Sthavira Thera and Sthaviravadin in Chin

How Theravāda is Theravāda?
Exploring Buddhist Identities
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How Theravāda is Theravāda?
Exploring Buddhist Identities
Edited by
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Jason A. Carbine
Claudio Cicuzza
Santi Pakdeekham

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To the ācariyas of the past 
To the ācariyas of the present 
To the ācariyas of the future 
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Continue unbroken.

Contents
Introduction xiii
Acknowledgements xxxiii
Conventions xxxv
Map of South and Southeast Asia xxxviii-xxxix
1 Was Buddhaghosa a Theravādin?

Buddhist Identity in the Pali Commentaries and Chronicles 1
Rupert Gethin
2 The Teachings of the Abhayagiri School 67

L.S. Cousins
3 Sthavira, Thera and ‘*Sthaviravāda’

in Chinese Buddhist Sources 129
Max Deeg
4 The King and his Bhagavā:

The Meanings of Pagan’s Early Theravādas 165
Lilian Handlin
5 Sāsanasuddhi/Sīmāsammuti:
Comments on a Spatial Basis of the Buddha’s Religion 241
Jason A. Carbine
6 Lineage, Inheritance, and Belonging:

Expressions of Monastic Affiliation from Laṅkā 275
Anne M. Blackburn
7 King Rāma I and Wat Phra Chetuphon:
the Buddha-śāsanā in Early Bangkok 297
Peter Skilling
8 The Benefits of Ordination according to

the Paramatthamaṅgala 355
Claudio Cicuzza
9 Circulation of Texts in Mid-Nineteenth Century Cambodia:

A new reading of Inscription K. 892 (Vatt Tā Tok, CE 1857) 371
Olivier de Bernon
10 King Mongkut’s Invention of a Universal Pali Script 401

Venerable Phra Anil Sakya
11 Thai Ideas about Hīnayāna-Mahāyāna:

Correspondence between King Chulalongkorn
and Prince Narisranuvattiwong 415
Arthid Sheravanichkul
12 Whence Theravāda?
The Modern Genealogy of an Ancient Term 443
Todd LeRoy Perreira
Description of plates 573
Contributors and editors 599
Indexes 605
photo courtesy asian art museum, 1993.11.7
SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA
The map is geographically and historically hybrid, juxtaposing place names from different periods. It
is a tool to help readers locate places mentioned in the individual chapters and does not pretend to
be politically correct. The map is not to be used in local or international disputes.
SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA
MAP BY PIERRE PICHARD MARCH 2012

128
3
Sthavira, Thera and ‘*Sthaviravāda’

in Chinese Buddhist Sources
Max Deeg
Introduction
T his paper will investigate the use of the standard

equivalents to Sanskrit sthavira and Pali thera and do so
Chinese
from a historical viewpoint. We are used to identifying the term

sthavira with the only surviving ‘Hīnayāna’-denomination of Indian
Buddhism, the Theravāda tradition. However, in India sthavira seems
to have been used in a wider, non-denominational, but nonetheless
sometimes institutional and hierarchical sense. Striking too is the
absence in Chinese of a term that could correspond to a Sanskrit term
*Sthaviravāda. This raises interesting questions, when considering
Chinese sources that offer equivalents to the terms sthavira and thera.
When and how did the Chinese equivalents for sthavira and/or thera
become loaded with denominational connotation and Hīnayāna-critical
rhetorical undertones?1 Based on the available evidence, I argue that it
1
Seyfort Ruegg 2004: 11, has pointed out three of the senses in which the Pali
term theravāda is used: (1) an emic historical sense, describing the teaching
of the Elders in the direct succession of the Buddha, (2) an institutionalized
Plate III 129

