SUSTAINABLE PLANNING

AND ARCHITECTURE

UNIT - 2
Eco system and food chain
Natural cycles
Ecological foot print
Climate change and Sustainability
ENVIRONMENT IS AFFECTED BY:

There is environmental impact of war - preparation of war and warfare leads to

environmental losses. The carpet bombing of the lush green forests during the
Vietnam war led to the loss of habitat of many species.

Special features on population and the environment show how population has
increased from the industrial age and how it will affect the environment. There are
additional resources for higher classes.

Due to development, we remove trees and vegetation, change how we use land,
and keep expanding paved areas. All these not only affect the soil ecology, but
also the water balance. Increased urbanization also requires more water to feed
the city's population and industry, often requiring deeper and deeper wells to be
drilled or water to be moved from even more distant locations.

Exotic species get destroyed faster than we can discover them and ancient
ecosystems are getting disturbed in our scientific explorations.
 Ecology?
• The branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one
another and to their physical surroundings or abiotic environment.

• Ecology is mainly the study of Ecosystems

Levels of Organisation

Cells – Tissues – Organs –

Organ Systems – Organisms
– Population – Community –
Ecosystem - Biosphere
 ECOSYSTEM?
The portion of the earth which sustains life is called biosphere. Biosphere is very huge and cannot be studied
as a single entity. It is divided into many distinct functional units called ecosystem.

The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935. An

ecosystem is a functional unit of nature encompassing complex
interaction between its biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components. For example- a pond is a good example of ecosystem.
Biophysical Elements of Ecosystem:

Atmosphere - the gaseous portion of the ecosystem

Hydrosphere-the liquid portion of the ecosystem

Lithosphere –the solid portion of the ecosystem

Ecosphere or Biosphere-the part of planet where life exists. It is the sum of the entire
ecosystem put together.

Functions of ecosystem:

Ecosystems are complex dynamic system. They perform certain functions. These are:-

(i) Energy flow through food chain

(ii) Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
(iii) Ecological succession or ecosystem development
(iv) Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms
Ponds, lakes, meadows, marshlands, grasslands, deserts and forests are examples of natural
ecosystem.
 (building blocks of living
Systems)

Abiotic Components:
The Non -living portion of an ecosystem.

Factors:
Temperature, Salinity, Sunlight, Substrate texture & composition, pH, Chemical make up, Moisture.

Biotic Components:
The living portion of an ecosystem.
Producers -food produced form inorganic matter & sunlight energy-green plants.
Consumers -food from consuming other organisms-animals.
Decomposers-food form decomposition of dead organisms-bacteria & fungi
Types of ecosystems

Ecosystems are classified as follows:

(i) Natural ecosystems (ii) Man made ecosystems

(i) Natural ecosystems

(a) Totally dependent on solar radiation e.g. forests, grasslands, oceans, lakes, rivers and
deserts. They provide food, fuel, fodder and medicines.
(b) Ecosystems dependent on energy subsidies (alternative sources) such as wind, rain and
tides. e.g tropical rain forests, tidal estuaries and coral reefs.

(ii) Man made ecosystems

(a) Dependent on solar energy-e.g. Agricultural fields and aquaculture ponds.

(b) Dependent on fossil fuel e.g. urban and industrial ecosystems.
POND AS AN EXAMPLE OF AN ECOSYSTEM

A pond is an example of a complete, closed and an independent ecosystem. It is convenient

to study its basic structure and functions. It works on solar energy and maintains its biotic
community in equilibrium.
(a) Abiotic components

•Light: Solar radiation provides energy that controls the entire system. Penetration of light depends on
transparency of water, amount of dissolved or suspended particles in water and the number of plankton.
•On the basis of extent of penetration of light a pond can be divided into euphotic (eu=true,photic=light),
mesophotic and aphotic zones. Plenty of light is available to plants and animals in euphotic zone. No light
is available in the aphotic zone.

Inorganic substances: These are water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and a few other elements
like sulphur depending on the location of the pond. The inorganic substances like O2 and CO2 are in
dissolved state in water. All plants and animals depend on water for their food and exchange of gases-
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and other inorganic salts are held in reserve in bottom sediment and inside
the living organisms. A very small fraction may be in the dissolved state.

Organic compounds: The commonly found organic matter in the pond are amino acids and humic acids
and the breakdown products of dead animals and plants. They are partly dissolved in water and partly
suspended in water.
(b) Biotic components

(i) Producers or autotrophs: synthesize food for all the heterotrophs of the pond. They can be categorized
into two groups:-
(a) Floating microorganisms and plants
(b) Rooted plants

(a) Floating microorganisms (green) and plants are called phytoplankton (“phyto”- plants,“plankton” –
floating). They are microscopic organisms. Sometimes they are so abundant in pond that they make it look
green in colour e.g. Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Diatoms, Volvox.

