2011 Vol 30-31-32 Reprint-Welding Processes, Faults, Defects, Etc Reprint

CANADA’S NATIONAL NDT MAGAZINE
JOURNAL
2011 Special Reprint Issue
Vol. 30-No.6, Vol. 31 No’s. 1-6, Vol. 32-No. 1
FEATURING Articles about Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects and

Discontinuities for Non Destructive Testing Technicians
by Peter Hayward Manager, Inspection and Quality Control Centre at the Heavy Engineering Research Association
(HERA) in New Zealand
The purpose of this series is to outline to NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics of the
common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of welds have a
basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely interesting and varied process,
and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today.
Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG),FCAW, (FLUX
CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of metal alloys and a range of
filler metals and shielding gases.
This compilation of reprints is available as a free download to CINDE Members from the Members area at
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INDEX
Page
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
Canada and the ISO Draft Proposal (Vol. 9 No.5) ......................................................... 5

John Zirnhelt, Ponteca
Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defect and
Discontinuities for Non Destructive
Testing Technicians
by Peter Hayward
Manager, Inspection and Quality Control Centre at the Heavy Engineering Research Association (HERA) in New Zealand
The purpose of this series is to outline to NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the
basics of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the
inspection of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes.
Welding is an extremely interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of
different welding processes in use today.
Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG),
FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety
of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases.
gas Metal arc Welding – Basics The gas metal arc welding process is capable of welding
most ferrous and non-ferrous metals from thin (0.5mm)
gas Metal arc Welding (gMaW) too thick sections. It can be used in all welding positions
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an electric arc welding to produce weld deposits with little or no spatter. Higher
process that fuses together the parts to be welded by deposition rates, travel speeds and welding efficiencies
heating them with an arc between a solid metal electrode result in less welding time in production situations, as
and the work. Filler metal is obtained from melting of the compared to shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). a
electrode wire, which is fed continuously into the arc by the R
welding equipment. Shielding is obtained from an externally Metal Transfer
supplied gas or gas mixture. A diagram of equipment and The metal transfer refers to the method by which molten T
the welding process is shown below. metal from the wire electrode crosses the arc to form the i
weld deposit. Several methods of metal transfer are used
C
!
Gas shielding supply in the gas metal arc welding process.
L
& Wire feed
unit
Short-circuiting transfer (sometimes called dip transfer)
is when the welding wire moves towards the metal or weld E
. Welding gun
&
pool until it contacts the material. At this point, a short-
circuit is produced which causes the wire to be pinched
off, producing a new arc. This cycle occurs many times a
second depending on the amperage/voltage relationship
that has been set. The short-circuiting method of metal
Power transfer can be used in all positions and is commonly used
source
to weld thin carbon steel, low alloy steel and stainless
steels in plate and pipe. CO2 and Argon/CO2 gas shielding
mixtures are commonly used. globular transfer is similar
to short-circuiting in that a droplet is formed at the end of
. the electrode wire. However, during the globular transfer

Contact tip Electrode wire
the molten ball continues to grow until it is larger than the
!
!
Nozzle diameter of the electrode wire. The droplet detaches and

crosses the arc to form the weld deposit. Because of this,
the arc is less stable and more spatter is produced. Globular
transfer is used to weld the same metals as short-circuiting
Gas shield
transfer, except in greater thickness. Globular transfer is
Arc
& limited to the flat and horizontal welding positions. CO2 is
commonly used to shield the arc.
&
Weld
.
Spray transfer is characterised by small droplets crossing
the arc. The droplets are formed at the tip and pinched
off due to electromagnetic forces. Argon or a mixture of
argon or helium is used to shield the arc. Spray transfer
can also be used to weld carbon steels, low alloy steels
and stainless steels, using a mixture of argon and or other
www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.30 t No.6 t November/December 2009 13

gas mixtures. Spray transfer on steel is normally used to disadvantages
weld medium to heavy thickness of steel in the flat and • High capital cost of machinery, maintenance required
horizontal welding position. on wire feed system.
• Accessibility to the welding joint is restrictive because
Electrode Classification
of the size of the gun.
The electrode wire for gas metal arc welding is normally
• Shielding gas is sensitive to wind and drafts.
supplied on a spool or reel and is solid and bare. The
• The length of the welding lead is restrictive.
electrode wire size is determined by its diameter. Various
• The equipment is not as portable as SMAW.
wire diameters are available: e.g. 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.3,
1.6, 2.4 mm. Canadian electrode classifications issued by defects, faults and discontinuities that may occur in
the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) are similar but gMaW
not necessarily the same as the American Welding Society The following may occur and are a collection of the more
(AWS). The AWS system is normally in Imperial units common types of weld defects, faults or imperfections.
whereas the CSA are typically in (SI) metric units. Overlap, Weld spatter, Incomplete penetration, Excess
If the electrode classification is in SI units remember 1MPa penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Undercut, Craters,
= 145.03 psi. Crater pipes, Unequal leg lengths, Wormholes. Lack of
fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run
advantages of gMaW for the Welding of Structural
fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion. (Fusion
Steelwork
problems is a main concern with this process.) Porosity may
• Deposition rate is high with spray transfer
occur as: Gas Pore, Isolated, Group (stop/start), Linear or
• Costs can be kept lower than with SMAW because
Uniform Cracking may occur in the following forms: Heat
there is less electrode waste (no electrode stubs), no
Affected Zone (HAZ), Transverse, Crater.
slag removal and welder down-time due to changing
electrodes is less compared to SMAW.
note: Defects Faults and Discontinuities and the NDT
• Smoke and fumes are less than SMAW or FCAW.
method that can be used to find them will be discussed
• Obtains deeper penetration than SMAW in spray
more fully later in these series.
transfer mode
a • It is versatile. (All position welding process for carbon,
R low alloy and stainless steels). g h
T
i
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14 CINDE Journal t Vol.30 t No.6 t November/December 2009 www.cinde.ca

Welding Processes, Welding Faults,
Defects and Discontinuities for
Non Destructive Testing Technicians
by Peter Hayward
The purpose of this series is to outline to NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics
of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection
of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely
interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today.
FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of
metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING - BASICS

A
R Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Shielded Metal Arc Welding is a welding process where the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc between a flux
T covered metal electrode and the work. The filler metal is deposited from the core wire and the electrode covering (flux)
I that also provides the arc shielding along with other essentials. Other names for this process include the European term
“Manual Metal Arc Welding” (MMAW), “stick welding” or “stick electrode welding”.
C
L
Electrode - Core wire
E - Flux coating
Gas shielding
Power
Source
Solidified slag Arc
Weld deposit
Slag coated
Weld pool
metal droplet
Various parts of the welding arc
The shielded metal arc welding process is a simple and versatile arc welding process. This process is used predominantly
to weld ferrous metals above 2mm thick in all the welding positions. The welding arc is visible and under the control of the
welder. The electrode is clamped in an electrode holder and the welder manipulates the tip of the electrode in relation to
the material being welded. The arc is struck, maintained and stopped manually by the welder.
Welding Positions
The welding position is the orientation of the electrode with respect to the work piece to deposit the molten material, these
positions are down hand (flat), horizontal, vertical (up or down), and overhead.
10 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.1 t January/February 2010 www.cinde.ca

Equipment
The equipment for the shielded metal arc welding process consists of a power source, welding leads, electrode holder,
and work clamp or attachment. A diagram of the equipment is shown below.
Mains Supply Chipping Wire

Hammer brush
Electrode holder
(hand piece)
Power source
Electrode lead Work

clamp
Work (return) lead
Applications
SMAW is widely mostly used for medium to heavy fabrication, and for maintenance and repair (including surfacing). It is
particularly suited to onsite/field work such as buildings and bridges, and for pipelines for gas, oil or water.
Materials that can be welded with SMAW include:

Carbon and low alloy steels, cast irons (ductile and gray), copper and its alloys, aluminium and aluminium alloys, stainless A
steels, nickel and its alloys. R
Thickness range: all thicknesses over 2mm. T
I
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E
www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.1 t January/February 2010 11

Power Source
• Constant current (CC) static characteristic.
• Either AC or DC depends on type of electrode, joint type and position, power source. In DC the electrode can be positive
(+ve) or negative (-ve).
• Choice of electrode polarity can be used to advantage. Electrode negative (DCEN or “straight polarity”) generally produces
a higher deposition rate. Electrode positive (DCEP or “reverse polarity”) is generally used where deep penetration is
needed. The polarity to be used is often governed by the type of electrode.
• Open circuit voltage (OCV) of 50 or 70 volts to reliably establish the AC arc.
• Arc voltage range of 16 to 40 volts (also strongly dependant on the arc length).
• Welding current will be set in the range 30 to 550 amps.
Types of Electrodes for Welding Steel

Most electrodes fall into 1 of 3 general types; cellulosic, rutile or basic. There are coatings that do not fall into these
categories including non-ferrous and stainless steel types
The codes and standards commonly encountered in Canada, USA and internationally include:
• CSA W48-06, Filler metals and allied materials for metal arc welding
• ANSI/AWS A5.1/A5.1M:2004, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• ISO 2560:2009, Welding consumables – Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-ally and fine grained
steels.
The electrode classification system for mild steel and low alloy steel covered electrodes consists of the letter “E” and four
A or five digits. Sometimes a suffix is added to the classification following the digits for additional information. The letter
R “E” indicates an electrode. The first two or three digits indicate the minimum tensile strength. The third and fourth digits
indicate the positions the electrode can be used, the type of current and the coating type*. Sizes available for example
T are: 2.5, 3.2, 4.0, 4.8, 5.0, 6.0 mm.
I
*Sample Electrode Classification in SI units: E4818 – 4H5R
C *Sample Electrode Classification in Imperial units e.g. USA: E7018 – 1H4 R
L
E Advantages of SMAW
• SMAW is a widely accepted, versatile and well developed welding process.
• High quality welds are readily achieved on all steels in both the workshop and on site.
• The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive and portable.
• The shielding gas provided by the burning flux is less sensitive to wind and drafts when compared to a process with an
external shielding gas.
Limitations of SMAW
• Deposition rate is generally lower than GMAW, FCAW or SAW.
• A layer of solidified slag that needs to be removed covers the deposited weld.
• A high welder skill level is required for high quality welds.
Discontinuities and Defects Common to SMAW

The AWS refers to discontinuities and defects of various types and sizes. Below some given acceptable level these are not
considered harmful, however above that level they are considered defects. The following weld problems may occur; these
are a collection of the more common types that may be encountered. Overlap, Slag inclusions, Weld spatter, Incomplete
penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Excess penetration, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Uneven profile, Uneven
root penetration, Unequal leg lengths, Burn through, Wormholes, Arc strikes. Lack of fusion may occur in the following
forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion. Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear,
Uniform or Stop-start. Cracking that may occur is Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in low alloy and alloy materials. Other types
of cracking can also occur.
Note: Discontinuities and defects and the NDT methods that can be used to find them will be discussed more fully later
in these series.
g h

by Peter Hayward
of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of
welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes Welding is an extremely interesting
and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today.
A GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING - BASICS

R Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW or TIG)
T Gas tungsten arc welding is a welding process where the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc between a non-
consumable tungsten electrode and the work. Filler metal may or may not be used with the process. Shielding is obtained
I from an inert gas or inert gas mixture. Common and slang names for the process are TIG welding, Argon arc or Heliarc
C welding and Tungsten arc welding. A diagram of this process is shown below.
L Welding arc showing

E Tungsten electrode and
filler rod
The GTAW process can be used to weld steel, stainless steel, aluminium, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, and others.
The process can be used to weld a wide range of material thickness. However, due to the relatively low deposition rates
associated with the process, thinner materials are most often welded. It is also often used for depositing the root pass on
piping and tubing in the petrochemical and power generation industry where a radiographic quality weld is required and
is also commonly used for the welding of dairy fabrications. Thin materials may also be welded autogenously i.e. no filler
material is used.
18 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.2 t March/April 2010 www.cinde.ca

Welding Positions and Application
The GTAW process can be used in all the welding positions (flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead) to produce quality
welds on all metals used in industry.
The GTAW process is normally applied using the manual or semi automatic method. The welder controls the torch with
one hand and feeds filler metal with the other. In the manual method, a high degree of welding skill is required.
The semi-automatic method is also sometimes used where filler metal is fed into the weld puddle by a wire feeder.
Welding Power Source

In general, power sources of the constant current mode are used for gas tungsten arc welding using alternating current
(AC) or direct (DC). The selection of alternating or direct current depends on the material being welded. Alternating current
is recommended for welding aluminium and magnesium and their alloys. Direct current is recommended for welding
stainless steel, carbon steels, copper and its alloys, nickel and its alloys, and precious metals.
Welding Torch
The welding torch houses the tungsten electrode and directs the shielding gas and the welding power to the arc. Torches
come in various sizes and the larger sizes are usually water-cooled. The torches normally come equipped with a cable
assembly that directs the gas, welding power current, cooling water (when used) from the machine to the welding torch.
Shielding Gas
A shielding gas protects the weld puddle and tungsten electrode from oxidation during welding. The two most commonly
used shielding gases with the gas tungsten arc welding process are argon and helium.
continued on page 20
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www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.2 t March/April 2010 19

Tungsten Electrodes and Filler Metals
The electrodes used with the gas tungsten arc welding process are made of tungsten alloys. Tungsten has a high
melting point of around 3400oC and is considered a non-consumable during welding. Electrodes are available in several
alloys, e.g. Cerium, Lanthanum, Thorium, Zirconium and one of pure tungsten. Electrodes are colour-coded for ease of
recognition and generally in diameters ranging from 0.5 mm up through 5.0 mm. The lengths of tungsten electrodes are
normally 75 mm to 150 mm.
The filler metal for gas tungsten arc welding is a solid wire or rod. Filler metals are available in a wide range of sizes in
an approximate range from 1.6, 2.4, 3.2 mm but can be obtained in larger diameters. Filler metals are manufactured in
straight cut lengths (500 mm to 1000 mm) for manual welding and continuous spools for semi-automatic and automatic
welding.
Filler metals for joining a wide variety of materials and alloys are available; these should be similar, although not necessarily
identical, to the material being joined. Generally the filler metal composition is adjusted to match the properties of the
base material in its welded (cast) condition.
Filler metals for gas tungsten arc welding are classified using the same system for gas metal arc welding electrodes, such
as ER70S-6. The only difference is gas metal arc wires carry electric current and are considered electrodes (E), while gas
tungsten welding wires or rods do not carry current and are considered filler rods (R).
Advantages
• Capable of welding thin material
A • Controls heat input extremely well because the heat source and the filler material are separately controlled.
• Welds can be made with or without adding filler material by fusing the base metals together.
R
• Full penetration welds that are welded from one side only can be made.
T • Produces superior X-ray quality welds.
I • Recommended for materials that form refractory oxides, like aluminium and magnesium.
C • It can be used to weld almost all metals, including dissimilar metal joints.
• It allows for excellent control of root passes and penetration.
L
E Disadvantages
• Cost of equipment and shielding gas is high.
• Deposition rate is slow, therefore less economical than other processes.
• A high degree of welder skill is required to produce quality welds
• Fit-up tolerances are restrictive.
• Difficulty in shielding the weld zone properly in windy conditions.
• Low tolerance for contamination on filler or base metal.
• Tungsten inclusions can occur
Discontinuities and Defects Common to GTAW

