4- Deformation Theory:

Hot rolled strips are obtained by reshaping slabs in successive

rolling passes. The rolling forces must exceed the yield strength of
the steel and produce plastic deformation to achieve permanent
change of the bar dimensions.
The calculation of the rolling forces is based on deformation
theory. The mill control models are adapted with hardness factors
from historically measured forces and temperatures.

The rolling forces

generate compression and
tensile stresses in the strip.
Plastic flow occurs if the net
stress is higher than the
yield strength of the steel.

Plastic deformation
takes place mainly by slip.
Slip breaks and reforms
atomic bonds and is easier
on dense atomic planes. It
takes place on these planes
under the action of shear
forces.

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 The amount of slip is
proportional to the magnitude
of the shear stress. Atoms do
not slip on planes that are
perpendicular or parallel to the
load, because there is no shear
stress. The highest amount of
slip takes place on planes that
form a 45º angle with the load
direction.

The rolling forces

generate shear stresses that
flatten and elongate the steel
grains into pancake shapes
parallel to the rolling direction.
The strip elongates and thins.

Slip occurs when the shear

stress exceeds the critical stress
required to move dislocations
through the crystal. The critical
shear stress of pure iron is
proportional to the strength of
the atomic bonds, thus it
decreases with temperature. It is
also proportional with the
density of dislocations.

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 A steel grain has a higher
critical shear stress than a pure
iron crystal because dislocations
must move over obstacles such
as impurities or interstitial
atoms.

Steel is softer and easier to

roll at high temperatures
because the dislocations can slip
more easily over other crystal
defects when the thermal
vibration is higher. Steel is hard
to roll with high rolling speeds,
as there is less time for thermal
vibration jumps.
Polycrystalline steel is
stronger than a single grain
because, in addition to moving
dislocations, the applied stress has
to surpass the resistance to shape
change of the surrounding grains.
At similar temperatures,
ferrite is softer than austenite.
In ferrite, the dislocations can
move more easily over slightly
distorted crystal regions by
gliding across the lattice to a
less strained slip plane.

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 The softness of ferrite is
demonstrated when interstitial
free (IF) steels are allowed to
transform during rolling.
Sudden, massive transformation
causes differential deformation
resulting in strip breaks.

The plastic deformation of

steel initiates in the grains
where the critical shear stress is
reached first. It progresses by
dislocation glide on several slip
routes in each grain.
Deformation by slip is
accompanied by rotations that
tend to bring the slip routes
parallel to the shear direction.

The dense atom planes

tend to be aligned during
rolling. This generates
anisotropy in the strip and can
be used to improve the r-value
of steel.

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 Many dislocations are
blocked during deformation by
obstacles such as grain
boundaries or similar
dislocations on the same slip
plane. Immobile dislocations
act as stress raisers and new
dislocations are generated.

Further deformation
requires the increase of the load
to form new dislocations or to
free existing ones. The
multiplication of dislocations
increases the crystal distortion
and work-hardens the steel.

The strengthening effect of work-hardening is removed by

diffusion in a process called restoration. Restoration is very fast
during hot rolling because the elevated temperatures increase the
atomic vibration and thereby the speed of diffusion.
Restoration takes place by recovery and recrystallization.
Recovery occurs even at low temperature. Recrystallization starts
only at high temperatures and sizable amounts of deformation.
Recovery changes the grain structure without modifying its
shape or dimensions. Recovery lowers the crystal distortion by:
 Diffusion of vacancies and interstitial elements to the grain
boundaries or dislocations

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  Cancelling opposite
dislocations from the
same slip plane
 The alignment of the
dislocations in dislocation
walls and sub-grains
formation

Recrystallization replaces
the work-hardened grains with
an entirely new set of strain-
free, softer grains. The new
grains grow at highly strained
crystal regions such as grain
boundaries or dislocation walls.
Their boundaries engulf parts of
the adjacent matrix.

Several smaller new

grains grow from every work-
hardened grain and
recrystallization stops when the
new grains meet each other.

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 The restoration takes
place dynamically during
deformation, or statically after
deformation stops.

Static
recrystallization
reduces the yield
stress close to the
value it had prior to
deformation.
Dynamic
recrystallization
produces partial steel
softening and
annihilates further
work-hardening in the
rolling pass.
If there is enough time before the next deformation pass, steel
softening continues by growth of the large recrystallized grains on
behalf of smaller ones.
Hot rolling is a
multistage process with short
times between two successive
deformations. The repeated
cycles of work-hardening and
restoration create a finer grain.

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 The bar volume stays
practically constant during
rolling. Due to the fast
restoration, large amounts of
deformation can be applied
without a great increase of the
rolling forces or fracturing.