130 Max Deeg
was especially in the Tang period, in the context of the famous traveler
and translator Xuanzang 玄奘 (ca. 602–664), that the term became
packed with denominational meaning.
Chinese equivalents of sthavira and thera
First I will investigate the different Chinese terms for sthavira, and will
try to explain how Sanskrit sthavira and Pali thera were translated as
shangzuo 上座,2 comparing this Chinese equivalent with other Chinese
equivalents such as dade 大德,3 zunzhe 尊者,4 zunsu 尊宿,5 qijiu 耆舊,
changlao 長老6 etc.
The latter two terms, i.e. qijiu and changlao, clearly refer to
seniority or venerability and dade, zunzhe and zunsu to the eminent
and venerated position of the respective monk. This semantic range is
also reflected in the original semantic range of sthavira, as well as in
the standard translation term shangzuo. Indeed, a check of the different
meanings ascribed to the term shangzuo 上座 – especially in the Chan
禪 tradition, as will be seen – in later times shows that the Chinese use
of the term was as wide as the Indian use of sthavira and thera and had
no clear denominational restriction.
Shangzuo 上座 itself is used in the oldest layer of Chinese Buddhist
translations, especially in sūtras attributed to the Āgamic genre, often
sense, denoting the Mahāvihāra tradition, and (3) a denominational sense,

meaning a specific nikāya. On the problem of Chinese criticism of the
‘Hīnayāna’ and the probable context see Deeg 2007.
2
See Nakamura 1981: 741d., s.v. shōza.
3
Relatively often found in the Chang-ahan-jing 長阿含經/Dīrghāgama,
Za-ahan-jing 雜阿含經/Kṣudrakāgama, Zengyi-ahan-jing 增壹阿含經/
Ekottarikāgama and other Āgamic texts in combination with li 力 (evidences
checked in the CBETA digital version of the Taishō-shinshū-daizōkyō 大昭
新修大藏經).
4
Frequently found in Āgamic texts.
5
This term belongs to a later period of translations, mainly from the Tang
period.
6
Frequently found in Āgamic texts.
Sthavira, Thera and ‘*Sthaviravāda’ 131
in combination with biqiu 比丘, bhikṣu,7 or alone.8 We can refrain from

a detailed discussion of all these examples for the time being as they
seem to reflect what was found in the Indian text translated.9 We can
also refrain from lengthy discussion of why this rendering, shangzuo
上座, had been chosen in early Chinese translations in the first place,
since the evidence is scant. There is no evident and direct semantic-
etymological connection between the Indic word and its Chinese
translation shangzuo. While the focus of the Indic term sthavira is
on ordination age, the Chinese word reflects instead a concrete-local
and/or a hierarchic standing. The only possibility I see of analyzing
sthavira on the Indic side in a way which would refer to a high position
like the Chinese shangzuo is that sthavira was derived from √sthā- in
a more general way, as a comparative adjectival form (-ra/-ira)10 in
the sense of ‘being higher positioned.’ Another possibility is that the
element zuo 座 in shangzuo could reflect a similar translation idea as
the Tibetan gnas. The Tibetan translation for sthavira is gnas-brtan,
lit.: ‘firm place’ (Sakaki: ‘having a fixed habitation’11), which clearly
renders the Indic word etymologically (derived from √sthā-).12 But
these analyses do not offer evidence for making a concrete argument
as to why shangzuo was chosen, one way or another.
It is helpful to take a closer look at the various Chinese transliterations
of the Indic term sthavira. The oldest occurrence of a Chinese
transliteration of an Indian word corresponding to Sanskrit sthavira
is in Kumārajīva’s translation of the *Samayabhedoparacanacakra
(see below): 他鞞羅 tabiluo/*tha-bji’-la.13 This can only be the
7
E.g. in Faxian’s translation of the Parinirvāṇasūtra (T. 7), mixed occurrences
in Za-ahan-jing.
8
In Gautama Saṅghadeva’s Madhyamāgama translation (Zhong-ahan-jing 中
阿含經, T. 26) we find the term shangzuo-zhouyuan 上座咒願.
9
There seems to be a higher frequency of the word shangzuo in Chinese texts
than sthavira in the extant or parallel Indic texts.
10
See the ‘regular’ comparative form sthavīyas, and the superlative sthaviṣṭha.
11
Sakaki 1982: 562 (8733), in the list of terms for hierarchic and ‘functional’
monastic individuals under the Tibetan heading Rab-tu byuṅ-ba la sogs-pa’i
miṅ-la (with no Sanskrit equivalent given for the header).
12
See Skilling 1993: 154.
13
Early Middle-Chinese reconstructions are given, for practical reasons only,
according to Pulleyblank 1991.
132 Max Deeg
transliteration of a Prakritic from *thavira,14 but the term clearly would