The AWS refers to discontinuities and defects of various types and sizes. Below some given acceptable level these are
not considered harmful, however above that level they are considered defects.
The following weld problems may occur; these are a collection of the more common types of flaws.
Incomplete penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Excess penetration, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Uneven profile,
Uneven root penetration, Unequal leg lengths, Burn through, Wormholes, Arc strikes, Tungsten inclusions.
Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion.
Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, Uniform or Stop-start, Oxidation in stainless steel welds
Cracking that may occur is Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in low alloy and alloy materials. Other types of cracking can also
occur.
Note: Discontinuities and defects and the NDT methods that can be used to find them will be discussed more fully later
in these series.
g h
20 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.2 t March/April 2010 www.cinde.ca
by Peter Hayward
of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection
of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely
interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today.
A FLUX CORED ARC WELDING - BASICS

R Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
T Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) is an electric arc welding process which fuses together the parts to be welding by
heating them with an arc between a continuously fed flux filled electrode wire and the work. Shielding is obtained through
I decomposition of the flux within the tubular wire (self shielded method). Additionally shielding may be obtained from an
C externally supplied gas or gas mixture (gas shielded method). Equipment is similar to that used for Gas Metal Arc welding
(GMAW) as was discussed previously in the CINDE Journal for November/December 2009.
L
E The flux cored arc welding process can be used to weld carbon and alloy steels, cast and wrought iron and stainless
steels. The process is also capable of producing hard surfacing deposits. The process is commonly used to weld steels
of medium thicknesses because of the higher deposition rate (up to 4 times greater than SMAW) obtained with the larger
electrode diameters.
Metal cored wire is a tubular electrode that consists of a metal sheath and a core of various powdered materials, primarily
iron. The core of the metal-cored wire contributes almost entirely to the deposited weld metal.
Welding is normally limited to the flat and horizontal positions with large diameter wires. Smaller diameter wires are used
in all positions. A layer of slag is left on the weld bead that must be removed after welding.
16 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.3 t May/June 2010 www.cinde.ca

The electrode wire for flux cored arc welding is tubular and filled with flux. The flux provides arc shielding, deoxidation,
arc stabilisation and slag formation. When required alloying elements can be added to the flux ingredients. An external
shielding gas may or may not be required with these wires, depending on the type. Flux cored and metal cored arc
welding electrodes are available in a variety of sizes ranging from of 0.8, 0.9, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0, 2.4, 3.0, 4.0 mm or equivalent
in inches and the wire is contained on spools and coils.
CSA W48.5M was replaced in 2001 by W48-01 and subsequently replaced by W48-06. Following the introduction of W48-
01 the tensile strength of the “as deposited tensile strength” is specified as two digits which represent MPa times 10. The
designations as of 2001 are: E43XT-X, E49XT-X; and E49XC-X for metal cored. There are a total of 27 different types of
these electrodes. As an example the type described by the suffix T-1 describes the group of electrodes classified using
CO2 gas even though argon, or argon and oxygen maybe added for out of position welding.
The American Welding Society AWS A5.20 also classifies flux cored arc welding electrodes for carbon steels, using a
series of letters and numbers. A typical cored wire classification in the AWS system is E70T-1MJH4
E = electrode; 7= nominal tensile strength of the filler wire in increments of 10,000 pounds per square inch e.g. 7 = 70 ksi.
(70,000 psi); 0 indicates the positions the wire can be used; T = wire is tubular; 1 gives the performance characteristics
of the electrode wire. This number ranges from 1 to 14; MJH4 indicates M is the gas mixture e.g. 75%Ar = 25% CO2; J is
the impact toughness and H4 is the diffusible hydrogen content. AWS 5.22 is for Chromium and Chromium Nickel, AWS
5.29 is for low alloy steels.
Advantages of FCAW
• Deposition rate is high with larger diameter wires, and for positional welding.
• Costs can be kept lower than with SMAW because there is less electrode waste (no electrode stubs), and welder down
time due to changing electrodes is less compared to MMAW. A
• Deeper penetration is possible than with SMAW.
R
continued on page 18 T
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www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.3 t May/June 2010 17

• FCAW has high operator appeal: process is easy to use and welds are of good appearance.
• Good quality welds and appearance.
• Used to weld a wide range of steels over a range of thicknesses.
Disadvantages
• High capital cost of machinery, maintenance required on wire feed system.
• Accessibility to the welding joint is restrictive because of the size of the gun.
• FCAW-gas shielded is sensitive to wind and drafts (self-shielded version has high draft tolerance).
• The available length of the welding lead can be restrictive.
• The equipment is not as portable as MMAW.
• Electrode is more expensive ($/kg) than GMAW.
• Produces more smoke and fumes than GMAW.
• Slag covering needs to be removed.
• Storage of wires must be stored and handled to prevent damage and corrosion.
Defects, Faults and Discontinuities that may occur in FCAW

The following and are a collection of the more common types of weld defects, faults or imperfections.
• Overlap, Slag inclusions, Inclusions, Weld spatter, Incomplete penetration, Excess penetration, Incompletely filled
groove, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Unequal leg lengths, Wormholes, Hollow Bead.
• Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion.
• Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, Uniform.
• Cracking may occur in the weld or heat affected zone and be longitudinal, transverse or star shape (as in crater
A cracking)
R
The above defects, faults and discontinuities and the NDT method that can be used to find them will be discussed more
T fully later in these series.
I g h
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L Past NDT in Canada ... The Art of Metallurgy
E were you at this conference?
Tool steels are filled with fine, evenly dispersed carbides

to make them extremely hard. But if the brittle carbides
become too large or cluster together they can embrittle
the steel, which is what happened to the material in the
photomicrograph above.
After this part had shattered into numerous pieces,

the crack surfaces exposed the large carbide particles
(in the bottom center left) that were responsible for its
demise.
Photo by Shane Turcott, all rights reserved.

Used with permission of Steel Image © 2010.
18 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.3 t May/June 2010 www.cinde.ca

by Peter Hayward
inspection of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding
is an extremely interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding
processes in use today.
Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW
(MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a
variety of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases.
A SUBMERGED ARC WELDING - BASICS

R Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
T Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc welding process that produces coalescence (fusion) of the parts to be welded by
heating them with an electric arc or arcs between a bare electrode or electrodes and the work. A blanket of granular flux
I on the work shields the arc. The filler metal is obtained from melting the solid electrode wire and sometimes from alloying
C elements when using an active flux. A common slang name for this process is Sub-Arc.
L The submerged arc welding process joins carbon steels, low alloy steels, chromium molybdenum steels, stainless steels
and nickel-based alloys. The process provides high deposition rates and deep penetration that make it excellent for
E medium and thick sections of plate and pipe. Full penetration welds are readily achieved on sections up to 12mm thick
without any edge preparation. It is extensively used in pressure vessel fabrication.
The process is normally limited to the flat and horizontal positions because of the flux required to shield the molten weld
metal. The process generally produces a smooth weld bead with no spatter. A layer of slag is left on the weld bead that is
generally easy to remove but not always. A cross section of the submerged arc is shown below.
Wide electrode from Solidified slag layer

spool, drive rolls and
contact tip M K Flux from hopper
M and molten flux
Submerged arc and

