Representation of Lines

An electrical transmission line has four parameters: resistance (R), inductance (L),
capacitance (C), and conductance (G).
All four parameters of a transmission line are uniformly distributed along the line.
Lumped parameters give good accuracy for short lines and for lines of medium lengh.
Shunt conductance G is usually neglected when calculating voltage and current.
Depending on the handling of capacitance, transmission lines are classified as
1. Short lines:
• less than 80 km (50 mi) long
• shunt capacitance can be omitted
2. Medium-length lines:
• between 80 km (50 mi) and 240 km (150 mi) long
• half the capacitance to neutral of the line lumped at each end of the
equivalent circuit
3. Long lines:
• longer than 240 km (150 mi)
• require calculations in terms of distributed constants
Representation of Lines

Nomenclature:
r = series resistance per unit length per phase
L = series inductance per unit length per phase
C = shunt capacitance per unit length per phase
z = r + jωL = series impedance per unit length per phase
y = jωC = shunt admittance per unit length per phase to neutral
l = length of line
Z = zl = total series impedance per phase
Y = yl = total shunt admittance per phase
The Short Transmission Line

Percent regulation
VR,NL  VR,FL
  100
VR,FL
Equivalent circuit of a short line
IS  IR VR  VR,FL
VS  VR  I RZ VS  VR,NL

Phasor diagram of a short line for the same magnitudes of VR and IR

The Medium-Length Line

Nominal-π circuit of a medium-length line

 Y 

VS  VR  I R  Z VR
 2 
 ZY 
VS    1VR  ZI R
 2 

Y Y
I S  VS VR  I R
2 2
 ZY   ZY 
IS  Y   1VR    1 I R
 4   2 
The Medium-Length Line

Nominal-π circuit of a medium-length line

Receiving end voltage and current may be expressed in the general form
VS  AVR  BI R
I S  CVR  DI R
where
ZY
AD  1
2
 ZY 
B Z 
C Y   1
 4 
The Medium-Length Line

Receiving end voltage and current may be expressed in the general form
VS  AVR  BI R
I S  CVR  DI R
where
ZY
AD  1
2
 ZY 

B  Z C Y   1
 4 
The Medium-Length Line

Receiving end voltage and current may be expressed in the general form
VS  AVR  BI R
I S  CVR  DI R

By letting IR = 0, VS  AVR  AVR,NL

I R 0

VS / A  VR,NL

VS A  VR,FL
Percent regulation   100
VR,FL
The Long Transmission Line

From KVL
V (x  x )  V (x )  z xI (x )
V (x  x ) V (x )
 zI (x )
x
As Δx → 0
dV (x )
 zI (x )
From KCL dx
I (x  x )  I (x )  y xV (x  x ) Diff. and substitution yields
I (x  x )  I (x ) d 2V (x ) dI (x )
 yV (x  x )  z
x
dx 2 dx
2
As Δx → 0 d V (x )
2
 zyV (x )
dI (x ) dx
 yV (x ) 2
d V (x )
dx   2
V (x )  0
2
dx
where
  zy  propagation constant
The Long Transmission Line
The solution:
x  x
V (x )  Ae
1
 A2
e
1 dV (x )  y
I (x ) 
z dx
 Ae
z 1
x
 A2
e  x
 Ae
z 1

x
 A2
e x
  z
Zc 
1
I (x )  Ae
Zc 1
 x
 A2
e  x
 y

x  0, V (x )  VR , I (x )  I R

VR  Zc I R
A1  A2  VR  A1 
 2
A1  A2  Zc I R  V  Zc I R
 A2  R
2

VR  Zc I R VR  Zc I R
V (x )  e x  e x  cosh x VR  Zc sinh x I R
2 2
VR Zc  I R x
VR Zc  I R  x 1
I (x )  e  e  sinh x VR  cosh x I R
2 2 Zc
The Long Transmission Line
VR  Zc I R x VR  Zc I R
V (x )  e  e x  cosh x VR  Zc sinh x I R
2 2
VR Zc  I R VR Zc  I R 1
I (x )  e x  e x  sinh x VR  cosh x I R
2 2 Zc
x  l, V (l )  VS , I (l )  I S
VS  cosh l VR  Zc sinh l I R
1
IS  sinh l VR  cosh l I R
Zc

V   A B  V 
 S     R
 I  C D   I 
 S     R 

A  D  cosh l
1
B  Zc sinh l C  sinh l
Zc
The Long Transmission Line: Interpretation of the Equations
Propagation constant,     j 
where, = attenuation constant, measured in nepers per unit length
β = phase constant, measured in radians per unit length

VR  Zc I R x j x
VR  Zc I R
V (x )  e e  e xe  j x
2 2
VR Zc  I R VR Zc  I R
I (x )  e xe j x  e xe  j x
2 2

