1.

Cells and Tissues

An electron microscope differs from a light microscope as it uses electrons therefore
there is greater magnification and greater resolution.

Under an electron microscope parts of the animal cell such as the ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria can be seen. Examiners often like to ask this
Question.

The Functions of the parts of the cell:

Nucleus: contains chromosomes (46 in humans) which carry the genetic information. It
controls the activity of the cell by controlling which proteins the cell will synthesise.
Cytoplasm: this is where chemical reactions occur.
Cell membrane: this controls what substances can pass in and out of the cell. It is
selectively permeable.
Mitochondria : this carries out some of the reactions in respiration.
Endoplasmic reticulum: an essential component in the synthesis and transport of protein.
It is a network of membranes.
Ribosomes: some endoplasmic reticulum are covered with minute granules called
ribosomes. These build and assemble proteins according to instructions from mRNA.
DNA structure
● DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid
● It is a double helix made from 2 strands that have twisted around each other.
● It is a polymer, meaning that it is made of many different molecules that join up to
make a long strand: in the case of DNA these molecules are called nucleotides
● Each nucleotide is made from one sugar molecule, one phosphate group (which forms
the backbone) and one of the four different organic bases
○ The 4 bases are A, C, G, T.
○ These nucleotides pair by complementary base pairing, meaning that only certain
bases can join together: C joins to G and A joins to T
● Each group of three bases codes for an amino acid and these then join together to
make a protein
● Chromosomes are structures made up of long molecules of DNA.

DNA replication:
The DNA is unwound and unzipped. Special molecules break the weak hydrogen bonds
between bases, which are holding the two strands together. DNA polymerase will add the
free DNA nucleotides using complementary base pairing (A-T and C-G). The two new
strands twist to form a double helix. Each is identical to the original strand

Gene: A short section of DNA that codes for a protein, and therefore contribute to a
characteristic. A sequence of three bases in the template strand of the DNA codes for
one amino acid. Because three bases are needed to code for one amino acid, the DNA
code is a triplet code.

RNA:
Single stranded

Has ribose sugar

Contains uracil instead of thymine

Function: Used to take information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes for protein
synthesis
Mutations: a random change in the DNA of a cell.

Phenotype and mutations

A change in DNA can affect the phenotype by altering the sequence of amino acids in a
protein. Each gene acts as a code for making a specific protein

● Each gene codes for the order in which the bases (A,T, C and G) link together

● Each triplet of bases codes for a specific amino acid

● The series of amino acids codes for a protein

● Therefore, a mutation in the bases can change the entire protein. All variants (alleles)
are caused by mutation. Most of these mutations have no effect on the phenotype, as
most of DNA is non-coding and therefore does not cause a change in any proteins.
However, some do have a small influence on phenotype and very few can have a
significant effect if they are in coding regions.

Protein synthesis

DNA is too large to leave the nucleus in order to make the proteins and therefore a
series of steps must be taken to copy and transport the genetic information.

TRANSCRIPTION

1) DNA helix is untwisted and unzipped

2) mRNA nucleotides (messenger RNA: a different type of nucleotide) match to their

complementary base on the strand.

3) The mRNA nucleotides themselves are then joined together, creating a new strand
called a template strand of the original DNA. This process is called transcription.

TRANSLATION

4) The template strand of mRNA then moves out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm and
onto structures called ribosomes

5) At the ribosomes, the bases on the mRNA are read in threes to code for an amino
acid (the first three bases code for one amino acid, the second three bases code for
another etc). This is called translation.

6) The corresponding amino acids are brought to the ribosomes by carrier molecules.

7) These amino acids connect together to form a protein. It is therefore the triplet code
of bases that determines which protein is produced and therefore expressed.

8) When the chain is complete the protein folds to form a unique 3D structure.
Genetic Engineering

This involves the formation of recombinant DNA which is a section of DNA/gene that is cut out
of the DNA of one species and is inserted into the DNA of another. The organism that receives
the gene from a different species is a transgenic organism.

Production of Genetically Modified Bacteria

Bacteria has two sorts of DNA: one is found in the circular chromosomes found in the cytoplasm
of the bacteria, and the other is found plasmids.

Restriction endonuclease is an enzyme used to cut out a section of DNA at a specific point. This
can be used to obtain the desired gene from the donor organism. Then the plasmid is extracted
from the bacteria by leaving it in a solution of calcium ions which makes the cell membrane of the
bacteria permeable.

After a plasmid has been collected from the bacteria, the same restriction endonuclease is used
to cut out a section of DNA from the plasmid leaving it open. Then the desired gene is inserted
into the plasmid and is then sealed with the use of DNA ligase. After this the recombinant plasmid
is incubated with the bacteria and the plasmid re-enters the bacteria.

Now the plasmid has the gene to produce a specific protein.

The plasmid is called a vector as it carries the gene for the coding of the protein.

Products of Genetically Modified Microorganisms

1. Human Insulin – People with diabetes require insulin but the insulin from animals is not
compatible with humans. Therefore, a human gene for insulin is injected it into bacteria for
wide-scale insulin production.
2. Growth Hormone – For some children, the pituitary gland does not produce enough growth
hormone, and this restricts their growth. Therefore, human growth hormone can be
injected to ensure healthy growth.
3. Hepatitis B vaccine – Yeast cells can be modified to produce the antigen of the hepatitis
B virus. When the vaccine is injected into a patient, their body makes antibodies against
the proteins, so the person becomes immune to the virus.

Production of Genetically Modified Plants

Bacteria can have plasmids injected into them as they have only one cell, however plants have
billions of cells so it would be impossible to inject a desired gene into all the cells of the plant.
Therefore, a soil bacterium called Agrobacterium is used as a vector.

