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Practical Pharmaceutical Chemistry: For Third Year Students
Practical Pharmaceutical Chemistry: For Third Year Students
Practical Pharmaceutical Chemistry: For Third Year Students
College of pharmacy
Department of pharmaceutical
chemistry
Practical
pharmaceutical
chemistry
For third year students
Assist. Prof Karima Fadhil Ali
Part I (Inorganic)
Acidimetric titration:
A . Direct titration method.
2. Assay of borax.
Argentometric methods
9. Preparation and standardization of 0.1N silver nitrate solution.
Acidimetric Titration
It is an usual practice that when a solid substance is to be assayed, an aliquot quantity of the
same may be weighed accurately and dissolved in sufficient water so that the resulting solution
should have more or less the same equivalent concentration as that of the acid used in the
titration. Methyl orange (pH range = 3.0 to 4.4) is the indicator of choice for obvious reasons,
as phenolphthalein and most other indicators are instantly affected by the carbonic acid
(H2CO3) generated in the reaction which ultimately cause a change in colour even before the
reaction attains completion.
practical lab 1
.
Introduction
Sodium carbonate, Na₂CO₃, is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs
as a crystalline heptahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the
monohydrate. Formula: Na2CO3, Molar mass: 105.9885 g/mol, Melting point: 851 °C,
Density: 2.54 g/cm³, Boiling point: 1,633 °C ,Soluble in water and very slightly soluble in
alcohol, odorless powder that absorbs moisture from the air, has an alkaline taste, and forms
a strongly alkaline water solution. It is one of the most basic industrial chemicals.
Sodium carbonate decahydrate, Na2CO3·10H2O, is a colorless, transparent crystalline
compound commonly called Sal soda or washing soda. Because seaweed ashes were an
early source of sodium carbonate, it is often called soda ash or, simply, soda.
Used topically for dermatitides, mouthwash, vaginal douche; veterinary use as emergency
emetic . In solution to cleanse skin, in eczema, to soften scabs of ringworm. For the temporary
relief of symptoms due to constipation: abdominal bloating, abdominal discomfort,
irregularity of bowel movements. ...
principle:
Direct acid base titration of sodium carbonate against 0.5N sulphuric acid and by using
methyl orange solution as indicator.
The equation of reaction is:
Materials Required :
Procedure :
1. Weigh accurately about 1 g, of sodium carbonate.
2. dissolve it in 20 ml of water (DW)
3. titrate with 0.5 N sulphuric acid, using methyl orange solution as indicator.
.
Each ml of 0.5 N sulphuric acid is equivalent to 0.53 gm of Na2CO3.
Calculation:
% Na2CO3 = V x N x meq. wt. x 100 / wt of sample
Practical lab 2
Assay of borax
sodium borate or sodium tetraborate
Introduction:
Borax, also known as sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium tetraborate, is an
important boron compound, a mineral, and a salt of boric acid. Powdered borax is white,
consisting of soft colorless crystals that dissolve easily in water. Its molecular weight 381.4
,melting point 743ºC ,and boiling point 1,575 ºC.
Borax has a wide variety of uses. It is a component of many detergents, cosmetics,
and enamel glazes Borax .It should be kept in well closed container. Borax is used as antiseptic
and astringent in mouth paints.. It is also used to make buffer solutions in biochemistry, as
a fire retardant, as an anti-fungal compound for fiberglass, as a flux in metallurgy, neutron-
capture shields for radioactive sources, a texturing agent in cooking, and as a precursor for
other boron compounds.
. Borax is generally described as Na2B4O7·10H2O. However, it is better formulated as
Na2[B4O5(OH)4]·8H2O, since borax contains the [B4O5(OH)4]2− ion. In this structure, there are
two four-coordinate boron atoms (two BO4 tetrahedra) and two three-coordinate boron atoms
(two BO3triangles).
Borax is also easily converted to boric acid and other borates, which have many applications.
