I.
Universe and Solar System
Universe- at least 13.8 billion years
Earth and Solar System- 4.5-4.6 billion years
a. Baryonic matter - "ordinary" matter consisting of
protons, electrons, and neutrons that comprises
atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, and other bodies
b. Dark matter - matter that has gravity but does not
emit light.
c. Dark Energy - a source of anti-gravity
- a force that counteracts gravity and
causes the universe to expand.
d. Protostar - an early stage in the formation of a star
resulting from the gravitational collapse of
gases.
e. Thermonuclear reaction - a nuclear fusion reaction
responsible for the energy produced
by stars.
f. Main Sequence Stars - stars that fuse hydrogen
atoms to form helium atoms in their cores;
outward pressure resulting from nuclear
fusion is balanced by gravitational forces.
g. Light years - the distance light can travel in a year;
a unit of length used to measure astronomical
distance.
Universe
Diameter: 91 billion light years
(1 light year = 9.4607 × 1012 km)
Density: 4.5 ×10−31 g/cm 3
 4.6% baryonic matter
 24% cold dark matter
 71.4% dark energy
 Hydrogen, helium, and lithium - most
abundant elements.
 Stars – building block of galaxies
- born out of clouds of gas and dust in
galaxies.
 Sun- burn up hydrogen in about 10 billion
years through nuclear burning or
nucleosynthesis. Temp: 5 ×106 ℃
Edwin Hubble
- significant discovery of the “redshift”
- its interpretation that galaxies are
moving away from each other, hence
as evidence for an expanding
universe, just as predicted by
Einstein’s Theory of General
Relativity.
- spectral lines of starlight made to
pass through a prism are shifted
toward the red part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, toward
the band of lower frequency; thus,
the inference that the star or galaxy
must be moving away from us.
Origin of the Universe
Big Bang Theory
- event 13.7 billion years ago, the
universe expanded from a tiny, dense
and hot mass to its present size and
much cooler state.
- theory rests on two ideas: General
Relativity and the Cosmological
Principle.
- Einstein’s General Theory of
Relativity, gravity is thought of as a
distortion of space-time and no
longer described by a gravitational
field in contrast to the Law of Gravity
of Isaac Newton. It explains the
peculiarities of the orbit of Mercury
and the bending of light by the Sun
and has passed rigorous tests.
- Cosmological Principle assumes that
the universe is homogeneous and
isotropic when averaged over large
scales. This is consistent with our
current large-scale image of the
universe. But keep in mind that it is
clumpy at smaller scales.
- It has withstood the tests for
expansion:
1) the redshift
2) abundance of hydrogen, helium,
and lithium
3) the uniformly pervasive cosmic
microwave background radiation-the
remnant heat from the bang.
II. Solar System
- located in Milky Way Galaxy
- it has at least 100 billion stars
- revolves once in about 240 million
years
 - comprises the Sun, eight planets,
dwarf planets such as Pluto,
satellites, asteroids, comets, other
minor bodies such as those in the
Kuiper belt and interplanetary dust.
- Asteroid belt lies between Mars and
Jupiter.
- Meteoroids are smaller asteroids.
They are thought of as remnants of a
“failed planet”—one that did not
form due to disturbance from
Jupiter’s gravity.
- Kuiper belt lies beyond Neptune (30
to 50 AU, 1 AU = Sun-Earth distance
= 150 million km) and comprise
numerous rocky or icy bodies a few
meters to hundreds of kilometres in
size.
- Oort cloud marks the outer boundary
of the solar system and is composed
mostly of icy objects
Milky Way Galaxy
- part of Local Group of Galaxies
- part of Virgo super cluster of galaxies
 The Universe and Earth are abundant with
rock and metal elements.
 Lead, silver and uranium on Erath derived
from remnants of a supernova.
 Sun, second generation star made by
recycling materials. It is a medium-size star.
 Stars differ from size, temperature, and color.
 Terrestrial planets, they are small rocky and
dense.
 Jovian planets, they are large, gaseous, and
low dense.
III. Earth’s Interior
Core – very hot and dense
– can be found about 2,900 kilometres and
has a radius of 3,485 kilometres
Mantle – mostly solid bulk
– it is about 2,900 kilometres thick and
84% of Earth’s volume.
Crust – outer most layer
– about 3.5 miles thick under the oceans
and 25 miles thick under the continents.
IV. Bodies of Water
a) River- moving water stream
- contains fresh water
- upstream is up river ; downstream is
down river
- there are 76 rivers in the world
- 4 out of 10 longest rivers flow north
- Nile River is the longest river in the
world with 6,650 kilometres length
b) Stream – small version of rivers
-also called as creeks or brooks
c) Lakes – surrounded by land
- can contain either salt or fresh water,
they are larger than ponds.