(b) Rooted plants: These are arranged in concentric zones from periphery to the deeper layers. Three
distinct zones of aquatic plants can be seen with increasing depth of water in the following order:

i) Zone of emergent vegetation: . eg. Typha, Bulrushes and Sagittaria

ii) Zone of rooted vegetation with floating leaves . eg. Nymphaea
iii) Zone of submergent vegetation: eg. All pond weeds like Hydrilla etc

(ii) Consumers/Heterotrophs are animals which feed directly or indirectly on autotrophs eg. Tadpole,
snails, sunfish, bass etc.

Pond animals can be classified into the following groups

(a) Zooplanktons are floating animals. Cyclops, Cypris
(b) Nektons are the animals that can swim and navigate at will. Eg. fishes
(c) Benthic animals are the bottom dwellers: beetle, mites, mollusks andsome crustaceans.

(iii) Decomposers: They are distributed through out the entire in the whole pond but in the sediment most
abundant. There are bacteria and fungi. (Rhizopus, Penicillium,Curvularia ,Cladosporium) found at the
bottom of the pond.
Threats to Ecosystems

Anything that attempts to alter the balance of the ecosystem potentially threatens the health and existence
of that ecosystem. Some of these threats are :

Habitat Destruction
Economic activities such as logging, mining, farming and construction often involve clearing out places
with natural vegetative cover. Very often, tampering with one factor of the ecosystem can have a ripple
effect on it and affect many more or all other factors of that ecosystem. For example, clearing a piece of
forest for timber can expose the upper layers of the soil to the sun's heat, causing erosion and drying. It
can cause a lot of animals and insects that depended on the shade and moisture from the tree to die or
migrate to other places.

Pollution
Water, land and air pollution all together play a crucial role in the health of ecosystems. Pollution may be
natural or human caused, but regardless they potentially release destructive agents or chemicals
(pollutants) into the environments of living things. “In a lake, for example, it can create havoc on the
ecological balance by stimulating plant growth and causing the death of fish due to suffocation resulting
from lack of oxygen. The oxygen cycle will stop, and the polluted water will also affect the animals
dependent on the lake water” Source: Study the effect of pollution on an ecosystem, WWF.

Invasive species
Any foreign specie (biological) that finds its way into an ecosystem, either by natural or human
introduction can have an effect on the ecosystem. If this alien has the ability to prey on vulnerable and
native members of that ecosystem, they will be wiped out, sooner or later. One devastating impact of
introducing alien Nile Perch and Nile Tilapia into Lake Victoria in the 1970s was the extinction of almost
half of the 350+ endemic species of fish in the cichlid family.
 Eutrophication
This is the enrichment of water bodies with plant
biomass as a result of continuous inflow of
nutrients particularly nitrogen and phosphorus.
Eutrophication of water fuels excessive plant and
algae growth and also hurts water life, often
resulting in the loss of flora and fauna diversity.
“The known consequences of cultural
eutrophication include blooms of blue-green algae
(i.e., cyanobacteria, Figure 2), tainted drinking
water supplies, degradation of recreational
opportunities, and hypoxia.

Overharvesting
Fish species, game and special plants all do fall victim from time to time as a result of over harvesting or humans
over dependence on them. Overharvesting leads to reduction in populations, community structures and distributions,
with an overall reduction in recruitment. Lots of fish species are know to have reached their maximum exploitation
level, and others will soon be. “For example Oreochromis karongae is one of the most valuable food fishes in
Malawi, but populations collapsed in the 1990s due to overfishing, and it is now assessed as Endangered.” Source:
IUCN, Major Threats

UV Radiation
The sun’s rays play an important role in living things. UV rays come in three main wavelengths: UVA, UVB and UVC,
and they have different properties. UVA has long wavelengths and reaches the earth’s surface all the time. It helps
generate vitamin D for living things. UVB and UVC are more destructive and can cause DNA and cell damage to
plants and animals. Ozone depletion is one way that exposes living things to UVB and UVC and the harm caused
can wipe lots of species, and affect ecosystems members including humans. Usually, biotic members of an
ecosystem, together with their abiotics factors depend on each other. This means the absence of one member, or
one abiotic factor can affect all parties of the ecosystem.

Unfortunately ecosystems have been disrupted, and even destroyed by natural disasters such as fires, floods, storms
and volcanic eruptions. Human activities have also contributed to the disturbance of many ecosystems and biomes.
The Elements of Life:
Six elements which make up the mass of all organisms- Sulphur, Phosphorous, Carbon, Hydrogen &
Nitrogen,Oxygen.
The movements of these elements through ecosystems have been extensively studied by biologists &
geologists-through Elemental Cycles or Nutrient Cycles or Biogeochemical Cycles.