Its reaction with hydrochloric acid to form boric acid is:
Na2B4O7·10H2O + 2 HCl → 4 H3BO3 + 2 NaCl + 5 H2O
The "decahydrate" is sufficiently stable to find use as a primary standard for acid
base titrimetry
When borax is added to a flame, it produces a yellow green color Borax is not used for this
purpose in fireworks due to the overwhelming yellow color of sodium. Boric acid is used to
color methanol flames a transparent green.
principle:
Borax is a salt derived from a weak acid and a strong base, so its aqueous solution can be
assayed using a standard N/2 Hydrochloric acid solution in an acid base titration.
Borax samples may sometimes be contaminated with boric acid or sodium carbonate, Thus
two titrations are carried out;
1. borax and (sodium carbonate if present) with Hydrochloric acid.
2. boric acid with sodium Hydroxide.
The correct volumes of the two titrations can then tell the presence and type of impurities,
besides the quantities of each.
Reaction between borax and Hydrochloric acid liberates boric acid a very weak acid that
needs to increase its acidity ( by converting it into a strong acid) so that it can react with
sodium hydroxide by direct titration. This is achieved by the addition of excess of mannitol, a
poly hydroxylated alcohol.
Mannityl boric acid complex is formed which is a strong acid.
procedure:
1. Put 10ml of borax solution in conical flask and add to it 10ml of D.W .
2. Add 2 drops of methyl red solution.
3. Titrate with 0.5N HCl drop wise with shaking until the colour changes from yellow
(pH6) to pink (pH 4.4).
4. Boil the titration liquid to expel the generated carbon dioxide (if any) and cool.
5. If the colour changes back into yellow, resume titration with HCl until you get the pink
colour. Record the volume of HCl used.
6. Add 4gm of mannitol and 2 drop of phenolphthalein solution (pH-8 colourless ;pH-10
pink).
7. Start the second titration with 1N NaOH solution drop wise with shaking until the
solution changes from pink to yellow and pink again. Record the volume of NaOH
solution used.
The solution of the titration should be boiled after the end point to expel carbon dioxide
generated (if sodium carbonate is present):
Calculations:
V1 = Volume of 0.5N HCl
V2 = Volume of 1N NaOH
1. If V1 = V2
Then the sample of borax is pure. Sometimes a differences of not more than 0.3ml
between the two volumes is allowed. in this case use the average.
Calculate the weight and percentage w /v of borax in your sample.
V1 > V2
Then the sample of borax is impure and contains, in addition to borax, sodium carbonate.
V2 > V1
mannitol
H3BO3 +NaOH NaBO2 + H2O
liberated and
contaminant boric acid
Then the sample of borax is impure and contains in addition to borax, boric acid.
V2 -V1 = the volume of 1N NaOH solution consumed by the contaminant boric acid.
Calculate the weight and percentage w/v of bath borax and contaminant boric acid in your
sample.
Each 0.06184 gm of boric acid is equivalent to 1 ml of 1N NaOH solution.
practical lab 3
B: Residual titration method
Assay of Zinc Oxide
principle:
Equation :
ZnO + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2O
(81.38)
The requisite quantity of ZnO gets dissolved in the sulphuric acid thereby neutralizing an
equivalent amount as shown by the above equation. Thus, the amount of sulphuric acid
neutralized by the ZnO is estimated by subtracting, from the total amount of sulphuric acid
utilized, the quantity neutralized by the standard NaOH in the back titration
Materials Required :
1.5 g of zinc oxide ; 1 N sulphuric acid ; 1 N sodium hydroxide ; 2.5 g ammonium chloride.
Procedure :
1.Weight accurately 1.5 g of freshly ignited and cooled zinc oxide.
2. dissolve it with 2.5 g of ammonium chloride in 50 ml of 1 N sulphuric acid with the help of
gentle heating.
3. After complete dissolution, add methyl orange and titrate the excess of sulphuric acid with
1 N sodium hydoxide.
. The equivalent weight of ZnO, as shown in the above equation comes out to be 40.69 g
(i.e., 81.38/2 = 40.69). Hence, each millilitre of 1 N sulphuric acid, 1 meq neautralized by the
ZnO, is equivalent to 40.68 mg or 1 meq of ZnO.