- Dead Sea, the world’s largest lowest
lake with 1,371 ft. below sea level
- Ojos del Salado, highest lake with
20,965 ft. high
- Subglacial lake permanently covered
with ice
- Caspian Sea, largest lake
d) Gulf – part of the ocean that goes into land.
- excellent for harbors
- Mexican Gulf, the largest gulf
e) Ocean – average depth of it is 12,200 ft.
- Pacific Ocean, largest ocean it covers
30% of Earth’s surface.
- Indian Ocean, the warmest ocean
- Arctic Ocean, the coldest ocean
f) Waterfalls – like a stream or a river over a
ledge of bedrock.
V. Landforms
a. Mountain – highest landform
- coned-shaped with steep sides and a
pointed tip called peak.
- Himalayas, highest mountain
b. Valley – low lying area between two
mountains.
c. Plain – flat area on the Earth’s surface. Coastal
plains are near the oceans.
d. Plateau - flat area but it is higher than the
land around it.
- very steep sides and often
surrounded by rock faces called
cliffs. Sometimes located between
mountain ranges.
e. Island – surrounded by water it can be
formed by volcanic eruptions. Often
found near the coast of countries.
 f.Desert – hot and dry place with very little or 5. Cleavage –property of some minerals to break
no water. Covered in sand and may along parallel repetitive planes of weakness
include dunes, which are hills of sand. to form smooth, flat surfaces.
6. Fracture – Some minerals may not have cleavages
VI. Minerals
but exhibit broken surfaces that are irregular
 Building blocks of rocks. and non-planar.
Mineral Properties 7. Specific Gravity –weight of a mineral to the weight
1. Luster – quality and intensity of reflected light of an equal volume of water.
exhibited by the mineral 8. Others –certain unique properties of minerals that
a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a actually help in their identification. Magnetite
resplendent shine similar to a polished metal is strongly magnetic; sulfur has distinctive
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), smell; halite is salty; calcite fizzes with acid as
adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like), with dolomite but in powdered form.
resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, Mineral Groups
etc. 1. Silicates – minerals containing 2 of the most
2. Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a abundant elements in the Earth’s crust,
mineral (not specifically surface) to abrasion. namely, silicon and oxygen.
Moh’s Scale of Hardness - silicon oxygen tetrahedron -the fundamental
Rating Description Example building block of silicate minerals.
- Over 90% of the rock-forming minerals
1. Very soft Easily crumbles and can be Talc
scratched with fingernail. (2.2) belong to this group.
2. Soft Can be scratch with a fingernail. Gypusm 2. Oxides – minerals containing Oxygen anion
(2.2)
Can be scratch with a copper
(O¿¿ 2)¿ combined with one or more metal
3. Soft Calcite
penny. (3.5) ions
4. Semi-Hard Can be scratch with a nail. (5.2) Fluorite 3. Sulfates – minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen
5. Hard Can be scratch with a nail. (5.2) Apatite anion ( SO¿¿ 4) ¿ - combined with other ions
6.Hard Mineral with hardness of 6 or Feldspar 4. Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur anion
more can scratch glass. ( S¿¿ 2)¿ combined with one or more ions.
7.Very Hard Can be scratch with a Quartz Some sulfides are sources of economically
concrete nail. (7.5)
important metals such as copper, lead and
8.Very Hard Topaz zinc.
9. Extremely Used in industrial tools for Corundum 5. Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate
Hard cutting and grinding.
anion (CO ¿¿ 3)2 ¿- combined with other
10.The Diamond is used to cut Diamond
elements
Hardest all minerals.
6. Native Elements – minerals that form as individual
elements.
3. Color and Streak a. Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with
 Color maybe a unique identifying property of high thermal and electrical
certain minerals. conductivity, typically with metallic luster, low
 Streak on the other hand is the color of a hardness (gold, lead).
mineral in powdered form. The color of a b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than
metals and have lower conductivity (arsenic,
mineral could be different from the streak. It
bismuth)
is inherent to almost every mineral. c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)
4. Crystal Form/Habit – external shape of a crystal 7. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements
displayed / observed as it grows in open combined with one or more elements.
spaces. The form reflects the supposedly
internal structure of it. It is the natural shape Rocks
of the mineral before the development of any 1. Igneous Rocks
cleavage or fracture. - derived from the cooling and
- It define the relative growth of the crystal in solidification of magma or lava.