Summary:
Plastic deformation takes place by the breaking and reforming
of atom bonds.
Deformation creates atom steps, usually by slip. Favourable
slip routes are defined by combinations of dense atomic planes and
directions.
The grains pancake during rolling due to the distribution of the
shear forces in the strip. This causes the rolled bar to elongate and
thin.
A steel grain has lower strength than a perfect iron crystal, due
to the presence of dislocations. Polycrystalline steel is stronger than a
single grain.
Summary:
The plastic deformation strengthens the steel by work-
hardening.
The restoration process removes the effects of work-hardening
by recovery and recrystallization. Restoration can be dynamic
(during deformation) or static (after the deformation stops).
Steel softens by dynamic recrystallization, static
recrystallization and grain growth.
Due to fast restoration, large amounts of deformation can be
applied during hot rolling.

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5- Strengthening:
Temperature,
deformation and alloying
elements strengthen or soften
the steel by controlling the
work-hardening, restoration
and phase transformation.

The size of the steel

grains has a major effect on the
steel strength and the
magnitude of the rolling
forces.

Steels with small grains are hard to roll because they have large
grain boundary areas hence numerous discontinuities in the slip path
of dislocations.
Grains grow
during slab heating
and long interpass
times between the
rougher and the
finishing mill. They
are refined during
rolling by
successive cycles of
work-hardening
and restoration.

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Steel is softer and easier to roll with
low rolling speed and high
temperature because:
 The critical shear stress
decreases at high temperature
and increases at high rolling
speed.
 The restoration is faster at high
temperatures and longer at low
rolling speeds.

At least 8% thickness
reduction is required to produce
straining in the entire strip
volume. Small strains cause
sluggish recrystallization
because there is no reason for
diffusion.

Conventional austenite
rolling must be completed above
the austenite-to-ferrite
transformation temperature.
Small deformation of the ferrite
grains may cause the growth of
very large recrystallized grains
or non-uniform structures.

-32-
 Final strip properties
are achieved by cooling on
the run out table. Fast cooling
produces small grains
because many ferrite nuclei
form simultaneously at the
austenite grain boundaries.
Fast cooling to low
temperatures produces hard
constituents and strengthens
the steel.
The ferrite structure is
even finer if the austenite
grains retain deformation
bands. Deformed austenite
transforms faster and at
higher temperatures.

Alloying elements
strengthen the steel by grain
refinement, solid solution
strengthening and
precipitation hardening.
Grain refinement is the best
strengthening method
because it raises both steel
strength and toughness.

-33-
 Interstitial and
substitutional atoms cause
solid solution strengthening
by blocking (or pinning) the
dislocation movement. The
plastic deformation continues
only at increased load, thus
steel is harder to roll.

The rolling forces can

considerably increase if
austenite grains do not
recrystallize between rolling
passes such as in the case of
HSLA steels.

HSLA steels contain

small amounts of strong
precipitate-forming elements
(i.e., microalloys) that delay
recrystallization. Niobium,
vanadium and titanium are
the most used microalloys.
They diffuse to the grain
boundaries and slow their
expansion long enough to
cluster and form precipitates
with nitrogen and carbon.

-34-
 When the microalloy
precipitates occur quickly, the
recrystallization is delayed
until the precipitation is
complete; hence, pancaked
grains enter the next rolling
stand and the rolling forces
increase.

The recrystallization
delay is longer at lower
temperatures. The temperature
at which the grains remain
pancaked (Tnr) is a milestone in
HSLA rolling as the best
mechanical properties are
obtained after 60% thickness
reduction below this
temperature.

In the cold slab, the

microalloy atoms are bonded
with carbon and nitrogen in
precipitates formed during the
slab solidification and cooling.
Microalloy atoms must be in
solution before the start of
rolling to delay
recrystallization effectively.

-35-
 Precipitates dissolve
when slabs are heated. The
fraction of the microalloy
atoms that break out of the
precipitates and move into the
iron lattice increases with the
increase of the slab
temperature and residence time
in the furnace.
Particles that do not dissolve easily at usual heating
temperatures, such as titanium precipitates, reduce the tendency for
excessive grain growths in the furnace.
Precipitation hardening
occurs by the formation and
growth of second phase
particles within the grains.
Steel strength increases
sharply when fine and closely
spaced particles, such as the
vanadium carbonitride, form
during the austenite-to-ferrite
transformation.
Summary:
Temperature, deformation and alloying elements strengthen or
soften the steel by controlling the work-hardening, restoration and
phase transformation.
Steel made of small grains is strong.

-36-
 Grains grow during reheating and long interpass times, and are
refined by consecutive cycles of strain-hardening and
recrystallization during rolling.
Steel is softer to roll at high temperatures and with low rolling
speeds. At least 8% reduction is necessary to strain the entire strip
volume.
Summary:
The strength of the finished strip increases with fast cooling at
low temperatures.
Alloying elements strengthen steel by solid solution
strengthening, grain refinement and precipitation hardening.
Interstitial and substitutional atoms cause solid solution
strengthening.
Microalloy atoms and their precipitates produce grain
refinement and solid solution strengthening. Precipitates that do not
dissolve during reheating reduce the grain growth in the furnace.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6- Process Parameters:
The goal of the hot rolling operation is to achieve strip
dimensions and strip properties simultaneously. The process
parameters are measurable rolling variables that control the
metallurgical changes in the strip. They are the milestones of the
controlled rolling process.
The control potential is limited to the designed mill capability.
The process parameters are selected to achieve the best properties
without exceeding the equipment limits.

