressure or Force on Surfaces

In developing the equation of hydrostatic pressure distribution, it was emphasized that

pressure forces were assumed to be perpendicular to the imaginary surfaces of the column
of liquid. However, this, taken to its logical conclusion, must mean that at any point in the
fluid the pressure acts equally in all directions.

2.2.2.1 Total Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces

For horizontal plane surface submerged in liquid, or plane surface inside a gas chamber, or
any plane surface under the action of uniform hydrostatic pressure, the total hydrostatic force
is given by

𝐹 =𝑝𝐴 Eq. 2.05a

 2 | Hydraulics 18

where p is the uniform pressure and A is the area.

In general, the total hydrostatic pressure on any plane surface is equal to the product of the
area of the surface and the unit pressure at its center of gravity.

𝐹 = 𝑝𝑐𝑔 𝐴 Eq. 2.05b

where pcg is the pressure at the center of gravity. For homogeneous free liquid at rest, the
equation can be expressed in terms of unit weight γ of the liquid.

𝐹 = 𝛾 ℎ̅ 𝐴 Eq. 2.05c

where ℎ̅ is the depth of liquid above the centroid of the submerged area.

Location of Total Hydrostatic Force (Eccentricity):

From Figure 2.4, S is the intersection of the prolongation of the submerged area to the free
liquid surface. Taking moment about point S.

∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑠 = moment of inertia of the plane with respect to the water surface.

𝑆𝑠 = 𝐴𝑦̅ = statistical moment with respect to the water surface. Eq. 2.06a

Figure 2.4
Forces on an inclined plane surface

𝐼𝑠
𝑦𝑝 = Eq. 2.06b
𝑆𝑠

𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦̅ + 𝑒 Eq. 2.06c

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑔 + 𝑦̅ 2 Eq. 2.06d

where 𝐼𝑔 = moment of inertia with respect to

center of gravity

𝐼𝑔
𝑒= Eq. 2.06e
𝑆𝑠

where 𝑒 is the eccentricity or the distance between the centroid and center of gravity.
 2 | Hydraulics 19

Figure 2.5
Centroids and Moments of Inertia of Plane Areas

2.2.2.2 Total Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces

In the case of curved surface submerged in liquid at rest, it is more convenient to deal with
the horizontal and vertical components of the total force acting on the surface.

Horizontal Component: The horizontal component of the total hydrostatic force on any
surface is equal to the pressure on the vertical projection of that
surface.

𝐹𝐻 = 𝑝𝑐𝑔 𝐴 Eq. 2.07a

Vertical Component: The vertical component of the total hydrostatic force on any
surface is equal to the weight of either real or imaginary liquid
above it.

𝐹𝑉 = 𝛾𝑉 Eq. 2.07b

Total Hydrostatic Force: 𝐹 = √𝐹𝐻 2 + 𝐹𝑉 2 Eq. 2.07c

𝐹
Direction of Force, 𝐹: tan 𝜃𝑥 = 𝐹𝑉 Eq. 2.07d
𝐻
 2 | Hydraulics 20

Case 1: Liquid is above the curve surface

The vertical component of the hydrostatic force is downward and equal to the volume of the
real liquid above the submerged surface (see Figure 2.6).

Case 2: Liquid is below the curve surface

The vertical component of the hydrostatic force is going upward and equal to the volume of
the imaginary liquid above the surface (see Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.4 Determine the force acting on one side of a concrete form
2.44 𝑚 high and 1.22 𝑚 wide (8 𝑓𝑡 by 4 𝑓𝑡) that is used for pouring a basement wall.
The specific weight of concrete is 23.6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 (150 𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑓𝑡 3 ).

Solution

𝐹 =𝛾ħ𝐴
2.44 𝑚
𝐹 = (23.6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 ) ( )(2.44 𝑚 𝑥 1.22 𝑚)
2
𝐹 = 85.7 𝐾𝑁
 2 | Hydraulics 21

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.5 Surface AB is a circular arc with a radius of 2 𝑚 and a width
of 1 𝑚 into the paper. The distance EB is 4 m. The fluid above surface AB is water, and
atmospheric pressure prevails on the free surface of the water and on the bottom side
of surface AB. Find the magnitude and line of action of the hydrostatic force acting on
surface AB. 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 9810 𝑁/𝑚3 .