Agrobacterium injects plasmids into plant cells and therefore can be used to insert the desired
gene.

Agrobacterium is genetically modified, and the desired gene is inserted into the Agrobacterium
using restriction endonuclease and DNA ligase. After this leaf discs are obtained from the plant to
be modified and the discs are treated with genetically modified Agrobacterium and is then
cultivated on a nutrient medium. These plantlets grow into a new plant who contain the foreign
gene.

However, this technique cannot be used on all plants as Agrobacterium cannot infect cereal.
Therefore, the gene gun is used to inject the desired gene into plant cells which is not compatible
with Agrobacterium. The gene gun inserts gold pellets coated with DNA that contains the required
gene.

The gene gun can be used to produce ‘golden rice’. The rice has three genes added to its normal
DNA content. Two of these genes come from the daffodils and the other comes from bacterium.
Together, these genes allow rice to produce beta-carotene. This chemical is converted to Vitamin
A when consumed and this can help the save the eyesight of people who do not have the
necessary vitamin A in their diet.

Mitosis: occurs during growth, repair, cloning and asexual reproduction.

Stages of Mitosis

1. Prophase

Before mitosis, the DNA replicates itself and the chromosomes form to exact copies
called chromatids. The chromatids are joined at the centromere and are visible during
division. The nuclear membrane breaks down.

2. Metaphase

The spindle fibre forms. The chromosomes at the equator of the spindle fibre,
attached to it by the centromeres.

3. Anaphase

The spindle fibre shortens and pulls the chromatids to the opposite ends of the cells.
The chromatids separate to form the chromosomes of the two daughter cells.

4. Telophase

The nuclei start forming at the poles of the cells. The cytoplasm starts to divide to
produce two daughter cells. Both daughter cells have a copy of each chromosome
from the parent cell. Diploid.
Stem Cells

Types of stem cells

1. Embryonic stem cells

● Form when an egg and sperm cell fuse to form a zygote

● They can differentiate into any type of cell in the body

● Scientists can clone these cells (though culturing them) and direct them to
differentiate into almost any cell in the body

● These could potentially be used to replace insulin-producing cells in those suffering

from diabetes, new neural cells for diseases such as Alzheimer’s, or nerve cells for those
paralysed with spinal cord injuries

2. Adult stem cells

● If found in bone marrow they can form many types of cells (not any type, like
embryonic stem cells can) including blood cells

Stem cells in medicine

Benefits

Can be used to replace damaged cells, such as in type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis and
paralysis caused by spinal cord injuries

Bone marrow transplants for adult stem cells can be used to treat blood cell cancers,
such as leukaemia

Can grow whole organs for transplants

No rejection, if it is made from the patient’s own cells

Can allow for the testing of millions of potential drugs without animal testing

Risks

Ethical issues of destroying unused embryos

No guarantee in how successful these therapies will be and if there will be any long term
effects

Mutations could occur in cultured stem cells

Difficult to find suitable stem cell donors

Cell grouping.
Organelles: specialised subcellular structures found within living cells (detailed in the next section)

Cells: basic structural unit of a living organism,

Tissues: group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform the same function
Organs: group of tissues, working together to perform specific functions

Organ systems: group of organs with similar functions, working together to perform body functions
An example of this would be the respiratory organ system, containing the lungs (organ), which is
made up of epithelial tissue consisting of epithelial cells.

Bone is a tissue made of cells that secrete a hard material made of calcium salts. Other tissues
include blood, which is made of various types of red and white blood cells in a liquid matrix called
plasma, and nervous tissue which makes up the brain, spinal cord and nerves.

Tissues that line organs are called epithelia . a ciliated epithelium cell, which has tiny hair-like
projections called cilia. Cilia are able to beat (wave backwards and forwards) to move liquids along
trachea. There are several other types of epithelia, such as the flattened cells lining the human
cheek . This is called a squamous epithelium.

Muscles:
There are three types of muscles: voluntary, smooth and cardiac.

Voluntary muscles can contract and relax under the conscious control of the brain.

Smooth muscles are involuntary i.e. they cannot be controlled by the conscious control of the
brain e.g. muscles in the gut. These muscles are present in the walls of organs.

Cardiac muscles are those that make up the muscular walls of the heart.

Type Structure Function

Voluntary They are striped due to the
alignment of protein
filaments in cell. Many nuclei
per cell. Not branched.
Involuntary Non-striated because
protein filaments are not
aligned in the cell. One
nucleus per cell. Not
branched. Cell tapered at
ends.
Cardiac Striated. Many nuclei per
cell. Branched cells forming
a strong mesh-like network.
Rapid contraction to move
bones. Under voluntary
control of the brain.
Slow, rhythmic contractions
in the walls of gut, blood
vessels etc. Not under
voluntary control by the
brain
Only present in the heart.
Contracts rhythmically and
constantly throughout life
without tiring. Not under
voluntary control. They are
myogenic.
1 Nerve cell(neurone) – elongated part of cell (axon) for carrying nerve impulses. Dotted
lines indicate that the axon is very long compared with the rest of the cell.

2 smooth muscle cell from the wall of the intestine – elongated, can contract to move
food through the gut.

3 ciliated epithelium cell – lines passages such as the trachea (windpipe). The hair-like
cilia beat to move mucus along the lining of the trachea

4 white blood cell – can change its shape to surround and destroy bacteria.

5 red blood cells – contain haemoglobin to carry oxygen around the body.

6 sperm cell – tail for swimming, head contains genes from the father.

7 egg cell- big to fit nutrients for baby.