Thus, the percentage of zinc oxide present in the sample may be calculated as follows :
Assay Methods
permanganate methods
The vital application of potassium permanganate as a potential oxidizing agent in an acidic
medium mainly rests on the reactions designated by the following equations :
Chemically we have :
2KMnO 4 + 3H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5(O)
Ionically we have :
MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e Mn2 + + 4 H2O
Therefore, KMnO4 5e
or 158.0 g KMnO4 5000 ml N
or 31.60 g KMnO4 1000 ml N
or 3.16 g KMnO4 1000 ml 0.1 N KMnO4
Practical lab 4
9 Practical pharmaceutical chemistry Assist. Prof. Karima F. Ali
Preparation And standardization of 0.1 N Potassium Permanganate
Solution:
introduction:
Potassium permanganate is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula KMnO4. It is
a salt consisting of K+ and MnO−4 ions. Formerly known as permanganate of
potash or Condy's crystals, it is a strong oxidizing agent. It dissolves in water to give
intensely pink or purple solutions, the evaporation of which leaves prismatic purplish-black
glistening crystals. In 2000, worldwide production was estimated at 30,000 tonnes. In this
compound, manganese is in the +7 oxidation state.
1. preparation:
Materials Required :
Potassium permanganate : 3.5 g.
Procedure:
1. Weigh accurately about 3.2 g of potassium permanganate on a watch-glass. Transfer the
contents to a 250 ml beaker containing cold water and stir vigorously with a glass rod
to effect rapid dissolution.
2. Decant the solution through a small plug of glass wool supported by a funnel, into a 1
liter volumetric flask thereby leaving the un dissolved residues in the beaker.
3. Add more DW to the beaker and repeat the above process till all the potassium
permanganate gets dissolved.
4. Finally make up the volume to the graduated mark and shake well so as to effect
uniform mixing.
Note :
(i) KMnO4 must be weighed on a watch-glass and not on any kind of paper since
cellulose fibers are corrosively attacked by it,
(ii) Likewise, filtration of KMnO4 solution must be done though cleaned glass wool
and not cotton wool, and
(iii) Avoid heat in the preparation of KMnO 4 solution because traces of grease or
other possible contaminants on the glass vessels used can catalyse its decomposition.
2. Standardization:
Materials Required :
Oxalic acid : 6.3 g ; sulphuric acid concentrated : 5 ml.
Procedure:
Precautions:
(i) Sufficient acid must be present, otherwise formation of a brown color during titration
may be observed,
(ii) Similar brown coloration can also be observed by using too high a temperature or by
using a dirty flask
(iii) To avoid such anomalies always rinse the flask with solution of H2O2 and dilute H2SO4
before performing the titrations.
practical lab 5
11 Practical pharmaceutical chemistry Assist. Prof. Karima F. Ali
Assay of Hydrogen Peroxide Solution
Redox titration
introduction:
Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound with the formula (H2O2).its molecular mass
(34.017g/mo), Melting point (-0.43ºC), boiling point( 150.2ºC), pka 11.75. It is the
simplest peroxide (a compound with an oxygen-oxygen single bond) and in its pure form is a
colorless liquid, slightly more viscous than water. For safety reasons it is normally encountered
as an aqueous solution, also colorless. Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizer and is used as
a bleaching agent and disinfectant. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide, or 'high-test peroxide' is
a reactive oxygen species and has been used as a propellant in rocketry.
Organisms naturally produce trace quantities of hydrogen peroxide, most notably by
a respiratory burst as part of the immune response. Hydrogen peroxide exhibits oxidizing and
reducing properties, depending on pH.
In acidic solutions, H2O2 is one of the most powerful oxidizers known—strong than
chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and potassium permanganate. Also, through catalysis, H2O2 can be
converted into hydroxyl radicals (•OH), which are highly reactive.
principle:
This method utilizes the reduction of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) by hydrogen peroxide
in sulfuric acid. Hydrogen peroxide is usually treated as a strong oxidizer, but in the presence
of even stronger oxidizer it can become a reducing agent:
Materials Required :
Hydrogen peroxide solution : 10 ml ; 5 N sulphuric acid : 5 ml ; 0.1 N potassium permanganate.