Biomass:
The total mass weight of organisms in a population, community or ecosystems

Food chains and energy flow are the functional properties of ecosystems which make them dynamic.

Food Chain :
A series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food. Transfer of food energy from green
plants (producers) through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten is called a food chain.
Each step in the food chain is called trophic level. During this process of transfer of energy some energy is
lost into the system as heat energy and is not available to the next trophic level.

Food Web is a system of interlocking and

interdependent food chains. Food webs are more
realistic models of energy flow through an ecosystem
(1) Autotrophs: They are the producers of food for all other organisms of the ecosystem. They are largely
green plants and convert inorganic material in the presence of solar energy by the process of
photosynthesis into the chemical energy (food). The total rate at which the radiant energy is stored by
the process of photosynthesis in the green plants is called Gross Primary Production (GPP). This is
also known as total photosynthesis or total assimilation. From the gross primary productivity a part is
utilized by the plants for its own metabolism. The remaining amount is stored by the plant as Net
Primary Production (NPP) which is available to consumers.

(2) Herbivores: The animals which eat the plants directly are called primary consumers or herbivores e.g.
insects, birds, rodents and ruminants.

(3) Carnivores: They are secondary consumers if they feed on herbivores and tertiary consumers if they
use carnivores as their food. e.g. frog, dog, cat and tiger.

(4) Omnivores: Animals that eat both plant and animals e.g. pig, bear and man

(5) Decomposers: They take care of the dead remains of organisms at each trophic level and help in
recycling of the nutrients e.g. bacteria and fungi.

Types of food chains:

(i) Grazing food chains: which starts from the green plants that make food for herbivores and herbivores in
turn for the carnivores.

(ii) Detritus food chains: start from the dead organic matter to the detrivore organisms which in turn make
food for protozoan to carnivores etc.
In an ecosystem the two chains are interconnected and make y-shaped food chain.

Trophic levels in an ecosystem are not linear rather they are interconnected and make a food web.
At every step in a food chain or web the
energy received by the organism is used to
sustain itself and the left over is passed on to
the next trophic level.

Model of energy flow through an ecosystem.

Boxes indicate the standing
crop biomass and pipes indicate the energy
flowing. (NU = Not utilized, R =
Respiration)
Ecological Pyramid:
Ecological pyramids are the graphic representations of trophic levels in an ecosystem. They are pyramidal in
shape and they are of three types. A pyramid of biomass is a more accurate indication of how much energy is
passed on at each trophic level.

Trophic Levels in Ecosystem:

(1) Pyramid of number: This represents the number of organisms at each trophic level. For example in a
grassland the number of grasses is more than the number of herbivores that feed on them and the
number of herbivores is more than the number of carnivores. In some instances the pyramid of number
may be inverted, i.e herbivores are more than primary producers as you may observe that many
caterpillars and insects feed on a single tree.

(2) Pyramid of biomass: This represents the total standing crop biomass at each trophic level. Standing
crop biomass is the amount of the living matter at any given time. It is expressed as gm/unit area or
kilo cal/unit area. In most of the terrestrial ecosystems the pyramid of biomass is upright. However, in
case of aquatic ecosystems the pyramid of biomass may be inverted e.g. in a pond phytoplankton are
the main producers, they have very short life cycles and a rapid turn over rate (i.e. they are rapidly
replaced by new plants). Therefore, their total biomass at any given time is less than the biomass of
herbivores supported by them.

(3) Pyramid of energy: This pyramid represents the total amount of energy at each trophic level. Energy
is expressed in terms of rate such as kcal/unit area /unit time or cal/unit area/unit time.eg. in a lake
autotroph energy is 20810 kcal/m/year . Energy pyramids are never inverted.
ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY:

It is clear from the trophic structure of an ecosystem that the amount of energy decreases at each subsequent
trophic level. This is due to two reasons:
1. At each trophic a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in
metabolism.
2. A part of energy is lost at each transformation, i.e. when it moves from lower to higer trophic level as heat.

It is the ratio between the amount of energy acquired from the lower trophic level and the amount of energy
transferred from higher trophic level is called ecological efficiency.