M Solidified weld
weld pool M M metal and base
material
M
16 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.4 t July/August 2010 www.cinde.ca
Method of Application DC constant current (CC)
The submerged arc welding process can be applied in the • transformer-rectifier or motor generator
following modes: semiautomatic, automatic and machine. • voltage sensing variable speed wire drive to maintain
The welding operator only needs to monitor the process correct arc length
during welding. Manual welding skills are not required; • more expensive.
however, an understanding of the equipment and welding
process is necessary. AC constant current (CC)
• transformer usual, voltage sensing variable speed
Equipment wire drive system.
The major equipment components required include: • 80 OCV required, preferably 85-100V.
• welding machine (power source), • “Square wave” CV power sources offer easier arc
• the wire feeding mechanism and control, starting, arc stability, and self-regulating arc length.
• the welding torch for automatic welding or the welding
gun and cable assembly for semiautomatic welding, AC is typically used for high currents, multi-wire systems,
• the flux hopper and flux feeding mechanism and and narrow gap welding where arc blow may be a
• a travel mechanism for automatic welding. A flux problem.
recovery system is usually included in an automatic
installation. Electrode Polarity
DC most commonly used as it provides good control over
Power Source Characteristics weld shape, penetration, welding speed, and reliable arc
Typically ~350 to 1200A+ at 100% duty cycle. starting. DCEP gives greatest control over weld shape and
penetration giving high welding speeds, least distortion and
DC constant voltage (CV) requiring less filler metal. Weld metal porosity is generally
• most common; transformer-rectifier, motor generator, less of a problem. DCEN reduces penetration and increase
or inverter. the deposition rate. The higher melt off rate and reduced
• constant speed wire feeder; self-regulating arc. penetration are useful for surfacing and for some materials A
• <1000 amps, above which arc blow can be a problem. of poor weldability to avoid cracking. AC controls arc blow,
• Consistent arc starting (high initial current surge) and square wave AC compares closely to DC. R
• OCV required ~50V. continued on page 18 T
I
C
L
E
www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.4 t July/August 2010 17

Arc Starting Methods
• Steel wool: tightly rolled ball ~Ø10mm between wire 1. To protect the molten weld puddle from the atmosphere
and work. by forming a slag.
• Sharp wire: wire snipped off at an angle. 2. To deposit weld metal with the desired chemical or
• Scratch: carriage started before current applied. mechanical properties, or both.
• Molten flux: for multiple wire applications. 3. To deposit a weld bead of the desired shape in the joint
• Wire retract. being welded.
• High-frequency 4. To deposit a weld bead of the desired shape in the joint
being welded.
Joint Preparation
To be clean and dry, no rust, scale, oil, grease, paint, Submerged arc welding fluxes are classified according to
moisture etc. the relevant code or standard, by the mechanical properties
of the weld deposit which are produce in combination with a
Cleaning methods include: specific type of electrode.
• Flame cleaning to remove scale, rust, moisture.
• Wire brushing to remove light rust, dirt. Advantages
• Grinding to remove scale, rust, paint. • High deposition rate
• Blasting to remove scale, paint, and rust. • Deep penetration welds of excellent appearance and
• Chemical cleaning/pickling for degreasing and profile
removing scale, rust. • High utilisation of electrode wire
• The weld puddle is submerged, eliminating the need
Electrode Wire Classification for protective clothing and shielding.
The electrode wires used for submerged arc welding are • No smoke or fume
A usually solid and bare except for a thin, protective coating • Multi wires can be used
R on the surface, usually copper. The electrode contains
deoxidizers that help clean and scavenge the weld metal
• Produces high quality welds
T to produce a quality weld. Alloying elements may also be Disadvantages

included in the wire composition and the type of flux must • Limited welding positions (flat & horizontal)
I be matched to the requirements of the base metal in order • Weld puddle not visible
C to provide a quality weld. Electrode wires are available in • Portability restricted
sizes from 2.0 mm, 2.4 mm, 3.2 mm, 4.0 mm, 4.8 mm, 5.6 • Practical only on long straight or curved surfaces
L mm and 6.4 mm diameter. Wire is usually available in coils
E ranging from 23 kg to 455 kg. Defects, Faults and Discontinuities that may
occur in SAW
Sample Classification to AWS A5.17b Carbon steel The following are some the more common types of weld
electrodes and fluxes: defects, faults or imperfections:
F7A2 – EM12K Broken down this AWS classification
means: • Overlap, Slag inclusions, Inclusions, Weld spatter,
Incomplete penetration, Excess penetration,
F7A2 is the specification for the flux: Incompletely filled groove, Undercut, Craters, Crater
F = Flux pipes, Unequal leg lengths and Wormholes.
7 = Minimum weld metal Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) • Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of
= 70,000 psi fusion.
A = Heat treatment of conducted tests • Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, and
2 = Details of weld metal impact strength Uniform.
• Cracking may occur in the weld or heat affected zone
EM12K specifies the chemical composition of the and be longitudinal, transverse or star shape (as in
electrode: crater cracking)
E = Electrode
M = Manganese content Remember if any of the above occur they can be continual
12 = Nominal carbon content e.g. 0.12% throughout the weld.
K = Killed steel
The above defects, faults and discontinuities and the NDT
Fluxes used in SAW method that can be used to find them will be discussed more
Fluxes used in submerged arc welding can active or fully later in these series.
neutral (non-contributing to weld deposited) and consists
of a granular mineral compound, some of which is fused g h
together during welding to form a slag covering for the
weld. The fluxes have several purposes these being:
18 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.4 t July/August 2010 www.cinde.ca

by Peter Hayward
(MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED), GTAW (TIG), SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may employ a variety
WELDING FLAWS and PREFERRED NDT METHODS

A
In this series previous parts discussed the common welding processes and referenced typical weld flaws associated with
R each welding process. In this part, the terms used to describe an imperfection (flaw) detected during NDT weld inspection
will be outlined.
T
I Before selecting an NDT method, the NDT inspection personnel need to understand the welding process employed in
terms of the type of weldment, the welding process, types of discontinuity or defect anticipated, and also the inspection
C and acceptance requirements of the applicable standard, code or specification.
L It is important that the terms given below are defined. It should be remembered that various other terms may be used in
codes and standards and by NDT personnel.
E
Discontinuity (Imperfection): An interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration that may be harmful or
non-harmful to the intended use of the welded part.
In some standards the term imperfection may be used as: a departure of a quality characteristic from its intended
condition.
Flaw: May be used to describe an imperfection that may be detected by nondestructive testing and may or may not be
harmful to the parts intended use.
Defect: One or more discontinuities or imperfections whose size, shape, orientation, location or properties do not meet
specified acceptance criteria and are rejectable.
The International Institute of Welding (IIW) has a comprehensive list of imperfections classified into six main groups, these
being: Cracks, Cavities, Inclusions, Lack of Fusion and Penetration, Imperfect shape and Miscellaneous.
This Part 6 will deal with the first two groups, cracks and cavities and the methods of NDT that can be used to detect
them.
CRACKS
A crack can be defined as a planar imperfection produced by fracture of metal under stress. Weldment cracks can be
longitudinal, transverse, crater, inter-granular, trans-granular or multi-directional, and various specific names are given
to the types of cracks that occur. Cracks can be grouped into two main categories: 1. Hot cracks that occur during
solidification. 2. Cold cracks that occur after solidification and normally start at the surface.
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) cracks are imperfections that originate, normally at ambient temperatures, in a heat-affected
zone of a weld due to high internal stresses combined with a susceptible micro-structure. High hardness, excessive
constraint and the presence of hydrogen promote their formation in steels.
10 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.5 t September/October 2010 www.cinde.ca