not have been understood very well in a Chinese context without a
semantic gloss like shangzuo-bu 上座部.15 In Huilin’s 惠琳 (737-
820) dictionary Yiqie-jing-yinyi 切經音義, for instance, one of four
explanations of words from Kumārajīva’s (344 or 350-409) translation
of the *Samayabhedoparacanacakra,16 the Shibabu-lun 十八部論 (see
below), is the following on tabiluo: ‘spelled b(i) + (m)i; a Sanskrit
word (which in the language) of the Tang is tu-bu (lit.: ‘Section of the
Land’?) or zunsu (‘venerable’).’17
There are yet other transliterations. In Paramārtha’s (Zhendi 真諦,
499/500–569)18 translation of the *Samayabhedoparacanacakra, the
Bu-zhiyi-lun 部執異論 (T. 2033.22b.28f.), and also in his Xianshi-lun
顯識論 (T. 1618.881a.3), we find a different transliteration, namely
tapili(-bu) 他毘梨(部)/*tha-bji-li, which seems to infer a similar
Prakritic form (*thavirī(ya)?).19 A later transliteration of the Sanskrit
14
Cp. Ārdhamāgadhī thavira, Ratnachandra 1977: vol. 3, 95. This term is
found again in the commentary on the (Mahāyāna-)Parinirvāṇasūtra by
the Sui-commentator (Zhang) Anding (章)安頂 (revised by Zhanran 湛然
(711–782)), Dabanniepanjing-shu 大般涅槃經疏 (T. 1767.194c.24f.).
15
Throughout this paper I refrain – or hope to have refrained – from translating
bu 部, Skt. nikāya, by the term ‘sect’ because of its christocentric and
schismatic connotations.
16
On this attribution see Demiéville 1924: 48. It is based on discussion in
the catalogue from the Tang period, the Kaiyuan-xinding-shijiao-mulu 貞
元新定釋教目錄 (T. 2157.955a.17ff.), also added in some editions of the
Chinese canon of the text (T. 2032.19c.15ff.).
17
陛迷反；梵語，唐云﹕土部，或云﹕尊宿也。 (T. 2128.784b.19) [punc-
tuation of Chinese texts is my own, unless indicated otherwise]. I am not
able to explain the rendering tubu 土部 (some obscure derivation from
√sthā-?), which is found nowhere else in the canon; the only possibility I see
is that it is a miswriting of shibu 士部, ‘section of the erudite’ (speculatively:
shi 士 = ārya?), which would make more sense in semantic terms, but again,
as far as I am aware, is not found in the Chinese canon and elsewhere.
18
On Paramārtha’s biography see Paul 1982.
19
Demiéville 1973: 94, note a, takes yu 與 as part of the transliteration for
sthavirīyo (but see the following note). Cp. also T. 2033.22c.8ff. 他毘梨
[emend T. 與 with most editions and in accordance with the passage below]
部又分成二部﹕一薩婆阿私底 (張梨反)婆拖部，亦名醯兜婆拖部。二
醯摩跋多部，亦名他毘梨與[omit 與]部。 (The nikāya of the Thavirīya
furthermore was divided in two sections: one is the section of Sarvāsti which
term in Chinese texts is found in Yijing’s (635–713) Nanhai-jigui-