Lindman in 1942 defined these ecological efficiencies for the 1st time and proposed 10% rule e.g. if autotrophs
produce 100 cal, herbivores will be able to store 10 cal. and carnivores 1cal. However, there may be slight
variations in different ecosystems and ecological efficiencies may range from 5 to 35%. Ecological efficiency
(also called Lindman’s efficiency) can be represented as

Significance of studying food chains

1. It helps in understanding the feeding relations and interactions among different organisms of an ecosystem.
2. It explain the flow of energy and circulation of materials in ecosystems.
3. It help in understanding the concept of biomagnification in ecosystems.
Cycles of the Earth System

Our planet is constantly changing. Natural cycles balance and regulate Earth and its atmosphere.
Human activities can cause changes to these natural cycles. Life on Earth is well adapted to our
planet’s cycles. In our solar system, Earth is the only planet with air to breathe, liquid water to drink, and
temperatures that are just right for life as we know it. Because our existence depends on our planet
and its climate, we need to understand how what we do affects the Earth. Scientists try to figure out
how our planet works by studying Earth’s cycles. Changes to Earth’s cycles can cause changes in
the climates of our planet. The more we know about these cycles, the more we will understand how
humans are affecting them and how that might change the planet.

The Energy Balance

Earth gets all its energy from the Sun and loses energy into space. If more energy is lost into space
than is received from the Sun, the planet gets cooler. If it loses less energy than it receives, the
planet will warm up. Have you noticed that it is often cooler when there are clouds in the sky? Some
types of clouds act like giant sun umbrellas, shading the Earth and reflecting the sunlight that hits them.
Other types of clouds act like a jacket, holding the heat in and preventing it from leaving the atmosphere.
Today, most clouds act more like a sun umbrella and help keep our climate cool. However, this could
change if global warming affects the type of clouds, their thickness, and how much water or ice they
contain.
While it might be quite warm in the countryside on a summer day, it can get unbearably hot in a nearby
city! That’s because the buildings and pavement in cities absorb oodles of sunlight, much more than the
countryside. These cities are called “heat islands.” The countryside is also cooled by water evaporating
from lakes and given off by the plants in forests and fields. Cities have fewer plants and bodies of water
and so are not cooled very much by evaporation.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

In ecosystems flow of energy is linear but that of nutrients is cyclical. This is because energy flows
down hill i.e. it is utilized or lost as heat as it flows forward. The nutrients on the other hand cycle from
dead remains of organisms released back into the soil by detrivores which are absorbed again i.e. nutrient
absorbed from soil by the root of green plants are passed on to herbivores and then carnivores. The
nutrients locked in the dead remains of organisms and released back into the soil by detrivores and
decomposers. This recycling of the nutrients is called biogeochemical or nutrient cycle (Bio = living,
geo = rock chemical = element).

There are more than 40 elements required for the various life processes by plants and animals. The
entire earth or biosphere is a closed system i.e. nutrients are neither imported nor exported from the
biosphere.

There are two important components of a biogeochemical cycle

(1) Reservoir pool - atmosphere or rock, which stores large amounts of nutrients.

(2) Cycling pool or compartments of cycle-They are relatively short storages of carbon in the form of
plants and animals.
CARBON CYCLE

•The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere,
geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. It is one of the most important cycles of the earth and
allows for carbon to be recycled and reused throughout the biosphere and all of its organisms.

• The Carbon Cycle is a complex series of processes through which all of the carbon atoms in existence rotate.
Without the proper functioning of the carbon cycle, every aspect of life could be changed dramatically. Plants,
animals, and soil interact to make up the basic cycles of nature.

• Carbon is an essential part of all organic molecules, and, as constituents of the atmosphere, carbon
compounds such as CO2, and CH4, substantially influence global climate. This connection between
atmospheric carbon and climate has drawn all nations of the planet into discussions of the ecology of carbon
cycling.

• Carbon moves between organisms and the atmosphere as a consequence of two reciprocal biological
processes: photosynthesis and respiration.

•Photosynthesis removes CO2 from the atmosphere, while respiration by primary producers & consumers,
including decomposers, returns carbon to the atmosphere in the form of CO2.

• In aquatic ecosystems, CO2 must first dissolve in water before being used by aquatic primary producers. Once
dissolved in water, CO2 enters a chemical equilibrium with bicarbonate, HCO3, and carbonate, CO3. Carbonate
may precipitate out of solution as calcium carbonate and may be buried in ocean sediments.

• While some carbon cycles are rapidly between organisms and the atmosphere, some remains sequestered in
relatively unavailable forms for long periods of time. Carbon in soils, peat, fossil fuels, and carbonate rock would
generally take a long time to return to the atmosphere.