zone. They are not open to the surface and follow the contour of the HAZ. They can also
be referred to as delayed cracking and when this type of cracking is suspected a time
delay of at least 48 hours after the completion of welding is recommended before non-
destructive testing is carried out.
HAZ cracks are sometimes referred to as toe cracks or underbead cracks. Toe cracks can initiate from notches or undercut,
and are most often perpendicular to the baseCracks
metalin surface
the material or weld surfaces may be found by visual inspection employing low
and run parallel to the weld axis. Underbead cracks form in
power magnification, liquid penetrant inspection or magnetic particle inspection.
the heat affected zone. They are not open to Radiography
the surfaceand and followmethods
ultrasonic the contour
may beof the HAZ.
employed Theyboth
to detect cansurface
also and
be referred to
as delayed cracking and when this type of cracking is cracks.
subsurface suspected a time delay of at least 48 hours after the completion of
welding is recommended before non-destructive testing is carried out.
Solidification cracks are longitudinal cracks, normally surface breaking that occur when
the weld material, while still hot, yields plastically due to high internal shrinkage stresses.
Cracks in the material or weld surfaces mayThisbeusually
foundoccurs
by visual inspection employing low power magnification, liquid
along the centre line of the weld and is sometimes termed ‘centreline’
penetrant inspection or magnetic particle inspection.
cracking’. Radiography and ultrasonic methods may be employed to detect
both surface and subsurface cracks.
Its detection can be by visual inspection using low power magnification (x3x – x10), liquid
Solidification cracks are longitudinal cracks, penetrant or magnetic
normally surface particle inspection.
breaking thatThey can when
occur also be the
detected
weld by material,
ultrasonic and
while still
radiography methods.
hot, yields plastically due to high internal shrinkage stresses. This usually occurs along the centre line of the weld and is
sometimes termed ‘centreline’ cracking’. Transverse cracking occurs at right angles to the axis of the weld axis and is generally
the result of longitudinal shrinkage stresses acting on weld metal of low ductility. This type
Its detection can be by visual inspection using
of low power
cracking magnification
is normally (x3xbreaking
always surface – x10),and liquid penetrant
can be or magnetic
found by visual inspection particle
using low power magnification,
inspection. They can also be detected by ultrasonic and radiography methods. liquid penetrant or magnetic particle methods.
Transverse cracking occurs at right

Weld Cap
angles to the axis of the weld axis and Solidification Crack
is generally the result of longitudinal Transverse Crack (Centreline)
shrinkage stresses acting on weld metal
of low ductility. This type of cracking is
normally always surface breaking and
Reheat
can be found cracking
by visual is inter-granular
inspection using in nature and can occur after postweld heat treatment
low power (PWHT)
magnification, liquid penetrant
in materials such as 2.25%Cr and 1% Mo i.e. creep resistant steels. It also occurs
or magneticin particle
welded methods.
plants that operate at high temperature. Cracking is almost exclusively found in
Toe (HAZ) Crack
the coarse grained region (HAZ) beneath the weld. It can be detected by ultrasonic
Reheat cracking
inspectionisusinginter-granular
a combination
nature and can occur after postweld
in of shear wave probes. A
heat treatment (PWHT) in materials
lamellar Tearing R
1% Moisi.e. caused
creep by the progressive tearing, under tensile loading, of inclusions
HAZ Crack
such as 2.25%Cr and
within Itthe
resistant steels. parent
also occurs metal. While it can occur in thin materials it normally occurs on thicker
in welded Weld T
plants thatsections
operate at(≥15highmm) below the deposited weld metal in the parent material where the
temperature.
Cracking shrinkage
is almost forces of thefound
exclusively weld (e.g. a tee butt) act upon any inclusions in the material. It can I
in the coarse grainedbyregion
be detected
beneath the weld. It can be detected by
(HAZ)
ultrasonic Underbead
inspection using Crack
a compression Weld probe
wave Root (0°).
C
ultrasonic Crater
inspection usingare
cracks a combination
hot cracks thatof shear wave
are the probes.
result of shrinkage in the weld due to the lack of L
filler material at the end of a weld pass e.g. arc termination. It can be accompanied by a
Lamellar Tearing is caused by the progressive tearing, under tensile loading, of inclusions within the parent metal. While
crater pipe. This type of cracking is often in a star pattern within the crater. It can be
E
it can occur in thin materials it normally occurs on thicker sections (≥15 mm) below the deposited weld metal in the parent
detected
material where by liquid forces
the shrinkage penetrant inspection
of the weld (e.g.ina stainless steel
tee butt) act and
upon aluminium,
any inclusionsor
in magnetic
the material. It can be detected
particle inspection in carbon steels.
by ultrasonic inspection using a compression wave probe (0°).
Stress
Crater cracks arecorrosion
hot crackscracking appears
that are the result more commonly
of shrinkage in stainless
in the weld due steels
to the and
lack may take
of filler material at the end of
a weld passtime
e.g.to arc
occur. The cracking
termination. It canisbepredominantly
accompanied inter-granular and
by a crater pipe. is the
This typeresult of caustic
of cracking or in a star pattern
is often
within the chloride
crater. It contamination
can be detected andby may
liquidorpenetrant
may not inspection in stainless
be associated steel and
with welding. aluminium,
It can be detected or magnetic particle
inspectionbyin liquid
carbonpenetrant
steels. inspection.
Tee Crater Pipe and Crack

Joint Weld
Stress Corrosion
Cracking
Lamellar Tearing Butt Weld
CaViTiES
A cavity is gas entrapped during the solidification of the molten
www.cinde.ca CINDE weld
Journalmetal, it No.5
t Vol.31 t cantbe
September/October 2010 11
Stress corrosion cracking appears more commonly in stainless steels and may take time to occur. The cracking is
predominantly inter-granular and is the result of caustic or chloride contamination and may or may not be associated with
welding. It can be detected by liquid penetrant inspection.
CAVITIES
A cavity is gas entrapped during the solidification of the molten weld metal, it can be termed porosity it is volumetric
and has various names. Shrinkage of the deposited weld metal at the surface(s) falls into this group and this is termed
concavity. • linear porosity is a series of gas pores in a line along the axis of the weld.
Gas Pore is a single

Thepore, usually
preferred rounded,
method contained porosity
of detecting in the body
in aofweld
the weldment.
using NDTItsisdetection is bybut
radiography radiography.
visual
inspection or liquid penetrant inspection can be used to detect surface breaking porosity.
Porosity is two or more gas pores, normally subsurface, and may occur as uniform, scattered, group and linear.
• Uniform porosity refers to porosity that is of similar size occurring throughout the weld.

Elongated cavities are a form of porosity but are non-spherical; these can occur in
• Scattered porosity is porosity of varying size that occurs randomly throughout the weld.
• Localized porositysizes
various and lengths,
is a group the preferred
of gas pores method
confined to an area ofofNDT is radiography.
the weld, such as stop start porosity.
• Linear porosity is a series of gas pores in a line along the axis of the weld.
wormhole is an elongated gas pore caused by entrapped gas, and usually it is
subsurface
The preferred method but can
of detecting sometimes
porosity break
in a weld theNDT
using surface. When thisbut
is radiography type of imperfection
visual inspection oroccurs in
liquid penetrant
inspection can be aused
line to
ondetect
eithersurface breaking
side and above porosity.
the root run, it is sometimes referred to as herringbone
porosity. Radiography is the preferred method of NDT for this but visual inspection or liquid
Elongated cavities are a form
penetrant of porosity
inspection can bebutused
are non-spherical;
to detect surfacethese can occur
breaking in various sizes and lengths, the
wormholes.
preferred method of NDT is radiography.
Crater pipes are due to weld metal shrinkage and this type of imperfection breaks the
Wormhole is an elongated gas pore caused by entrapped gas, and usually it is subsurface but can sometimes break the
surface, the preferred method of NDT is visual and liquid penetrant inspection.
surface. When this type of imperfection occurs in a line on either side and above the root run, it is sometimes referred
to as herringbone porosity. Radiography is the preferred method of NDT for this but visual inspection or liquid penetrant
A inspection can behollow
used to bead
detect is gas trapped
surface between
breaking the solidifying weld metal and the slag after welding
wormholes.
e.g. FCAW; it is normally much longer than its width. This type of imperfection can also run
R Crater Pipes are vertically
due to weldup metal
the root run of aand
shrinkage weld.
thisVisual
type ofinspection is the
imperfection preferred
breaks NDT inspection
the surface, when
the preferred method of
T NDT is visual andon thepenetrant
liquid surface but if it is suspected in the weld root run radiography should be used.
inspection.
I Hollow Bead is gas trapped between

burn-through is a the solidifying
localized weld cavity
irregular metal and
thatthe slag after
occurs in thewelding
root rune.g. FCAW;
during it is normally
welding due much
longer than its width. Thisoftype of imperfection canRadiography
also run vertically
is theup the root NDT
run ofoption
a weld. Visual inspection is the
C to loss
preferred NDT inspection
control
when on
by the welder.
the surface but if it is suspected in
preferred
the weld root run
because
radiography
though often occurs during pipeline welding, however if the root pass is accessible, visual should
burn
be used.
L inspection may be used.
Burn-through is a localized irregular cavity that occurs in the root run during welding due to loss of control by the welder.
E Radiography is the preferred NDT option because burn though often occurs during pipeline welding, however if the root
Root concavity
pass is accessible, visual inspectionismay
duebe
to used.
the deposited weld metal shrinking back into the weld. The
preferred method of NDT is radiography but ultrasonic inspection can also be used. Visual
Root concavity is inspection
due to thecandeposited
be used ifweld
the root
metalis shrinking
accessible.
back into the weld. The preferred method of NDT is
radiography but ultrasonic inspection can also be used. Visual inspection can be used if the root is accessible.
Surface concavity is also due to the weld metal shrinking but the preferred method of
Surface concavity is also
NDT due toinspection.
is visual the weld metal shrinking but the preferred method of NDT is visual inspection.
In this Part 6 both