Figure 2.8
Solution

1. Equilibrium in horizontal direction

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝐻 = 𝑝𝐴 = (5𝑚)(9810 𝑁/𝑚3 )(2 𝑥 1 𝑚2 )

𝐹𝑥 = 98.1 𝐾𝑁

2. Equilibrium in vertical direction

• Vertical Force on side CB

𝐹𝑉 = 𝑝𝐴 = (9.81 𝐾𝑁/𝑚3 )(4 𝑚)(2 𝑚)(1 𝑚)
𝐹𝑉 = 78.5 𝐾𝑁

• Weight of water in volume ABC

1 𝐾𝑁
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝛾 ( 𝜋𝑟 2 ) (𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ) = (9.81 3 ) (0.25 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 4 𝑚2 )(1 𝑚) = 30.8 𝐾𝑁
4 𝑚

• Summing Forces
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑉 + 𝑊 = 78.5 + 30.8 = 109.3 𝐾𝑁

3. Total Hydrostatic Force

𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2 = √(98.1)2 + (109.3)2 = 146.87 𝐾𝑁

4. Line of Action (horizontal forces)

1 𝑥 23 /12
𝑦𝑝 = ȳ + 𝑒 = (5 𝑚) + ( ) = 5.067 𝑚
5𝑥2𝑥1

5. The line of action (𝑥𝑝 ) for the vertical force is found by summing moments about
point C.

𝐹𝑦 𝑥𝑝 = (𝐹𝑉 )(1 𝑚) + (𝑊)(4𝑟/3𝜋)

(78.5 𝐾𝑁)(1 𝑚) + (30.8 𝐾𝑁)(0.849 𝑚)
𝑥𝑝 = = 0.957 𝑚
109.3 𝐾𝑁
 2 | Hydraulics 22

6. The resultant force that acts on the curved surface is shown in the following
figure.

2.2.3 Gravity Dams

Dams are structures whose purpose is to raise the water level on the upstream side of river,
stream, or other waterway. The rising water will cause hydrostatic force which will tend the
dam to slide horizontally and overturn about its downstream edge or toe. The raised water
level on the upstream edge or heel will also cause the water to seep under the dam. The
pressure due to this seepage is commonly called hydrostatic uplift and will reduce the
stability of the dam against sliding and against overturning.

The weight of gravity dam will cause a moment opposite to the overturning moment and the
friction on the base will prevent the dam from sliding. The dam may also be prevented from
sliding by keying its base into the bedrock. Dams are analyzed by considering 1 unit length
(1 m length) of dam perpendicular to the cross section.

The forces acting on the dam:

𝑊 = weight of dam
𝑃 = hydrostatic force
𝑈 = hydrostatic uplift
𝑅𝑥 , 𝑅𝑦 = Reactions (horizontal and vertical components)
𝑅𝑀 = Righting Moment, sum of all rotation towards the upstream side
𝑂𝑀 = Overturning Moment, sum of all rotation towards the downstream side
 2 | Hydraulics 23

A. Neglecting Hydrostatic Uplift

𝛾ℎ2
1. 𝑃 = 2 Figure 2.9
2. 𝑅𝑀 = 𝑊1 𝑥1 + 𝑊2 𝑥2
ℎ
3. 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑃 (3 )
4. 𝑅 𝑥̅ = 𝑅𝑀 − 𝑂𝑀
5. Factor of Safety against
overturning:
𝑅𝑀
𝐹𝑆 = > 1.0
𝑂𝑀
6. Factor of Safety against
sliding:
𝜇𝑅
𝐹𝑆 = > 1.0
𝑃
7. 𝑅 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2

B. Considering Hydrostatic Uplift

Because of the presence of the water on the upstream face which is raised into a certain
height, there is a tendency for the water to seep under the dam and escape at the lower
level on the downstream side, since this seepage is under pressure, it exerts a hydrostatic
uplift on the dam which reduces the stability if the dam against sliding and reduces also
the stability against overturning.