• During modern times. however, fossil fuels have become a major source of atmospheric CO2 as humans
have tapped into fossil fuel supplies to provide energy for their economic systems.
The source of all carbon is carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. It is highly soluble in water;
therefore, oceans also contain large quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide. The global carbon cycle
consists of following steps-
Photosynthesis
Green plants in the presence of sunlight utilize CO2 in the process of photosynthesis and convert the inorganic
carbon into organic matter (food) and release oxygen. A part of the food made through photosynthesis is used
by plants for their own metabolism and the rest is stored as their biomass which is available to various herbivores,
heterotrophs, including human beings and microorganisms as food.
Annually 4-9 x1013 kg of CO2 is fixed by green plants of the entire biosphere. Forests acts as reservoirs of CO2
as carbon fixed by the trees remain stored in them for long due to their long life cycles. A very large amount of CO2
is released through forest fires.

Respiration
Respiration is carried out by all living organisms. It is a metabolic process where food is oxidized to liberate energy,
CO2 and water. The energy released from respiration is used for carrying out life processes by living organism
(plants, animals, decomposers etc.). Thus CO2 is released into of the atmosphere through this process.

Decomposition
All the food assimilated by animals or synthesized by plant is not metabolized by them completely. A major part is
retained by them as their own biomass which becomes available to decomposers on their death. The dead organic
matter is decomposed by microorganisms and CO2 is released into the atmosphere by decomposers.

Combustion
Burning of biomass releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Impact of human activities

The global carbon cycle has been increasingly disturbed by human activities particularly since the beginning of
industrial era. Large scale deforestation and ever growing consumption of fossil fuels by growing numbers of
industries, power plants and automobiles are primarily responsible for increasing emission of carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide has been continuously increasing in the atmosphere due to human activities such as
industrialization, urbanization and increasing use and number of automobiles. This is leading to increase
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, which is a major cause of global warming.
NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen is an essential component of protein and

required by all living organisms including human
beings.
Our atmosphere contains nearly 79% of nitrogen
but it can not be used directly by the majority of
living organisms. Broadly like corbondioxide,
nitrogen also cycles from gaseous phase to solid
phase then back to gaseous phase through the
activity of a wide variety of organisms. Cycling of
nitrogen is vitally important for all living organisms.
There are five main processes which essential for
nitrogen cycle are elaborated below.
• Nitrogen is important to the structure and functioning of organisms. It forms part of key biomolecules such
as amino acids, nucleic acids, and the porphyrin rings of chlorophyll and hemoglobin. Nitrogen
supplies may limit rates of primary production in marine and terrestrial environments.
•The nitrogen cycle is the set of biogeochemical processes by which nitrogen undergoes chemical
reactions, changes form, and moves through difference reservoirs on earth, including living organisms.
•Nitrogen is required for all organisms to live and grow because it is the essential component of DNA, RNA,
and protein. However, most organisms cannot use atmospheric nitrogen, the largest reservoir.
•The five processes in the nitrogen cycle i. Nitrogen fixation ii. Nitrogen uptake iii. Nitrogen
mineralization iv. Nitrification v. De-nitrification
•The nitrogen cycle includes a major atmospheric pool in the form of molecular nitrogen, N2. However, only
a few organisms can use this atmospheric supply of molecular nitrogen directly. These organisms, called
nitrogen fixers, include the cyanobacteria, or bluegreen algae, of freshwater, marine, and soil
environments.
• Because of the strong triple bonds between the two nitrogen atoms in the N2 molecule, nitrogen fixation is
an energy demanding process. During nitrogen fixation, N2 is reduced to ammonia, NH3.
•Nitrogen fixation takes place under aerobic conditions in terrestrial and aquatic environments, where
nitrogen fixing species oxidize sugars to obtain the required energy. Nitrogen fixation also occurs as a
physical process associated with the high pressures and energy generated by lightning. Once nitrogen is
fixed by nitrogen fixing organisms, it becomes available to other organisms within an ecosystem. Upon the
death of an organism, the nitrogen in its tissues can be released by fungi and bacteria involved in the
decomposition process. These fungi and bacteria release nitrogen as ammonium, NH4 +, which may be
converted to nitrate, NO3 by other bacteria.
•Ammonium and nitrate can be used directly by bacteria, fungi, or plants. The nitrogen in bacterial, fungal,
and plant biomass may pass on to populations of animal consumers or back to the pool of dead organic
matter, where it will be recycled again.
•Nitrogen may exit the organic matter pool of an ecosystem through denitrification. Denitrification is an
energy yielding process that occurs under anaerobic conditions and converts nitrate to molecular nitrogen,
N2. The molecular nitrogen produced by denitrifying bacteria moves into the atmosphere and can only
reenter the organic matter pool through nitrogen fixation. Ecologists estimate that the mean residence time
of fixed nitrogen in the biosphere is about 625 years.
(1) Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into
Ammonia, a form in which it can be used by plants. Atmospheric nitrogen can be
fixed by the following three methods:-
(i) Atmospheric fixation: Lightening, combustion and volcanic activity help in the
fixation of nitrogen.
(ii) Industrial fixation: At high temperature (400 degC) and high pressure (200 atm.),
molecular nitrogen is broken into atomic nitrogen which then combines with hydrogen
to form ammonia.
(iii) Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria-
(a) Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plants.
(b) Freeliving or symbiotic e.g. 1. Nostoc 2. Azobacter 3. Cyanobacteria cancombine
atmospheric or dissolved nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia.