In liquid penetrant
this Part 6 both and
liquidmagnetic particle
penetrant have in some
and magnetic cases
particle havebeen recommended
in some cases beenas the preferred
surface inspection methods. However, where it is suspected that the weld may be contaminated and prevent the capillary
recommended as the preferred surface inspection methods. However, where it is
action needed for liquid penetrant inspection, then the preferred first option for ferromagnetic steels is magnetic particle
inspection. suspected that the weld may be contaminated and prevent the capillary action needed for
liquid penetrant inspection, then the preferred first option for ferromagnetic steels is
magnetic particle inspection.
Uniform Porosity
12 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.5 t September/October 2010 www.cinde.ca

Gas Pore Wormhole
Surface Concavity
Scattered Porosity
Root Concavity
Group Porosity Weld
Linear Porosity
g h A
R
T
I
C
L
E
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www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.5 t September/October 2010 13

by Peter Hayward
Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMaw (stick), gMaw
(Mig), fCaw, (fluX CoREd), gTaw (Tig), Saw (Sub aRC). fabricators may employ a variety
wEld flawS and pREfEREd ndT Cavities, inclusions, lack of fusion and penetration,
METhodS imperfect shape and Miscellaneous. However, it is
In this series previous parts discussed the common welding important that due to the various standards around the world
processes and referenced typical weld flaws associated having differing terms and definitions for welding faults that a
the NDT technician ensures the correct definition is used
with each welding process. In this part the terms used to
describe a discontinuity (flaw) detected during NDT weld when reporting. R
inspection will be outlined.
In the previous issue we dealt with cracks and cavities, this
T
Before selecting an NDT method, NDT inspection personnel part will deal with the third and fourth groups, inclusions and i
needs to understand the welding process employed i.e. lack of fusion and penetration and the methods of NDT that
types of weldment, welding process, type of discontinuities can be used to detect them. C
anticipated and also the inspection and acceptance
requirements of the standard, code or specification. inclusions l
An inclusion can be defined as slag or other non-metallic
material entrapped during welding. This type of imperfection
E
It is important that the terms given below are defined. It
should be remembered that various other terms may be is generally irregular in shape and can vary in size and
used in codes and standards and by NDT personnel. length.
discontinuity (imperfection) The most common cause of slag inclusions is the welding
A discontinuity is an interruption in the normal physical technique used by the welder or failure to inadequately clean
structure or configuration that may be harmful or non-harmful between individual weld runs.
to the intended use of the welded part. A discontinuity is
not necessarily a defect. Tungsten inclusions occur when the tungsten electrode has
In some standards the term imperfection may be used and been accidentally introduced into the weld pool. Tungsten
limits are applied to determine acceptance. has a very high melting point and is approximately twice the
density of steel.
flaw
A flaw is nearly synonymous with a discontinuity but has a Copper inclusions occur when the copper has been
connotation of undesirability. accidentally introduced into the weld pool for example when
the shielding gas nozzle of a GMAW weld gun touches the
defect molten weld pool. The resultant effect is the copper goes into
One or more discontinuities or imperfections whose size, the grain boundaries and may result in cracking.
shape, orientation, location or properties do not meet
specified acceptance criteria and are rejectable. The preferred method of detecting slag and tungsten
inclusions using NDT is radiography.
The American Welding Society (AWS) and Canadian
Welding Bureau (CWB) along with the International Institute The detection of copper contamination is not easy and only
of Welding (IIW) have a comprehensive list of welding becomes apparent when cracking has occurred; however
discontinuities and defects; for this series these have been when the contamination is at the surface of the deposited
broken down into six main groups, these being: Cracks, weld metal magnetic particle inspection can be used when
the material is ferromagnetic.
www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.6 t November/December 2010 17

lack of fusion and penetration, incomplete Inadequate joint penetration is the failure of the deposited
fusion molten weld metal to penetrate into the root of the joint.
Lack of fusion, incomplete fusion can be defined as follows:
• Incomplete fusion between weld metal and parent The welding conditions that contribute to these imperfections
metal, or are: improper weaving during welding, low welding current
or too fast a welding speed. Lack of penetration can be
The above can occur in the following forms: also be caused by low welding current, poor technique,
• Incomplete fusion of the deposited weld metal and the root gap too narrow or the weld root face too thick.
side wall.
• Incomplete fusion between deposited weld passes. The preferred method of detecting incomplete fusion of the
• Inadequate joint penetration is when the actual root side wall or between weld passes using NDT is ultrasonic
penetration is less than that specified. inspection. Lack of joint penetration in the weld root can be
found using either radiography or ultrasonic inspection.
a
R
T
i
C
l
E
g h
18 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.6 t November/December 2010 www.cinde.ca

by Peter Hayward
(MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED), GTAW (TIG), SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may employ a variety
WELD FLAWS and PREFERED NDT around the world having differing terms and definitions for
A METHODS welding faults that the NDT technician ensures the correct
definition is used when reporting.
In this series previous parts discussed the common welding
R processes and referenced typical weld flaws associated
with each welding process. In the previous issue we dealt with cracks and cavities,
T In this part the terms used to describe a discontinuity (flaw) this part will deal with the fifth and sixth groups, imperfect
shape and miscellaneous and the methods of NDT that
I detected during NDT weld inspection will be outlined.
can be used to detect them.
C Before selecting an NDT method, NDT inspection
Undercut
personnel needs to understand the welding process
L employed i.e. types of weldment, (joints) welding process, Undercut is an irregular groove melted into the base metal
type of discontinuities anticipated and also the inspection adjacent to the weld toe and is a very common welding
E and acceptance requirements of the standard, code or imperfection usually caused by the welder using an
specification. improper welding technique such as excessive welding
current, poor manipulation of the electrode and incorrect
It is important that the terms given below are defined. It electrode angle. Undercut creates a mechanical notch
should be remembered that various other terms may be and may also produce a stress intensity problem that can
used in codes and standards and by NDT personnel. createtechnique
welding problems under
such impact,
as excessive fatigue
welding or low
current, poor temperature
manipulation of the electrode
and incorrect
service electrode
of the weldedangle. Undercut creates a mechanical notch and may also produce
joint.
a stress intensity problem that can create problems under impact, fatigue or low
Discontinuity (Imperfection): An interruption in the The preferred
temperature inspection
service method
of the welded joint. of detecting weld undercut
normal physical structure or configuration that may be is by
The visualinspection
preferred inspection.
method of detecting weld undercut is by visual inspection.
harmful or non-harmful to the intended use of the welded
part. A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect. In some
standards the term imperfection may be used and limits
are applied to determine acceptance.
Spatter
Flaw: A flaw is nearly synonymous with a discontinuity but

has a connotation of undesirability.
Undercut
Defect: One or more discontinuities or imperfections

whose size, shape, orientation, location or properties do
not meet specified acceptance criteria and are rejectable.
The American Welding Society (AWS) and Canadian Spatter