-37-
 Hot strip mills have narrow operating windows set by:
 slab temperature restrictions
 mill configuration and the available power of the mill stands
 the time that the bar temperature is in the hot deformation
range
Hot rolling has four consecutive metallurgical stages:
reheating, roughing, finish rolling and cooling.

The main purpose of

reheating is to increase steel
workability by raising the
slab temperature. The
temperature level and its
uniformity are determined by
the slab dropout temperature
(DOT) and residence time in
the furnace.

-38-
 Reheating produces
phase transformation, grain
growth and dissolution of
precipitates. Typically, the
DOTs are higher than
1200°C (2200°F) and slabs
are reheated for 2 to 3 hours.

The DOT must be high

enough to provide good
workability at every rolling
pass. It must be low enough
to avoid formation of liquid
phases at the slab surface or
the piece loses its plasticity
and surface cracks develop
during rolling.

Most precipitates
dissolve around 1250ºC
(2280ºF) during normal slab
residence time in the furnace.
Alloying elements (e.g.,
titanium) prevent excessive
grain coarsening during
prolonged reheating.

-39-
 The roughing operation
is designed to produce large
thickness reductions.
Usually, 208 to 254 mm (8 to
10 in.) thick slabs are rolled
into 25 to 37 mm (1 to 1.5
in.) transferbars. The amount
of work is measured by
strain, which is proportional
to the natural logarithm of
the slab-to-transferbar
thickness ratio.

The roughing mill

reduction schedule
divides the total strain
(in excess of 2) over 3
to 7 rolling passes.
Reduction is the
relative thickness
decrease in a rolling
pass.

Roughing increases the steel chemical homogeneity and closes

casting defects such as porosity.
Roughing mill exit temperatures (RMXT) are between 1050°C
and 1120°C (1900°F and 2050°F). At these temperatures, the yield
strength of steel is low. Static recrystallization is complete between

-40-
the roughing passes due to the high temperature, large strains and
long interpass times. Recrystallization refines the steel grains and
preserves the low yield strength.
Strips are rolled to the
final dimensions in the 5 to
7 tandem mill stands of the
finishing mill. The total
strain is 1.5 to 3. Reduction
decreases from about 55%
in the first passes to 12% in
the last pass, to compensate
for the increase of the
rolling forces.

The bar speed

increases from stand to
stand to maintain a constant
mass flow with decreasing
thickness. This avoids strip
buckling or breaking.

The interpass times decrease from several seconds in the first

finishing mill stands to fractions of a second in the latter stands.
Usual finishing mill exit temperatures (FMXT) are 840°C to 930°C
(1550°F to 1700°F). During rolling in the finishing mill:
 The steel grains are refined by repeated cycles of work-
hardening and recrystallization

-41-
  Alloying elements precipitate
 Pancaking of the steel grains occurs below Tnr.

The FMXT is selected to provide the desired conditioning of

the austenite grains prior to cooling, without exceeding the rolling
forces in any mill stand.
Conventional rolling is
performed in the austenite phase.
Usually, conventional rolled low
carbon grades have equiaxed
grains at the end of rolling. Their
austenite grains are about 35
microns in diameter and
transform to around 20 micron
diameter ferrite grains after
cooling.
Steel grades with high Tnr have pancaked austenite grains at the
end of rolling. HSLA grades stop recrystallizing from the second or
third finishing mill stand, thus more than 60% of the deformation
takes place without recrystallization.

-42-
 The pancaked austenite
grains are about 10 microns
thick. After cooling, they
transform to equiaxed ferrite
grains, less than 5 microns in
diameter. This fine structure
makes the steel strong and tough.

Strips are cooled on the run out table and then coiled to ease
the handling operations. Usual coiling temperatures are 550°C to
720°C (1550°F to 1700°F). The cooling rate and the coiling
temperature affect the final strip properties.

The austenite
transforms to ferrite and
alloying elements form
precipitates during the
cooling of common hot
rolled grades. The
transformation and
precipitation end and the
ferrite grains grow during the
slow cooling of the coil.

Summary:

-43-
 The process parameters are measurable rolling variables that
control the metallurgical changes in the strip.

The process parameters are selected to achieve the best

properties without exceeding the equipment limits.

Hot rolling has four metallurgical stages: reheating, roughing,

final rolling and cooling.

The slab temperature level and uniformity are controlled with

the slab dropout temperature (DOT) and the slab residence time in
the furnace.

Summary:

The roughing mill exit temperature (RMXT) and the reduction

schedule control the roughing operation.

The finishing mill exit temperature (FMXT) and the finishing

mill (FM) reduction schedule control the metallurgical changes
during the final rolling operation.

The coiling temperature (CT) and the cooling rate (CR) on the
run out table adjust the final strip properties.

-44-