neifa-zhuan 南海寄歸內法傳 (see below): aliye-xitabiluo-nijiaye 阿
離耶悉他陛攞尼迦耶/* a-li-ya-sit-tha-bεj’-la-nri-kia-ya, which, as a
word, is a hapax legomenon but is clearly identifiable as standing for
Skt. ārya-sthavira-nikāya.
To sum up this first overview on the different terms for sthavira
used in Chinese literature, the first references to the term are from the
late fourth and early fifth centuries and are found frequently and in
different linguistic forms, in both transliteration and translation, over
the following centuries.
Chinese explanations of the term shangzuo
In other Chinese Buddhist collections and dictionaries the term

shangzuo is explained in different places in different ways, which
I will quote below. In Daocheng’s 道誠 (fl. ca. 1019) encyclopedic
Shishi-yaolan 釋氏要覽 we find the following details:
Shangzuo. In the Vinaya of Five Sections it is said that this is generally

called shangzuo (‘High-seated’). The Buddha says (that) an excellent
and superhuman (being) is called ‘High-seated.’20 The Vinayamātṛka
says: from (ordination age) of no summer to nine summers they are
xiazuo (‘Low-seated’). From the tenth summer to the nineteenth
summer they are zhongzuo (‘Middle-seated’). From the twentieth
summer to the fortieth summer they are shangzuo (‘High-seated’).
From the fiftieth summer they are venerated by all śramaṇas and their
honorific name is qisu (‘Elder’). (The Karmaśataka says: if they have
sixty summers they should be experts in the Vinaya. If they practice
the śīla they are officially called ‘Elders.’)21 The (Abhidharmamahā-)
vibhāṣā says: There are three (types of) shangzuo. 1. shangzuo by
is also called the section of the Xidoupotuo (Hetuvāda(pūrva)), and another