(2) Nitrification: It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites

by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria respectively. Another soil bacteria
Nitrobacter can covert nitrate into nitrite.

(3) Assimilation: In this process nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic
molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA etc. These molecules make the plant and
animal tissue.

(4) Ammonification : Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as

urea and uric acid. These waste products as well as dead remains of organisms are
converted back into inorganic ammonia by the bacteria This process is called
ammonification. Ammonifying bacteria help in this process.

(e) Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called

denitrification. Denitrifying bacteria live deep in soil near the water table as they like to
live in oxygen free medium. Denitrification is reverse of nitrogen fixation
PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE

• Phosphorus is essential to the energetics, genetics, and structure of living systems. For instance,
phosphorus forms part of the ATP, RNA, DNA, and phospholipid molecules. While of great biological
importance, phosphorus is not very abundant in the biosphere.

•In contrast to carbon and nitrogen, the global phosphorus cycle does not include a substantial
atmospheric pool.

•The largest quantities of phosphorus occur in mineral deposits and marine sediments. Sedimentary
rocks that are especially rich in phosphorus are mined for fertilizer and applied to agricultural soils.
Soil may contain substantial quantities of phosphorus. However, much of the phosphorus in soils
occurs in chemical forms not directly available to plants.

•Phosphorus is slowly released to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems through the weathering of
rocks. As phosphorus is released from mineral deposits, it is absorbed by plants and recycled within
ecosystems.

•However, much phosphorus is washed into rivers and eventually finds its way to the oceans, where
it will remain in dissolved form until eventually finding its way to the ocean sediments.

•Ocean sediments will be eventually transformed into phosphate bearing sedimentary rocks that
through geological uplift can form new land. The phosphorus released by the weathering of
sedimentary rocks has made at least one passage through the global phosphorus cycle.

•They estimate that the mean residence time of phosphorus in the biosphere is on the order of
thousands of years.
Water Cycle

Water is essential for life. No organism can survive

without water. Precipitation (rain,snow, slush dew
etc.) is the only source of water on the earth. Water
received from the atmosphere on the earth returns
back to the atmosphere as water vapour resulting
from direct evaporation and through
evapotranspiration the continuous movement of
water in the biosphere is called water cycle
(hydrological cycle). You have already studied that
earth is a watery planet of the solar system, about
2/3rd of earth surface is covered with water.
However a very small fraction of this is available to
animals and plants.

Water is not evenly distributed throughout the surface of the earth. Almost 95 % of the total water on the earth
is chemically bound to rocks and does not cycle. Out of the remaining 5%, nearly 97.3% is in the oceans and
2.1% exists as polar ice caps. Thus only 0.6% is present as fresh water in the form of atmospheric water
vapours, ground and soil water.
The driving forces for water cycle are 1) solar radiation 2) gravity .
Evaporation and precipitation are two main processes involved in water cycle. These two processes
alternate with each other
Water from oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams evaporates by sun’s heat energy. Plants also transpire
huge amounts of water. Water remains in the vapour state in air and forms clouds which drift with wind. Clouds
meet with the cold air in the mountainous regions above the forests and condense to form rain precipitate
which comes down due to gravity.
On an average 84% of the water is lost from the surface of the earth through oceans byevaporation. While
77% is gained by it from precipitation. Water run off from lands through rivers to oceans makes up 7% which
balances the evaporation deficit of the ocean. On land, evaporation is 16% and precipitation is 23%.
Ecosystem Management:

Is a relatively new discipline in environmental science that attempts to integrate

ecological, economic & social goals.
It is a unified systems approach to make environmental management decisions.
Ecological Balance:

“A state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in which

genetic, species and ecosystem diversity remain relatively stable, subject to
gradual changes through natural succession." and "A stable balance in the
numbers of each species in an ecosystem."

By nature balance in an ecosystem is maintained.

This balance may be disturbed due to the introduction of new species, the sudden
death of some species, natural hazards or man-made causes. Human population
and development affects the ecological balance.

Karen Hill tribes living in balance with nature. Huay Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand.
Ecological Interactions:

An ecosystem has diverse living organisms, these living organisms are

categorized on the basis of the level of organization. So at the basic numbers
level we have the population, then we identify the species and community to
which that organism belongs, how it interacts with the ecosystem and other
organisms in the ecosystem.