1. 𝑅𝑦 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 − 𝑈 Figure 2.10
𝛾ℎ𝐵
2. 𝑈= 2
3. 𝑅𝑀 = 𝑊1 𝑥1 + 𝑊2 𝑥2
ℎ 2
4. 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑃 (3 ) + 𝑈 (3 𝐵)
5. 𝑅 𝑥̅ = 𝑅𝑀 − 𝑂𝑀
 2 | Hydraulics 24

C. Overflowing Dam without Hydrostatic Uplift and neglecting the effect of water on the
downstream side
Figure 2.11
̅
1. 𝑃 = 𝛾 ℎ 𝐴
𝐷
2. ℎ̅ = 𝑦 + 2
3. 𝐴 = 𝐷(1)
𝐼𝑔
4. 𝑒 = 𝑆
𝑆
(1)𝐷3
5. 𝐼𝑔 = 12
6. 𝑆𝑆 = 𝐴 ℎ̅ = 𝐷 (1)(ℎ̅)
7. 𝑅 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3
8. 𝑅𝑀 = 𝑊1 𝑥1 + 𝑊2 𝑥2 + 𝑊3 𝑥3
𝐷
9. 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑃 ( 2 − 𝑒)
10. 𝑅 𝑥̅ = 𝑅𝑀 − 𝑂𝑀

D. Overflowing dam considering hydrostatic uplift

Figure 2.12
1. 𝑃 = 𝛾 ℎ̅ 𝐴
𝛾ℎ𝐵
2. 𝑈= 2
3. 𝑅 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 − 𝑈
4. 𝑅𝑀 = 𝑊1 𝑥1 + 𝑊2 𝑥2 + 𝑊3 𝑥3
𝐷 2
5. 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑃 ( 2 − 𝑒) + 𝑈 (3 𝐵)
6. 𝑅 𝑥̅ = 𝑅𝑀 − 𝑂𝑀
𝐼
7. 𝑒 = 𝑆𝑆
𝑆
(1)𝐷3
8. 𝐼𝑆 = 12
9. 𝑆𝑆 = 𝐴 ℎ̅ = 𝐷 (1)(ℎ̅)

E. Dams with water on both upstream and downstream side (see Figure 2.13)

𝛾 ℎ1 2
1. 𝑃1 = 2
𝛾 ℎ2 2
2. 𝑃2 = 2
𝛾 (ℎ1 −ℎ2 )𝐵
3. 𝑈1 = 2
4. 𝑈2 = 𝛾 ℎ2 𝐵
5. 𝑅 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 − 𝑈1 − 𝑈2
6. 𝑅 𝑥̅ = 𝑅𝑀 − 𝑂𝑀
 2 | Hydraulics 25

ℎ
7. 𝑅𝑀 = 𝑊1 𝑥1 + 𝑊2 𝑥2 + 𝑊3 𝑥3 + 𝑃2 ( 2 ) Figure 2.13
3
ℎ 2 𝐵
8. 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑃1 ( 31 ) + 𝑈1 (3 𝐵) + 𝑈2 ( 2 )
𝜇𝑅
9. 𝐹𝑆 = 𝑃 (sliding)
1 − 𝑃2

Pressure Distribution at the Base

1. Resultant at the middle of the base

𝑅 = 𝑃 (𝐵)(1)
𝑅
𝑃=𝐵

Figure 2.14

Figure 2.15
2. Resultant at the middle thirds nearer the toe

𝐵
𝑥̅ =
3

(𝑃 + 0) 𝑃𝐵
𝑅= (𝐵)(1) =
2 2
(twice the average pressure)

Figure 2.16
3. Resultant outside the middle-thirds

𝑃 (3𝑥̅ ) 2𝑅
𝑅= =
2 3𝑥̅

4. Resultant within the middle-thirds

𝑅 𝑀𝐶
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −
𝐴 𝐼

𝑅 𝑀𝐶
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = +
𝐴 𝐼
 2 | Hydraulics 26

𝑀 = 𝑅𝑒 Figure 2.17

𝐴 = 𝐵 (1)

1
𝐶= 𝐵
2

𝐵3
𝐼=
12

𝐵
𝑅 𝑅 𝑒 ( 2 ) 𝑅 6𝑒 𝑅
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = − = − 2
𝐵 𝐵3 𝐵 𝐵
12
𝑅 6𝑒
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (1 − )
𝐵 𝐵
Figure 2.18
𝐵
𝑅 𝑅 𝑒 ( 2 ) 𝑅 6𝑒 𝑅
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + = + 2
𝐵 𝐵3 𝐵 𝐵
12
𝑅 6𝑒
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (1 + )
𝐵 𝐵

𝐵
𝑒= − 𝑥̅
2

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Determine the height of water that could rise on the vertical
side of the dam having a triangular section 24 𝑚 high and 12 𝑚 wide at the base so that
the maximum intensity of pressures at the toe is twice the average pressure at the base.
Neglect hydrostatic uplift. Weight of masonry is 2,400 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 .