3 dimension which are its length, width, and - solidified molten rock materials are
height . usually hard and crystalline
- Magma is a molten rock material
beneath the surface of the earth
 while lava is a molten rock material  Earth’s lithosphere is divided into mobile
extruded to the surface of the earth plates.
along a central vent or as fissure  Mobile plates- moving in constant in slow
eruption.
motion.
2. Sedimentary Rocks
- these are rocks that are formed at or A. Continental Drift Theory (Alfred
near the surface of the Earth. Wegener)
- sedimentary processes include: - continents are once assembled together
weathering of rocks, erosion, as supercontinent called Pangaea
sediment transport and deposition - splited 200 million years ago
(compaction and cementation).
B. Seafloor Spreading
- common sedimentary features: fossil
assemblages and stratification - combined earlier idea of Continental Drift
- fossil assemblages: remains and Theory to create the theory of late
traces of plants and animals that are Tectonics.
preserved in rocks. - Proposed that rising magma was forming
- stratification or layering (strata new oceanic ridges and that old crust was
which is >1cm is called bedding and
destroyed at oceanic trenches.
< 1cm is called lamination): layering
is the result of a change in grain size Seafloor Topography
and composition; each layer
represents a distinct period of 1st Level: Continental Shelf
deposition. - shallow ocean floor (0-150 m; 0-500 ft)
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks nd
2 Level: Abyssal Plains
- components: grains, matrix, and - deep ocean basins (4kms below sea level)
cement. rd
3 Level: Ocean Ridge System
- Classified based on particle size
Non-Clastic Sedimentary Rocks - submarine mountain chain
- evaporation and precipitation from - less than 3kms deep along ridge system
solution or lithification of organic - heat flow was high
matter. 4th Level: Oceanic Trenches
- classified as evaporites, precipitates, - found along the margin of continents
and bioclastics - deep earthquakes: near trenches and
3. Metamorphic Rocks
oceanic ridges
- formed below the surface of the earth
through the process of metamorphism
Convergent Boundary
with the recrystallization of minerals in
- two or more lithospheric plates collide.
rocks due to changes in pressure and
One plate slides beneath the other
temperature conditions
causing subduction.
Contact Metamorphism
Subduction- caused earthquakes and
- creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks
volcanoes
- heat and reactive fluids are the main
Divergent Boundary
factors
- a linear feature that exists between two
Regional Metamorphism
tectonic plates that are moving away from
- pressure is the main factor
each other.
- occurs in regional/ large scale
Transform Boundary
- creates foliated metamorphic rocks
- plates slide sideways past each other
Rock Cycle
- lithosphere is neither created nor
destroyed
VII. Plate Tectonics
 distribution and motion of plates
VIII. Earthquakes and Volcanoes
 - present in the greatest concentrations - Continental Plates
around the rim of Pacific Ocean  There are 10,000 recognizable volcanoes.
Subduction Zone Active
- locations where oceanic lithosphere is - volcanoes known to have erupted during
consumed adjacent to a trench historical times. (529)
 Interactions at plate boundaries cause Dormant
earthquakes and volcanic activity - volcanoes that have not erupted during
 Hotspot is an area over a mantle plume where historical times, but will probably erupt
magma is hotter than surrounding magma. again. (1,340)
Extinct
Earthquakes - volcanoes that are unlikely to erupt again.
- Movement of the Earth’s crust that results  As pressure reduces, dissolved gases in the
the release of built up potential energy magma expand and explosively fragment the
between two stuck tectonic plates. magma. ƒ
Seismic Waves  This mixture of gas and magma blasts out of
1. Primary Waves (P-waves) the volcano at high speed (up to 700 m/sec),
- waves that arrive first producing an expanding eruption column.
- move with push and pull motion  The eruption column can extend up into the
2. Secondary Waves (S-waves) stratosphere.
- arrived second  The ash then falls to the ground, blanketing
- side to side motion large areas with thick ash deposits.
3. Surface Waves
- slowest
- cause more damage
- up and down and side to side motion
Fault
- A region on Earth’s surface that is broken
into two pieces
- Hanging wall is the side that moves up or
down.
- Normal Fault – the hanging wall moves
down – follow the dark layer
- Reverse Fault – hanging wall moves up –
follow the bronze colored layer
Volcanoes
- a place on earth’s surface where molten
rock and gases are erupted.
- a hill or mountain built up by the
eruption of molten rock.
Plate Margins
Spreading Margin
- Mid-Ocean Ridges
- Rifting Continents
Converging Margins
- Island Arcs
- Continental margins
Plate Interiors
- Oceanic Plates