Ecological Footprints:

The impact of human activities measured in terms of the area of biologically

productive land and water required to produce the goods consumed and to
assimilate the wastes generated. More simply, it is the amount of the environment
necessary to produce the goods and services necessary to support a particular
lifestyle.

It is also measured as how much nations consume versus how much they actually
have.

The Ecological Footprint is an indicator of human pressure on nature.

Humanity is currently using the renewable resources of 1.5 Earths to meet our
yearly demands for energy, food, shelter, and the things we do and buy.
People living in richer, more developed countries generally have a higher
Footprint than those living in less developed countries.
•EF is measured in global hectares (gha),
and global hectares per capita (gha/pc). A
global hectare quantifies the biocapacity
and measures the average productivity of
all biologically productive areas in a given
year. A global hectare per capita refers to
the amount of biologically productive land
and water consumed per person.

•The United Arab Emirates (10.7 gha/pc),

Qatar (10.5) and the United States (8.0)
are those with heavier ecological footprint
per capita, i.e., they threaten the global
sustainability.

•An average German uses 5.1 hectares, a

Brazilian, 2.9; a Chinese, 2.2. In Japan
4,7. Russia, 4.4, Portugal, 4.5, Argentina,
2.6. The average Indian has an ecological
footprint of 0.9 gha/pc. The global
footprint is 2.7 global hectares per capita.

•If the entire population of the planet

adopted a lifestyle similar to the U.S., we
would need four planets Earth because
the biocapacity of a single planet is
insufficient to sustain the demands of the
population.
In 2007, the average biologically productive area per person worldwide was approximately 1.8 global
hectares (gha) per capita.

Per capita ecological footprint (EF), or ecological footprint analysis (EFA), is a means of comparing
consumption and lifestyles, and checking this against nature's ability to provide for this consumption. The
tool can inform policy by examining to what extent a nation uses more (or less) than is available within its
territory, or to what extent the nation's lifestyle would be replicable worldwide.
CLIMATE CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY
CLIMATE CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY
• Long term changes in the average weather patterns/ temperature. Often used interchangeably with Global
Warming or Green House Gas Effect phrases and is linked to man made acceleration of the amount of CO2
produced globally.

• Adaptation - Developing ways of new ways of living, in order to cope with a changing environment and more
extreme weather changes.

• Mitigation - Encouraging people to take action to minimise or avoid further rises in green house gases now in order
to prevent greater changes in the future.

• Climate change is now affecting every country on every continent. It is disrupting national economies and
affecting lives, costing people, communities and countries dearly today and even more tomorrow.

• People are experiencing the significant impacts of climate change, which include changing weather patterns,
rising sea level, and more extreme weather events. The greenhouse gas emissions from human activities are
driving climate change and continue to rise.

•They are now at their highest levels in history. Without action, the worlds average surface temperature is
projected to rise over the 21st century and is likely to surpass 3 degrees Celsius this century—with some areas of the
world expected to warm even more. The poorest and most vulnerable people are being affected the most.

• Affordable, scalable solutions are now available to enable countries to leapfrog to cleaner, more resilient
economies. The pace of change is quickening as more people are turning to renewable energy and a range of other
measures that will reduce emissions and increase adaptation efforts.

• But climate change is a global challenge that does not respect national borders. Emissions anywhere affect
people everywhere. It is an issue that requires solutions that need to be coordinated at the international level and it
requires international cooperation to help developing countries move toward a low-carbon economy. To address
climate change, countries adopted the Paris Agreement.
190. We reaffirm that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of our time, and we express
profound alarm that emissions of greenhouse gases continue to rise globally. We are deeply concerned
that all countries, particularly developing countries, are vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate
change, and are already experiencing increased impacts, including persistent drought and extreme
weather events, sea-level rise, coastal erosion and ocean acidification, further threatening food security
and efforts to eradicate poverty and achieve sustainable development. In this regard we emphasize that
adaptation to climate change represents an immediate and urgent global priority.

191. We underscore that the global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible cooperation
by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate international response, with a
view to accelerating the reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions. We recall that the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change provides that parties should protect the climate system for
the benefit of present and future generations of humankind on the basis of equity and in accordance with
their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. We note with grave concern
the significant gap between the aggregate effect of mitigation pledges by parties in terms of global
annual emissions of greenhouse gases by 2020 and aggregate emission pathways consistent with
having a likely chance of holding the increase in global average temperature below 2° C, or 1.5° C
above pre-industrial levels. We recognize the importance of mobilizing funding from a variety of sources,
public and private, bilateral and multilateral, including innovative sources of finance, to support nationally
appropriate mitigation actions, adaptation measures, technology development and transfer and capacity-
building in developing countries. In this regard, we welcome the launching of the Green Climate Fund
and call for its prompt operationalization so as to have an early and adequate replenishment process.