one, the section of Ximobaduo (Hemavata), which is also called the section
of the Thavirīya.) I have translated Chin. bu 部 by the English word ‘section’
or by nikāya; for a short comment on this see below.
20
I have not found this passage in the respective Vinaya, the Wufen-lü 五分律/
Mahīśāsaka-vinaya.
21
This commentarial parenthesis is in the Chinese original.
134 Max Deeg
ordination age, that is if a venerated elder (monk) keeps all the precepts
he is therefore called ‘Born from Truth.’22 2. Secular shangzuo, that is
(people who) know the Dharma, of status and wealth, rich, with high
status, from a great family, powerful, with a grand entourage. Even
(if such a person) is only twenty years old he unanimously has to be
honored as shangzuo. 3. shangzuo by dharma-disposition, that is: an
arhat.23
This clearly shows that later Chinese Buddhists were aware of, but
also puzzled by, the different definitions and modes of use of the term
shangzuo in Buddhist texts. The text immediately continues:
(There are these) verses saying:24 ‘The mind often falls prey to vulgar
speech, and tainted thoughts disturb the thinking; even if one lives
long in the forest, one is not a true shangzuo. If, keeping the precepts
and having attained wisdom, one contemplates correctly, with a clear
mind is liberated – that one has insight in the dharma(s) and is called
a true shangzuo.’ – In the Shisong-lü it is said:25 the one who keeps
the ten true modes (dharmas) is called a shangzuo, that is the one
who owes the realm. (On what is called ‘realm’ the Vibhāṣā26 says
that (the merits of a shangzuo) are called enlightenment and the fruits
(of enlightenment) (that) the ‘samādhi of emptiness’ (kong-sanmmodi)
enables him to attract remarkable power, and enables (him) to settle
22
For zhensheng 真生 see in the introductory verses of the Sifen-lü 四分律,
T. 1428.568b.19: 從佛戒所生爾乃是真生 (Who is born from the precepts
of the Buddha he indeed is one ‘Born from Truth.’)
23
T. 2127.261a.5ff. 上座五分律云﹕齊幾名上座。佛言﹕上更無人名上
座○毘尼母云﹕ 從無夏至九夏，是下座。自十夏至十九夏，是中座
自二十夏。至四十夏，是上座。五十夏已上，一切沙門之所尊，敬名
耆宿(準百一羯避云﹕雖夏臘六十，應須是知律。有戒行者，方名耆
宿)○毘婆沙論云﹕有三上座﹕一，生年上座，即尊長耆舊具戒，名‘
真生’故；二，世俗上座，即知法富貴、大財、大位、大族、大力、
大眷屬，雖年二十，皆應和合推為上座；三，法性上座，即阿羅漢。
24
This quote is found in Xuanzang’s translation of Apidamo-jiyi-menzu-
lun 阿毘達磨集異門足論, attributed to Śāriputra/Shelizi 舍利子
(T. 1536.380c.26ff.).
25
T. 1435.368b.4ff. The ten true modes are explained in the text.
26
This quote from Xuanzang’s Apidamo-dapiposha-lun 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙
論/*Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣāśāstra, T. 1545.540c.4ff., is taken out of its
context.
body and mind and make them immovable – therefore it is called the
‘realm of the shangzuo.’)27 He is without fear, without disturbances,
full of knowledge and of fame, endowed with eloquence, clear in
expressing what he means, so that the hearers gain trust (in him and
what he says). He is well able to settle harm and enter other people’s
houses, to expound the dharma to the ‘white-clad’ (laypeople), to
cause them to abandon evil and follow the good (path), has himself
attained the joy in the four truths, is without any fault – (such a person)
is called shangzuo. – In the Vinayas (one finds) monastic shangzuo,
that is the shangzuo of the Vinayas and the ‘Three(fold) Net’28 – the
monk-shangzuo, that is the shangzuo sitting on a platform or the
highest-ranked monk in the monastic main-hall – the shangzuo of the
separate compounds, that is the one (sitting) on the seat of honor in
today’s Chan-monastic settlements – the resident shangzuo, that is
the shangzuo who organizes a banquet. – In the Vibhāṣā it is said:
shangzuo: his mind is settled and he does not strive for worldly fame
and admiration – such (a person) is called shangzuo.29
This part of the text clearly shows that there was a shift in the use
of the term shangzuo/sthavira from a purely honorific title in the
canonical texts to usages that concerned specific monastic functions
in the Chinese context that were even differentiated according to the
denomination (Chan).
27
This commentarial parenthesis is in the Chinese original.
28
San’gang 三網 here and elsewhere certainly does not mean the śrāvaka-,
pratyekabuddha- and bodhisattva-path, as explained in the Xukan-guzunsu-
yuyao 續刊古尊宿語要 (X. 1318.465b.6ff.), but it is the standard expression
for the three highest positions in a Chinese monastery, already found in the
Weishu 魏書 (sixth century.): see Silk 2008: 134f. (see also below). The
Chinese term traditionally refers to the three main social relations: ruler-
subject, father-child, husband-wife.
29
261a.14ff. 頌曰﹕心掉多綺語，染意亂思惟，雖久住林園，而非真
上座；具戒智正念，寂靜心解脫，彼於法能觀，是名真上座○十誦
律云﹕具十法名上座謂有住處(言住處者。婆沙論云﹕謂道及果空三
摩地，能引彼力殊勝，能令身心，安住不動，故名上座住處矣)。無
畏、無煩惱、多知識、多聞、辯言具足。義趣明了。聞者信受。善能
安痒入他家。能為白衣說法。令他捨惡從善。自具四諦法樂。無有所
乏名上座○律中﹕僧坊上座(即律三網上座)僧上座(即壇上上座；或堂
中首座)別房上座(即今禪居諸寮首座)住家上座(即計齊席上座)○婆沙
論云﹕夫上座者。心安住故不為世違順傾動。是名上座。
136 Max Deeg
In the slightly later dictionary Fanyi-mingyi-ji 翻譯名義集 by