Figure 2.19
Solution

Considering 1 m strip

(24)(12)(1)(2400)
𝑊= = 345,600 𝑘𝑔
2
𝑅 = 𝑊 = 345,600 𝑘𝑔

ℎ
𝑃 = 𝛾 ℎ̅ 𝐴 = (1000) ( ) (ℎ)(1) = 500 ℎ2
2
 2 | Hydraulics 27

2 2
𝑅. 𝑀. = 𝑊 ( ) (12) = (345,600) ( ) (12) = 2,764,800 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚
3 3

ℎ ℎ 500 ℎ3
𝑂. 𝑀. = 𝑃 ( ) = 500 ℎ2 ( ) = 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚
3 3 3

𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑅. 𝑀. − 𝑂. 𝑀.

12
𝑥= = 4𝑚
3

500 ℎ3
345,600 (4) = 2,764,800 −
3
ℎ = 20.24 𝑚

2.2.4 Hoop Tension

Let us consider a semi-circular segment 𝐴𝐵 of unit length, held in equilibrium by two forces
𝑇. Assuming the unit pressure to be uniform, then the value of 𝑇 is also the same at all points
in the circumference.

∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 Figure 2.20
2𝑇 = 𝑝(𝐷 )(1)
𝑝𝐷
𝑇=
2 Eq. 2.08

where, 𝑝 = pressure = 𝛾 ℎ
ℎ = height of water
𝐷 = diameter
𝑇 = tensile force

Considering thickness of tank walls:

𝑇 = 𝐴𝑆 𝑆 = (𝑡)(1)𝑆 but
𝑇 𝑝𝐷
𝑆=𝑡 𝑇= 2

𝑝𝐷
𝑆= Eq. 2.09
2𝑡

where, 𝑆 = tensile stress

𝑝 = unit pressure
𝑡 = thickness of wall
𝐷 = inside diameter
 2 | Hydraulics 28

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.7 The sides of a vertical tank 2.5 𝑚 in diameter and 3.75 𝑚
high are kept in place by means of steel hoops one at the top and the other at the bottom.
What is the tensile stress in kilograms in each steel hoop when the tank is ¾ full of
liquid having a specific gravity of 0.85.

Figure 2.21
Solution

Considering 1 m strip

1000 (2.81)(2.81)(2.5)(0.85)
𝑃=𝛾ℎ𝐴= = 8390 𝑘𝑔
2

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
8390 (0.94) = 2 𝑇1 (3.75)
𝑇1 = 1052 𝑘𝑔

∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
2𝑇1 + 2𝑇2 = 𝑃
2(1052) + 2𝑇2 = 8390
𝑇2 = 3143 𝑘𝑔

2.2.5 Archimedes Principle (Buoyancy)

Any body immersed in a fluid is subjected to a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced. Archimedes’ principle refers to the force of buoyancy that results when a body is
submerged in a fluid, whether partially or wholly. The force that provides the pressure of a
fluid acts on a body perpendicular to the surface of the body. In other words, the force due
to the pressure at the bottom is pointed up, while at the top, the force due to the pressure is
pointed down; the forces due to the pressures at the sides are pointing into the body.

Since the bottom of the body is at a greater depth than the top of the body, the pressure at
the lower part of the body is higher than the pressure at the upper part. Therefore, a net
upward force acts on the body. This upward force is the force of buoyancy, or
simply buoyancy.

Let us consider a cubical block having a dimension of 2’ 𝑥 2’ 𝑥 2’. We will place this block
below the water surface as shown in Figure 2.22.