Welding Bureau (CWB) along with the International Spatter
Weld spatter are small droplets of molten weld metal that have been ejected from the
Institute of Welding (IIW) have a comprehensive list of Weld weld
molten spatter
pool.are smallisdroplets
The cause of molten
due to excessive weldlow
arc length, metal that in GMAW, arc
inductance
welding discontinuities and defects; for this series these haveor been
blow ejected
dirty/damp fromVisual
conditions. the molten
inspectionweld
is the pool. The cause
cost-effective inspection method.
have been broken down into six main groups, these is due to excessive arc length, low inductance in GMAW,
Overlap
being: Cracks, Cavities, Inclusions, Lack of Fusion arc blow or dirty/damp conditions. Visual inspection is the
Overlap or sometimes called cold lap is a type of imperfection that occurs at the toe of the
and Penetration, Imperfect shape and Miscellaneous. cost-effective
weld and is caused inspection
by the moltenmethod.
weld metal flowing onto the base parent material without
However, it is important that due to the various standards fusing to it and its cause is incorrect electrode angle and too fast a travel speed. Common
names used for this type of imperfection are roll-over and cold lap. The preferred method
of detecting overlap is initially visual inspection supported by liquid penetrant for non
20 CINDE Journal t Vol.32 t No.1 t January/February 2011 ferrous materials and magnetic particle inspection for ferrous materials.
www.cinde.ca
Overlap
pool.
The preferred NDT method is radiography.
Burn-Through Weld root
Spatter overlap underfill (incompletely filled groove)

Weld spatter are small droplets
Overlap of molten
or sometimes weld metal
called thatishave
cold lap been
a type ejected from the When the prepared bevel butt weld preparation (groove)
of imperfection
molten weld pool.
thatThe causeat
occurs is due
the totoe
excessive
of the arc length,
weld andlowisinductance
caused by in GMAW,
the arc
is not completely filled with weld metal, this type of
blow or dirty/damp conditions. Visual inspection is the cost-effective inspection method.
molten weld metal flowing onto the base parent material imperfection is called underfill or incompletely filled groove.
overlap without fusing to it. The cause is incorrect electrode angle. The cause
underfill is when
(incompletely filledthe welder does not deposit enough
groove)
e.g.improper
Overlap or sometimes welder
called cold lap istechnique using a that
a type of imperfection travel speed
occurs at thethat weldthemetal
When
toe of the preparedtobevel
completely fill the(groove)
butt weld preparation groove.is notThe method
completely ofweld
filled with
metal, this type of imperfection is called underfill or incompletely filled groove. The cause is
is too slow. The preferred method of detecting overlap
weld and is caused by the molten weld metal flowing onto the base parent material without is detection is visual inspection.
when the welder does not deposit enough weld metal to completely fill the groove.
fusing to it andinitially
its cause visual inspection
is incorrect supported
electrode angle and by
too liquid penetrant
fast a travel speed.forCommon The method of detection is visual inspection.
names used for non thisferrous
type of imperfection
materials and are roll-over
magnetic and particle
cold lap. inspection
The preferredfor method
of detecting overlap
ferrous is initially visual inspection supported by liquid penetrant for non
materials. Concave Root Incompletely filled groove
ferrous materials and magnetic particle inspection for ferrous materials.
Overlap
Concave Root
Concave Root
This discontinuity sometimes called ‘suck-back’ occurs in the weld root and is caused by
This
an discontinuity,
excessive purge pressuresometimes called steel
when welding stainless ‘suck-back’, occurs
piping, excessive in or
root gap
when
the the
weld‘hot root.
pass’ (the weld
It is pass following
caused by an theexcessive
root pass) is deposited to heavy and the
purge pressure
shrinkage of the deposited weld metal pulls up the root pass. It occurs mostly in pipe welds
when
and welding
the preferred NDTstainless steel piping, or by incorrect root
method is radiography.
gap or when the ‘hot pass’ (the weld pass following the
root pass) is deposited too heavy3 and the shrinkage of
Excess the deposited weld metal pulls up the root pass. It occurs
Reinforcement mostly in pipe welds and the preferred NDT method to
identify this defect is radiography.
Excessive weld Reinforcement Excessive Weld Metal

Excessive
This occurs when the finishing weld Reinforcement
weld pass or passes are deposited in access to the normal
This occurs
weld reinforcement. when
This problem the when
occurs finishing weld
welding too pass or passes
slow, selecting are
incorrect
deposited
settings or welder technique inproblems.
excess Excess
of therootnormal weldis reinforcement.
penetration the weld bead a
This
penetrating too problem this
far. Generally, occurs when
condition welding
is caused by tootoo
wideslow,
a weldselecting
root gap, Misalignment or hi-low
incorrect settings or welder 2 technique problems. Excess
R
root penetration is the weld bead penetrating too far. Excessive Weld Metal
Generally, this condition is caused by too wide a weld T
root gap, excessive heat e.g. welding too slow or high
amperage, poor welder technique or a combination of
i
excessivethese.
heat e.g.The preferred
welding too slow orNDT method poor
high amperage, of detecting excess
welder technique or a weld
Misalignment or hi-low
C
combinationreinforcement
Excessive of these. is visual but excess weld root penetration in Misalignment
weld Reinforcement Misalignment (hi-low) (hi-low)
TheThis
preferred
weldweld
occurs
pipe NDT method
when
work
root reinforcement.
the of detecting
is finishing weldexcess
radiography.
penetration in pipe
Thiswork
weld
pass or
is radiography.
problem
reinforcement
passes is visual
are deposited but excess
in excess Misalignment is the amount of offset (surface planes are not parallel) of two base
of the normal
Misalignment is the amount of offset (surface planes are
occurs when welding too slow, selecting incorrect materials, pipes or sheets in a welded joint. This is sometimes called ‘hi-low’ or mis-match.
l
not parallel) of two base materials to be welded. This is
bytorch, E
settings or welder technique problems. Excess root penetration is the weld bead It is caused by poor set-up prior to welding or welding two items together of differing
Excessive Weld Build-up sometimes
thickness. calledmethod
The preferred ‘hi-low’ or mis-match.
of detecting It isisbycaused
this imperfection straightedge,
penetrating too far. Generally, this condition is caused by too wide a weld root gap,
profile gauge or for internal misalignment radiography or ultrasonic inspection.
excessive heat e.g. welding too slow or high amperage, poor welder technique or a poor set-up prior to welding, or from welding two items
combination of these. together
arc strikes of differing thickness. The preferred method of
The preferred NDT method of detecting excess weld reinforcement is visual but excessThis is the grounding of a live electrode onto the parent material outside the weld joint. The
weld root penetration in pipe work is radiography. detecting
Misalignment
this imperfection is by straightedge, torch or
(hi-low)
preferred method of detecting this imperfection is by visual inspection. However, this
profile
Misalignment
imperfection gauge.is
can also theFor
be seeninternal
amount onof offsetmisalignment
(surface
a radiograph. radiography
planesare
Arc strikes are harmlessor
not parallel)
usually ofbut
two base
when
Excessive Weld Build-up
Excessive Weld Penetration ultrasonic
they occur on inspection
hardenable alloytechniques
steel materials can be
localised used.
materials, pipes or sheets in a welded joint. This is sometimes called
cracking may occur ‘hi-low’the
therefore or mis-match.
area
It isshould
caused be by
checked using magnetic
poor set-up prior to particle
weldingororliquid penetrant
welding inspection.
two items Arc strikes
together of differing
on duplex material should be treated with caution.
burn-through
burn-through
A weld discontinuity that occurs when too much heat is applied to the weld zone, causing
arc strikes
thickness. The preferred method of detecting this imperfection is by straightedge, torch,
Burn-through is a weld discontinuity that occurs when profileisgauge
This the or for internal misalignment
grounding radiography
of a live electrode or ultrasonic
onto the parent inspection.
too much penetration, for example during SAW, excessively slow travel speeds increase
the risk oftoo much heat
burn-through. is applied
The localised collapseto themolten
of the weldweld zone, causing
pool during too
the welding material outside the weld joint. The preferred Arc Strike method of
the root pass, usually occurs in a pipe, resulting in a hole in the weld rootWeld
pass of varying
arc strikes
much penetration. For example during SAW,
Excessive excessively
shape and size. In SMAW it is caused when the welder loses control of the molten weld
Penetration detecting
This is the this imperfection
grounding of a live is by
electrode visual
onto inspection.
the However,
parent material outside the weld joint. The
pool. slow travel speed increases the risk of burn-through. The this imperfection
preferred can alsothis
method of detecting beimperfection
seen on aisradiograph. WhenHowever, this
by visual inspection.
localised
Theburn-through
preferred collapse
NDT method of the molten weld pool during the welding
is radiography. they occur can
imperfection onalsoalloy steelonmaterials
be seen a radiograph. a Arc
hard heatareaffected
strikes usually harmless but when
Burn-through is a weld
of the root pass discontinuity
usually that occurs
occurs inwhen too much
a pipe, heat is in
resulting applied
a hole they occur
to the weld
zone can on behardenable
created due alloy steel
to thematerials
rapid localised
cooling cracking may occur therefore the
of the metal
zone, causing too much penetration. For example during SAW, excessively slow travel area should be checked using magnetic particle or liquid penetrant inspection. Arc strikes
inincreases
the weld
Burn-Through
speed
root pass of varying shape and size. the
the risk of burn-through. The localised collapse ofWeld
In SMAWroot weld
molten
it poolfrom a molten to a solid state. Localised cracking in the
on duplex material should be treated with caution.
duringisthecaused
welding when thepass
of the root welder loses
usually occurscontrol
in a pipe,ofresulting
the molten
in a holeweld base material may also occur. Therefore, the area should
in the weld
pool.
root pass The preferred
of varying NDTInmethod
shape and size. SMAW it isiscaused
radiography.
when the welder loses control
of the molten weld pool. The preferred NDT method is radiography.
Arc Strike
Burn-Through Weld root
Excessive dressing, Tool and Chipping hammer Marks