The first term diminishes in magnitude and is retarded in phase from the sending end
toward the receiving end. The first term is called the incident voltage.
The second term diminishes in magnitude and is retarded in phase from the receiving
end toward the sending end. The second term is called the reflected voltage.
At any point along the line, the voltage is the sum of the component incident and
reflected voltages.
The Long Transmission Line: Interpretation of the Equations

VR  Zc I R x j x
VR  Zc I R
V (x )  e e  e xe  j x
2 2
VR Zc  I R VR Zc  I R
I (x )  e xe j x  e xe  j x
2 2

If a line is terminated in its characteristic impedance,

=
There is no reflected wave of either voltage or current.
A line terminated in its characteristic impedance is called a flat line or an infinite line.
The Long Transmission Line: Interpretation of the Equations
Surge-Impedance Loading:
Characteristic impedance of a lossless line is called surge impedance.
For a lossless line, = 0
z r  j L L
Zc   
y j C C
Surge-impedance loading (SIL) of a line is the power delivered by a line to a purely
resistive load equal to its surge impedance.
When so loaded, the supplied line current,
=
3×
where = line−to−line voltage at the load.
Since the load is purely resistive,
SIL = 3
3×

SIL =
⁄
The Equivalent Circuit of a Long Line
It is possible to find the equivalent circuit
of a long transmission line and to represent
the line accurately, insofar as
measurements at the ends of the line are
concerned, by a network of lumped
parameters.
Assume a π-circuit is the equivalent circuit
of a long line
Z Y 
Z Y   1  cosh l
A 1 B  Z 2
2 Y Zc sinh l
 1  cosh l
Z   Zc sinh l 2
Y 1 cosh l  1
z sinh l 
Z  sinh l  zl 2 Zc sinh l
y zyl Y 1 l
 tanh
sinh l 2 Zc 2
Z  Z
l Y  Y tanh(l 2)

2 2 l 2
Power Flow through a Transmission Line
Real and reactive power at the receiving end
2
VS VR A VR
PR  cos      cos    
B B
2
VS  AVR  BI R VS VR A VR
VS  AVR QR  sin      sin    
IR  B B
B
Letting A  A  B  B 
VR  VR 0 VS  VS 
we obtain
VS A VR
IR            
B B
∗
The complex power at the receiving end
2
VS VR A VR
PR  jQR            
B B
Power Flow through a Transmission Line

Power diagram
Power Flow through a Transmission Line
The distance from point n to point k is
constant for fixed values of and .
The distance from 0 to k changes with
changing load, but the point k is
constrained to move in a circle whose
center is at n.
Any change in will require a change
in to keep k on the circle.
An increase in power delivered means that
point k will move along the circle until
− is zero; more power will be
delivered until = .
Further increase in result in less power
received.
The maximum power is
2
VS VR A VR
PR,max   cos    
Power diagram B B
Reactive Compensation of Transmission Lines

The performance of transmission lines, especially those of medium length and longer,
can be improved by reactive compensation of a series or parallel type.
Series compensation consists of a capacitor bank placed in series with each phase
conductor of the line.
Shunt compensation refers to the placement of inductors from each line to neutral to
reduce partially or completely the shunt susceptance of a high-voltage line, which is
particularly important at light loads when the voltage at the receiving end may
otherwise become very high.
Reactive Compensation of Transmission Lines
Series compensation:
Series compensation reduces the series impedance of the line, which is the principal
cause of voltage drop and the most important factor in determining the maximum
power which the line can transmit.
Maximum power transmitted is dependent on the reciprocal of the generalized circuit
constant B.
For the nominal , =
For the equivalent , = sinh ⁄
Because the A , C , and D constants are functions of Z, they will also change in value,
but these changes will be small in comparison to the change in B.
The desired reactance of the capacitor bank can be determined by compensating for a
specific amount of the total inductive reactance of the line.
Compensation Factor =

where = capacitive reactance of the series capacitor bank per phase

= total inductive reactance of the line per phase
Reactive Compensation of Transmission Lines
Shunt compensation:
When a transmission line has the desired load transmission capability, attention is
turned to operation under light loads or at no load.
Charging current is an important factor to be considered and should not be allowed to
exceed the rated full-load current of the line.
Charging current,
=
where = total capacitive susceptance of the line
= rated voltage to neutral
If inductors are connected from line to neutral at various points along the line, the
charging current becomes
= − = 1−

where = total inductive susceptance of the line

Shunt compensation factor =
Reactive Compensation of Transmission Lines
Shunt compensation:
The other benefit of shunt compensation is the reduction of the receiving end voltage of
the line which on long high-voltage lines tends to become too high at no load (Ferranti
effect).
, =

When shunt capacitance is neglected, A equals 1.0.

In the medium-length and longer lines, the presence of capacitance reduces A.
If shunt inductors are introduced as load is removed, the reduction of shunt susceptance
to the value − can limit the rise of no-load voltage at the receiving end.