𝐹1 = 𝑃1 𝐴 = 𝛾ℎ1 (2)(2)
𝐹2 = 𝑃2 𝐴 = 𝛾ℎ2 (2)(2)

𝐹2 > 𝐹1 (unbalanced force)

𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝛾ℎ2 (2)(2) − 𝛾ℎ1 (2)(2)
 2 | Hydraulics 29

𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝛾 (2)(2)(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ); ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 2
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝛾 (2)(2)(2) = 𝛾 𝑉

𝐵𝐹 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝛾 𝑉 Eq. 2.10a

where, 𝑉 = volume of water displaced

𝐵𝐹 = buoyancy force

Figure 2.22 Figure 2.23

From Figure 2.23, an object having a weight 𝑊 floats in a liquid. Assume the cross-sectional
area of the figure as 𝐴 and a height of ℎ, the object has a certain specific gravity.

𝑊 = volume of object x density of object

Density of object = specific gravity of object x density of water

𝑊 =𝐴ℎ𝑠𝛾
𝐴𝑑𝛾=𝐴ℎ𝑠𝛾
𝑑 =ℎ𝑠

𝐵𝐹 = 𝐴 𝑑 𝛾 = 𝑊 Eq. 2.10b

Therefore, the object will float at a depth equal to its height multiplied by its specific gravity.
This will hold true only for rectangular or square sections.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.8 An iceberg having a specific gravity of 0.92 floats in salt
water having a specific gravity of 1.03. If the volume of ice above the water surface is
1000 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚., what is the total volume in 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚. of the iceberg?
 2 | Hydraulics 30

Solution

Considering 1 m strip

1000 (2.81)(2.81)(2.5)(0.85)
𝑃=𝛾ℎ𝐴= = 8390 𝑘𝑔 Figure 2.24
2

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
8390 (0.94) = 2 𝑇1 (3.75)
𝑇1 = 1052 𝑘𝑔

∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
2𝑇1 + 2𝑇2 = 𝑃
2(1052) + 2𝑇2 = 8390
𝑇2 = 3143 𝑘𝑔

2.2.6 Stability of Floating Bodies

Figure 2.25
Any floating body is subjected by two opposing vertical
forces. One is the body's weight W which is downward,
and the other is the buoyant force BF which is upward.
The weight is acting at the center of gravity G and the
buoyant force is acting at the center of
buoyancy BO. W and BF are always equal and if these
forces are collinear, the body will be in upright position
as shown in Figure 2.25.

The body may tilt from many causes like wind or wave
action causing the center of buoyancy to shift to a new position BO′ as shown below.

Figure 2.26
 2 | Hydraulics 31

Point M is the intersection of the axis of the body and the line of action of the buoyant force,
it is called metacenter. If M is above G, BF and W will produce a righting moment RM which
causes the body to return to its neutral position, thus the body is stable. If M is below G, the
body becomes unstable because of the overturning moment OM made by W and BF.
If M coincides with G, the body is said to be just stable which simply means critical. The value
of righting moment or overturning moment is given by

𝑅𝑀 or 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑊𝑥 = 𝑊 (𝑀𝐺 sin 𝜃 ) Eq. 2.11

The distance MG is called metacentric height.

Metacentric height, 𝑀𝐺 = 𝑀𝐵𝑂 ± 𝐺𝐵𝑂 Eq. 2.12

Use (-) if G is above 𝐵𝑂 and (+) if G is below 𝐵𝑂 . Note that M is always above 𝐵𝑂 .

Value of 𝑴𝑩𝑶

Figure 2.27
Assume that the body is rectangular at the top
view and measures B by L at the waterline when
in upright position. The moment due to the
shifting of the buoyant force is equal to the
moment due to shifting of wedge.

𝐵𝐹𝑍 = 𝐹𝑆
𝛾𝑉𝐷 (𝑀𝐵𝑂 sin 𝜃 ) = (𝛾𝑣 )𝑠
𝑣𝑠
𝑀𝐵𝑂 =
𝑉𝐷 sin 𝜃
1 1 1 2
[ ( 𝐵)( 𝐵 tan 𝜃)𝐿]( 𝐵)
𝑀𝐵𝑂 = 2 2 2 3
𝑉𝐷 sin 𝜃
1 3
𝐿𝐵 tan 𝜃
𝑀𝐵𝑂 = 12 Eq. 2.13a
𝑉𝐷 sin 𝜃

For small value of θ, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ ≡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ and note that 1/12 LB3 = I, thus,

𝐼 sin 𝜃
𝑀𝐵𝑂 =
𝑉𝐷 sin 𝜃
𝐼
𝑀𝐵𝑂 = Eq. 2.13b
𝑉𝐷

The formula above can be applied to any section.