underfill (incompletely filled groove) When the material thickness is reduced below the surface of the material it is called
When the prepared bevel butt weld preparation (groove) is not completely filled with weld excessive dressing but when the material is struck with a hammer or chipping tool
metal, this type of imperfection is called underfill or incompletely filled groove. The cause is indentations in the material surface occurs. Visual inspection is the preferred inspection
when the welder does not deposit enough weld metal to completely fill the groove. method.
The method of detection is visual inspection. 4
Concave Root Incompletely filled groove

underfill (incompletely filled groove)
When the prepared bevel butt weld preparation (groove) is not completely filled with weld
metal, this type of imperfection is called underfill or incompletely filled groove. The cause is
when the welder does not deposit enough weld metal to completely fill the groove. www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.32 t No.1 t January/February 2011 21
The method of detection is visual inspection. Excessive dressing, Tool and Chipping hammer Marks
Concave Root
When the material thickness is reduced below the surface of the material it is called
Concave Root Incompletely filled groove excessive dressing but when the material is struck with a hammer or chipping tool
Excessive using
be checked dressing, Tool andparticle
magnetic Chippingor
hammer
liquid Marks
penetrant tool indentations in the material surface occurs. Visual
When theArc
inspection. material thickness
strikes is reducedloaded
on cyclically below the surface ofand
members the material it is calledis the preferred inspection method.
inspection
excessive dressing but when the material is struck with a hammer or chipping tool
duplex materials should be treated with concern.
indentations in the material surface occurs. Visual inspection is the preferred inspection
method. Torn Surface on the base Metal
Caused by uncontrolled removal or breaking off of temporary
attachment that has been used during fabrication. The
preferred method of detecting these imperfections is
visual inspection but magnetic particle or liquid penetrant
Tool marks
inspection should support the visual inspection.
Editor’s Note:
This is the final article of an 8 part series contributed by
Peter Hayward. Peter volunteered his time to write them
because of his interest in educating NDT technicians about
welding. On behalf of all the CINDE members and the NDT
Excessive dressing, Tool and Chipping
Torn Surface on the base Metal community at large we extend a heartfelt Thank you! to
Caused by
hammer Marksuncontrolled removal or breaking off of temporary Peter
attachment thatfor
hasabeen
job well done.
used during fabrication. The preferred method of detecting these imperfections is visual
When the material thickness is reduced below the
inspection but magnetic particle or liquid penetrant inspection should support
CINDEthe visual
members may access digital copies of this article
surface of the material it is called excessive dressing but
inspection. and other Journal articles from the Members Area of the
when the material is struck with a hammer or chipping
CINDE website at: https://www.cinde.ca/members/
Editor's Note:
This is the final article of an 8 part series contributed by Peter Hayward. Peter volunteered
his time to write them because of his interest in educating NDT technicians about welding.
g h
On behalf of all the CINDE members and the NDT community, Thank you Peter for a job
well done.
a CINDE members may access digital copies of this article and other Journal articles from
the Members Area of the CINDE website at: https://www.cinde.ca/members/
R
T
i
C The art of Metallurgy
by Shane Turcott
l
E
This micrograph is from a car part that broke while
being installed, but wasn’t noticed until the car
was back on the road. After investigating using
failure analysis techniques, it was possible to rule
out manufacturing defects or material problems
and attribute the failure to an incorrect installation
procedure by the mechanic.
Since car recalls can be ridiculously expensive,

5
the
manufacturer of this part breathed a sigh of relief
knowing the other tens-of-thousands of parts already
cruising the road are just fine.
Photo by Shane Turcott, all rights reserved.

Used with permission of Steel Image © 2011.

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Canada and the ISO Draft Proposal (Vol. 9 No.5) ......................................................... 5

. the electrode wire. However, during the globular transfer

Nozzle diameter of the electrode wire. The droplet detaches and

www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.30 t No.6 t November/December 2009 13

14 CINDE Journal t Vol.30 t No.6 t November/December 2009 www.cinde.ca

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING - BASICS

Solidified slag Arc

10 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.1 t January/February 2010 www.cinde.ca

Mains Supply Chipping Wire

Electrode lead Work

Work (return) lead

Materials that can be welded with SMAW include:

www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.1 t January/February 2010 11

Types of Electrodes for Welding Steel

Discontinuities and Defects Common to SMAW

12 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.1 t January/February 2010 www.cinde.ca

A GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING - BASICS

L Welding arc showing

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www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.3 t May/June 2010 17

Defects, Faults and Discontinuities that may occur in FCAW

Tool steels are filled with fine, evenly dispersed carbides

After this part had shattered into numerous pieces,

Photo by Shane Turcott, all rights reserved.

18 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.3 t May/June 2010 www.cinde.ca

A SUBMERGED ARC WELDING - BASICS

Wide electrode from Solidified slag layer

M and molten flux

Submerged arc and

www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.4 t July/August 2010 17

T to produce a quality weld. Alloying elements may also be Disadvantages

18 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.4 t July/August 2010 www.cinde.ca

WELDING FLAWS and PREFERRED NDT METHODS

10 CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.5 t September/October 2010 www.cinde.ca

Transverse cracking occurs at right

Tee Crater Pipe and Crack

Lamellar Tearing Butt Weld

Gas Pore is a single

I Hollow Bead is gas trapped between

In this Part 6 both

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Applus RTD provides asset integrity services

We also provide API & CWB certified personnel. Applus RTD

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www.cinde.ca CINDE Journal t Vol.31 t No.6 t November/December 2010 17

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