192. We urge parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and parties
to the Kyoto Protocol to fully implement their commitments, as well as decisions adopted under those
agreements. In this regard, we will build upon the progress achieved, including at the seventeenth
session of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention and the seventh session of the Conference
of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol, held in Durban, South Africa,
from 28 November to 9 December 2011.
Commission on Sustainable Development

28. Climate change was recognized as a global sustainable development challenge with strong social,
economic and environmental dimensions. The recent findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change regarding the impacts of climate change on sustainable development were seen by many as a
cause for concern. Climate change impacts all countries but was noted to be particularly severe for
developing countries, especially African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing
countries, and small island developing States, which were particularly vulnerable, given their exposure and
inadequate means and limited capacities to adapt to its effects. Noting the contribution of human activities
to climate change, countries highlighted the need for urgent attention and further action by the
international community, in accordance with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, recognizing that social and economic development and poverty eradication were the overriding
priorities for developing countries. The Framework Convention was the key instrument for addressing
climate change. Deliberations by the Commission on Sustainable Development were meant to complement
and support, not duplicate, the work of the Framework Convention and its Kyoto Protocol.

29. A critical point of difference between countries concerned which issues were best left to discussion
within the Framework Convention and which could be taken up by the Commission on Sustainable
Development. Points where agreement could not be reached included calling particular attention to
principle 7 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development concerning common but differentiated
responsibilities, discussing possible commitments under the Framework Convention, making reference to
arrangements after 2012, identifying new and additional financial resources for mitigating climate
change, referencing the provision of technical and financial resources to developing countries in each
policy bullet, developing insurance schemes by developed countries for minimizing impacts of climate
change on developing countries, making reference to sustainable production and consumption
patterns and enhancing dialogue between the Kyoto Protocol and Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting
substances that were also greenhouse gases.
30. The Chairpersons proposed decision text includes actions on a number of issues on which delegations
agreed ad referendum, such as continuing support to developing countries, including through provision of
financial and technical assistance, particularly to African countries, least developed countries,
landlocked developing countries and small island developing States, to address their climate change
adaptation challenges and priorities; supporting early warning, risk management and disaster reduction
and response measures for developing countries; integrating lessons learned and experiences derived
from disaster risk reduction activities into adaptation measures; supporting the efforts of developing
countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and promoting the sustainable
management, conservation and enhancement of carbon sinks and reservoirs.

31. The importance of meeting all the commitments and obligations under the Framework Convention, in
accordance with Convention principles, including the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities
and respective capabilities, and achieving the ultimate objective of stabilizing greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with
the climate system, was stressed by many countries, although as noted above, there was objection by
some countries to making particular reference to common but differentiated responsibilities in that context.

32. There was broad agreement on the development and dissemination of advanced energy technologies,
including cleaner fossil fuels, energy efficiency and renewable energies, such as hydro, geothermal, wind,
bioenergy, such as biofuels, solar, hydrogen and other new and renewable energy sources, and
technologies that contributed to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, including through private
sector involvement, market-oriented approaches and supportive public policies and international
cooperation.

33. There was a widely shared acceptance of the continuing need to explore the technical and economic
feasibility and environmental soundness of new and emerging technologies, such as carbon capture and
storage and other emission reduction technologies for fossil fuel sources, although some countries
expressed continuing concern about the maturity and feasibility of such technologies.
34. There was also broad agreement on moving towards a longer-term strategy and a comprehensive
response to climate change by promoting sustainable economic growth, accelerating the transition to a
lower greenhouse-gas-emitting economy, and enhancing adaptive capacities and response measures to
cope with the impacts of climate change.

35. There was general agreement on the importance of increasing community resilience to climate
change-related disasters by protecting natural resources and the conservation of ecosystems and the
services they provided, through activities such as conservation and restoration of mangroves and coral
reefs, reforestation and rangeland rehabilitation, and protection of coastal areas and marine resources,
including fish stocks, and integrated water resources management, and the need to enhance and support
efforts in that regard, in particular in developing countries.

36. Discussions of regional, subregional and international cooperation on climate change included
references to enhancing international support to establish and/or strengthen regional climate
observation systems and networks; strengthening international support to enhance national institutional
capacities in developing countries and in countries with economies in transition for their effective
participation in the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation processes; strengthening
existing funding mechanisms for adaptation activities; strengthening North-South,South and triangular
cooperation in research, development and demonstration initiatives and enhancing dialogue on ozone-
depleting substances that were also greenhouse gases.