Calculations :
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
Practical lab 6
principle:
. In acidic solution, potassium permanganate rapidly and quantitatively oxidizes iron(II) to
iron(III), while itself being reduced to manganese(II). The half reactions for the process are:
When these half-reactions are combined to give the overall balanced chemical reaction
equation, a factor of five must be used with the iron half-reaction so that the number of
electrons lost in the overall oxidation will equal the number of electrons gained in the
reduction:
Potassium permanganate is one of the most commonly used oxidizing agents because it is
extremely powerful, inexpensive, and readily available. Potassium permanganate is particularly
useful among titrants since it requires no indicator to signal the endpoint of a titration.
Potassium permanganate solutions–even at fairly dilute concentrations–are intensely colored
purple. The product of the permanganate reduction half-reaction, manganese(II), in dilute
solution shows almost no color. Therefore, during a titration using KMnO4 , when one drop
excess of potassium permanganate has been added to the sample, the sample will take on a pale
red/pink color (since there are no more analyte ions remaining to convert the purple MnO 4-
ions to the colorless Mn2+ ions.
Procedure:
1. carefully weigh ~0.5 g of ferrous sulfate in a beaker , Add 15 ml of distilled water and
stir to dissolve the solid.
Calculation:
Iodimetric Assay:
In such estimations, the pharmaceutical substances can be measured either directly or back
titration of excess iodine with sodium thiosulphate solution
Practical lab 7
Preparation and standardization of 0.1 Iodine Solution
I2 + 2e →2I–
or I2 ≡2e
or 126.9 g I2 ≡1000 ml N
or 12.69 g I2 ≡1000 ml 0.1 N
or 3.17 g I2 ≡250 ml 0.1 N
Materials Required :
Iodine : 3.2 g ; potassium iodide : 7.5 g.
Procedure :
Weigh accurately 3.2 g of crushed iodine crystals on a watch glass and transfer to a beaker
Explanation :
Iodine is sparingly soluble in water but undergoes rapid dissolution in the presence of
potassium iodide due to the formation of the corresponding triiodide ion :
I2 + I-–→I-3
Thus, potassium iodide plays dual role, viz., in iodimetry—to solubilize iodine in aqueous KI
solution, and in iodometry—as reducing agent, the excess KI helps in retaining liberated I2 in
solution through interaction with KI.
2S2O3 -2S4O6-2 + 2e
or I2 + 2e–2I–
o 2S2O -2 I2 2e
or 2 × 248.2 g Na2S2O3.5H2O ≡ 2000 ml N
or 248.2 g Na2S2O3.5H2O ≡ 1000 ml N
or 24.82 g Na2S2O3.5H2O ≡ 1000 ml 0.1 N Iodine
Materials Required :
Sodium thiosulphate (AR) : 6. 25 g ; 0.1 N I2 solution.
Procedure :
1. Weigh accurately 6. 25 g of sodium thiosulphate (AR) to a 250 ml volumetric flask.
2. Dissolve it in DW, shake well and make up the volume to the mark with DW.
3. Pipette 25 ml of 0.1 iodine solution into an iodine flask.
4. Titrate with the standard sodium thiosulphate solution, before the E.p add 5 drops of
starch solution and titrate until the solution becomes almost colorless.
Note : Stock solutions of sodium thiosulphate may be preserved by the addition of a few
drops of sodium hydroxide solution (20% w/v) which serves as stabilizer as well as
prevents decomposition.
Procedure:
1. Weigh 1.0 g starch in a glass in a glass pestle-mortar and triturate thoroughly with 10
ml of cold DW.
Practical lab 8
Assay of copper sulfate
:Introduction
Copper(II) sulfate, also known as cupric sulfate or copper sulphate, is the chemical
compound with the chemical formula CuSO4. This salt exists as a series of compounds that differ
in their degree of hydration. The anhydrous form is a pale green or gray-white powder, whereas
the pentahydrate (CuSO4·5H2O), the most commonly encountered salt, is bright blue.
Copper(II) sulfate exothermically dissolves in water to give the aquo complex [Cu(H2O)6]2+,
which has octahedral molecular geometry and is paramagnetic. its molar mass:159.6 g/mol
anhydrous, and 249.6g/mol pentahydral .It used as a herbicide, fungicide and pesticide, It is
used in swimming pools as an algicide.