For rectangular section,

𝐵 2 tan2 𝜃
𝑀𝐵𝑂 = (1 + ) Eq. 2.13c
12𝐷 2
 2 | Hydraulics 32

where, W = weight of the body

BF = buoyant force
M = metacenter
G = center of gravity of the body
𝐵𝑂 = center of buoyancy in upright position
BO′ = center of buoyancy in tilted position
MG = metacentric height or the distance from M to G
𝑀𝐵𝑂 = distance from M to BO
𝑉𝐷 = volume of submerged body
𝐷 = depth of floatation
𝐺𝑂 = distance from G to 𝐵𝑂
v = volume of the wedge either immersion or emersion
s = horizontal distance between the center of gravity of the wedges
θ = angle of tilting
I = moment of inertia of the waterline section of the body
RM = righting moment
OM = overturning moment

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.9 A loaded scow has draft of 1.8 𝑚 in freshwater, when erect.
The scow is 6 𝑚 wide and 12 𝑚 long and 2.4 𝑚 high. The center of gravity of the scow
is 1.8 above the bottom along the vertical axis of symmetry. What is the maximum
single weight that can be moved transversely from the center of the scow and unloaded
over the side without sinking the scow?

Solution
Figure 2.28
0.6
tan 𝜃 = = 0.2; 𝜃 = 11.3°
3

𝐵 2 tan2 𝜃
𝑀𝐵𝑂 = (1 + )
12𝐷 2
(6)2 0.04
𝑀𝐵𝑂 = (1 + ) = 1.7
12 (1.8) 2

𝑀𝐺 = 1.7 − 0.9 = 0.8 𝑚

𝐹 = (1000)(1.8)(6)(12) = 129,600 𝑘𝑔

∑ 𝑀𝐺 = 0
𝑊1 (3)
= 𝐹 (𝑀𝐺 sin 𝜃 )
cos 𝜃
𝑊1 (3)
= (129,600) (0.8 sin 11.3°)
cos 11.3°
𝑊1 = 6,640 𝑘𝑔
 2 | Hydraulics 33

Video Lessons:

Hydrostatic Pressure (Fluid Mechanics - Lesson 3)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C0ujLqKPWew

Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VlCrI5YvGfA

Fluid Mechanics: Topic 4.1 - Hydrostatic force on a plane surface

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0oHzBurIIpw

Fluid Mechanics: Topic 4.3 - Hydrostatic force on a curved surface

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zV-JO-l7Mx4

What is the Archimedes’ Principle? | Gravitation | Physics | Don't Memorise

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05WkCPORlj4

Metacenter Definition | Fluid Mechanics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QUgXf2Rj2YQ

POST – ASSESSMENT
A. Explain the following thoroughly. Strive for depth, clarity, and accuracy while also
combining sketches, words, and equations in ways that enhance the effectiveness of your
communication.

1. What are five important facts that engineers need to know about pressure?
2. What does hydrostatic mean? How do engineers identify whether a fluid is
hydrostatic?
3. Imagine two tanks. Tank 𝐴 is filled to depth ℎ with water. Tank 𝐵 is filled to depth
ℎ with oil. Which tank has the largest pressure? Why? Where in the tank does the
largest pressure occur?
4. For hydrostatic conditions, what do typical pressure distributions on a panel look
like? Sketch three examples that correspond to different situations.
5. Why learn about buoyancy? That is, what are important technical problems that
involve buoyant forces?

B. Calculate the following:

6. If the pressure in tank is 50 𝑝𝑠𝑖, find the equivalent pressure head of (a) water, (b)
mercury, and (c) heavy fuel oil with a specific gravity of 0.92.
7. A pressure gage 7.0 𝑚 above the bottom of a tank containing a liquid reads
64.94 𝑘𝑃𝑎; another gage at height 4.0 𝑚 reads 87.53 𝑘𝑃𝑎. Compute the specific
weight and mass density of the fluid.
 2 | Hydraulics 34

8. Find the pressures at 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, and 𝐷 in Figure 2.29.

9. A tank containing water is shown in Figure 2.30. Calculate the total resultant force
acting on side 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 of the container and the location of the center of pressure.