Several chemical tests utilize copper sulfate. It is used in Fehling's solution and Benedict's
solution to test for reducing sugars, which reduce the soluble blue copper(II) sulfate to
insoluble red copper(I) oxide. Copper(II) sulfate is also used in the Biuret reagent to test for
proteins.
Copper sulfate is also used to test blood for anemia. The blood is tested by dropping it into a
solution of copper sulfate of known specific gravity – blood which contains
sufficient hemoglobin sinks rapidly due to its density, whereas blood which does not sink or
sinks slowly has insufficient amount of hemoglobin.
In a flame test, its copper ions emit a deep green light, a much deeper green than the flame
test for barium.In the presence of chlorine, copper ions emit a deep blue light.
principle:
and produced equivalent amount of iodine can be titrated with thiosulfate solution.
For the best results reaction should take place in the slightly acidic solution (pH around 4-5),
correct pH is obtained by addition of ammonia and acetic acid, effectively creating acetic
buffer. Lab practice shows that the end point is sharper when we add some thiocyanate to the
solution. Copper (I) thiocyanate is slightly less soluble than iodide, which makes concentration
of Cu+ even lower, increasing the oxidation potential of the Cu2+/Cu+ system.
This is followed during titration by the reaction of the iodine with the thiosulfate:
solutions used
To perform the determination we will need concentrated ammonia and concentrated acetic acid
solutions, solid potassium iodide, titrant - 0.1 M thiosulfate solution, and indicator - starch.
procedure
1. Pipette aliquot containing copper (II) into 250 mL conical flask with a glass stopper.
2. Add concentrated ammonia till solution turns dark blue.
3. Add concentrated acetic acid till solution loses dark blue color, and then about 3mL.
4. Add 2 g of solid potassium iodide, swirl well.
5. Put stopper on the flask and put solution in a dark place for 5 minutes.
6. Titrate swirling the flask, until a pale yellow.
7. Add 5 ml of the starch solution.
8. Add 1 g of potassium thiocyanate.
9. Titrate swirling the flask, until blue color disappears.
Calculations:
1ml 0f 0.1N Na2S2O3 0.02497 gm of CUSO4.5H2O
V x ch.f. = gm of CUSO4 IN 10 ml of unknown
gms of CUSO4 /10 x100 =% w /v for liquid unknown.
Argentometric methods
Introduction:
In general, titrations governed by precipitation reactions do not really constitute an
appreciable number in volumetric determinations in comparison to either redox or acid-base
The four cardinal parameters that may be considered for a feasible argentometric analysis
are:
Assay methods
Argentometric titrations may be divided into two broad categories:
practical lab 9
1. Preparation of 0.1 N Silver Nitrate Solutions
Materials Required:
Silver nitrate (AR): 16.989 g.
or AgNO3 ≡ NaCl ≡ H
or 169.89 g AgNO3 ≡ 58.45 g NaCl ≡ 1000 ml N
or 0.01699 g AgNO3 ≡ 0.005845 g NaCl ≡ 1 ml 0.1 N AgNO3
Materials Required :
Sodium chloride : 0.1 g ; acetic acid (33% w/v) : 5 ml ; methyl alcohol (95%) : 50 ml ; eosin
solution (0.5% w/v in water) : 5 ml ; 0.1 N silver nitrate solution.
Procedure:
1. Weigh accurately about 0.1 g of sodium chloride, previously dried at 110°C for 2
hours,
2. dissolve in 5 ml of water. Add 5 ml of acetic acid, 50 ml of methyl alcohol and three
drops of eosin solution.
3. Stir thoroughly on a magnetic stirrer and titrate with the silver nitrate solution till the
white particles of AgCl change from white to pink.
4. Each 0.005844 g of sodium chloride is equivalent to 1 ml of 0.1N silver nitrate.
Practical lab 10
Assay of Potassium Chloride
introduction:
principle:
Materials Required :
Potassium chloride : 0.25 g ; potassium chromate solution (5% w/v in water) :
10 ml ; 0.1 N silver nitrate solution.
Procedure :
1. Weigh accurately about 0.25 g of potassium chloride in a conical flask.
2. Dissolve it in 50 ml of DW .
3. titrate with 0.1 N silver nitrate solution, using 2-3 drops of potassium chromate solution
as indicator till precipitation of red chromate is indicated.