Figure 2.29 Figure 2.30

10. The gate in Figure 2.31 is 4 𝑓𝑡 wide, is hinged at point 𝐵, and rests against a smooth
wall at 𝐴. Compute (a) the force on the gate due to seawater pressure, (b) the
(horizontal) force 𝑃 exerted by the wall at point 𝐴, and (c) the reaction at hinge 𝐵.

Figure 2.31a Figure 2.31b

11. Gate 𝐴𝐵 in Figure 2.32 is 1.0 𝑚 long and 0.9 𝑚 wide. Calculate force 𝐹 on the gate
and the position 𝑋 of its center of pressure.
12. In Figure 2.33, calculate the width of concrete dam that is necessary to prevent the
dam from sliding. The specific weight of concrete is 150 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡, and
the coefficient of friction between the base of the dam and the foundation is 0.42.
Use 1.5 as the factor of safety against sliding. Will it also be safe against overturning?
13. Figure 2.34 is the cross section of an earthwork (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 2.5) dam.
Assuming that the hydrostatic uplift varies linearly from one-half the hydrostatic
 2 | Hydraulics 35

head at the upstream edge of the dam to zero at the downstream edge, find the
maximum and minimum pressure intensity in the base of the dam.

Figure 2.32 Figure 2.33

Figure 2.34 Figure 2.35

14. For linear stress variation over the base of the dam of Figure 2.35, find where the
resultant crosses the base and compute the maximum and minimum pressure
intensity at the base. Neglect hydrostatic uplift.
15. The submerged, curved surface 𝐴𝐵 in Figure 2.36 is one-quarter of a circle of radius
4 𝑓𝑡. The tank’s length (distance perpendicular to the plane of the figure) is 6 𝑓𝑡.
Find the horizontal and vertical components of the total resultant force acting on the
curved surface and their locations.
 2 | Hydraulics 36

Figure 2.36 Figure 2.37

16. The curved surface 𝐴𝐵 shown in Figure 2.37 is a quarter of a circle of radius 5 𝑓𝑡.
Determine, for an 8 − 𝑓𝑡 length perpendicular to the paper, the amount and location
of the horizontal and vertical components of the total resultant force acting on
surface 𝐴𝐵.
17. Referring to Figure 2.38, determine the horizontal and vertical forces due to the
water acting on the cylinder per foot of its length.

Figure 2.38 Figure 2.39

18. When a 6 − 𝑙𝑏 weight is placed on the end of a floating 5 − 𝑖𝑛 by 5 − 𝑖𝑛 by 10 − 𝑓𝑡

wooden beam, the beam tilts 1.6° with the weight at the surface, as shown in Figure
2.39. What is the specific weight of the wood?
19. A stone weighs 105 𝑙𝑏 in air. When submerged in water, it weighs 67.0 𝑙𝑏. Find the
volume and specific gravity of the stone.
20. A hollow cube 1.0 𝑚 on each side weighs 2.4 𝑘𝑁. The cube is tied to a solid concrete
block weighing 10.0 𝑘𝑁. Will these two objects tied together float or sink in water?
The specific gravity of the concrete is 2.40.
 2 | Hydraulics 37

Evaluation Criteria:
Quality/Craftmanship 40%
Creativity/Originality 30%
Effort/Perseverance 20%
Timeliness 10%
Total 100%

2.3 References

Besavilla, V. (1983). Hydraulics (Revised Edition) with Practical Questions for Computerized
Licensure Examination.

Chadwick, A., et.al. (2013). Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental Engineering – 5th edition.
CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group.

EDinformatics. [Online]
https://www.edinformatics.com/math_science/hydrostatic_pressure.htm

Elger, D., et.al. (2013). Engineering Fluid Mechanics – 10th edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

King, H.W., Wisler C. and J. Woodburn. (1948). Hydraulics. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

MATHalino Engineering Mathematics. [Online]

https://mathalino.com/

Marriott, M. (2016). Nalluri and Featherstone’s Civil Engineering Hydraulics: Essential

Theory with Worked Examples – 6th ed. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.

The Engineering ToolBox. [Online]

https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/hydrostatic-pressure-water-d_1632.html

2.4 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures, and information contained in this module were taken from the
references cited above.
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