Fayun 法雲 (1088-1158) we find the following explanation:
Xitina: this means shangzuo. The Vinaya in Five Parts says: the Buddha
says (that) the ultimate and superhuman is called ‘High-seated.’
Daoxuan (596–667), through an imperial edict, was made shangzuo
of the Shiming-si. Listed as (ranked) above an abbot-karmadāna
(sizhu-weina). … [continues by quoting the Vinayamātṛka passage as
in T. 2127].30
The passage indicates an ‘institutionalization’ of the title. It combines

a quotation from a canoncial Vinaya-text with a rather general
explanation of the term shangzuo and a very specific historical case of
an individual monk who received the title and the rank coming with it
through an imperial order.
The Shishi-yaolan 釋氏要覽 further explains the three highest
positions in a Chinese monastery, the already mentioned ‘threefold net’
(san’gang 三綱), which existed in this institutionalized form from at
latest the Tang period on. It also offers another curious transliteration,
similar to the xitina in the quotation above and quite obviously a
variant of it, for shangzuo:
The vinaya-superintendent (vinayadhāra): he may be supervising the

common dharma-sessions and the common meals or the common
dharma-sessions and separate meals. There are three monastic officials
called the ‘threefold net’: if (they), like the strong ropes of a fishing
net, guide (the saṅgha), then it is well done. One is the shangzuo (in
Sanskrit called xitimo); the second is the abbot (in Sanskrit called
30
T. 2131.1074c.15ff. 悉替那，此云‘上座’。五分律﹕佛言﹕上更無人名
上座。道宣勅為西明寺上座。列寺主維那之上。 In the line before,
however, we read: 體毘履，此云‘老宿’。他毘利，此云‘宿德’。 (tipilü
(*thhεj’-bji-li’): this means ‘elder’; tapiluo: this means ‘old (and) virtuous.’)
See also Zanning’s 贊寧 (919–1001) Dasong-sengshi-lüe 大宋僧史略,
T. 2126.245a.1f., which refers to a hagiographic collection, a Gaoseng-
zhuan 高僧傳 which is obviously not identical with the ones we have in the
canon, in which the appointment of the shangzuo through imperial edict is
reported as a kind of normal procedure.
biheluoshami/vihārasvāmin); the third is gangwei (in Sanskrit called

jiemotuona/karmadāna which means ‘who knows the business’).31
Without being able to identify the Sanskrit term that is transcribed by

xitimo 悉替摩/*sit-ti-ma or xitina 悉替那/*sit-ti-na’ – I suspect them
to represent Sanskrit words derived from sthi-, the ‘Schwundform’
of √sthā- (like e.g. in sthita)32 – from the examples given above it is
clear that there was a shift of meaning and function of shangzuo from
its canonical textual use denoting a monk of considerable monastic
standing and age to a more institutionalized function. In the Chinese
context this can be shown from the Liang-dynasty 梁 (beginning of
sixth century) onwards.33
31
Shishi-yaolan 釋氏要覽 T. 2127.0302b27ff. 律住持﹕或有同法同食，
或同法別食主事三員謂之三綱。若罟綱之巨繩提之則正也。一上座(
梵云悉替摩)二寺主(梵云毘呵囉莎弭)三綱維(梵云‘羯磨陀那’，此云‘
知事’)。 See also Zuting-shiyuan 祖庭事苑 (X. 1261.431a.22ff.) 首座，
即古之上座也。梵語﹕悉替那。此云上座，此有三焉；集異足毗曇
曰﹕一，生年為耆年；二，世俗財名與貴族；三，先受戒及證道果。
古今立此位，皆取其年、德、幹局者，充之。今禪門所謂首座者，即
其人也；必擇其己事已辨，眾所服從，德業兼備者，充之。 (Shouzuo
is what was formerly (called) shangzuo. In Sanskrit (this is) xitina. What
is called shangzuo refers to three (meanings); considering the various
differences (it is as) the Abhidharma says: 1. an old (monk according) to
real age; 2. a layperson, rich, famous and from a noble family; 3. one who
has received the precepts earlier and realized the fruit of enlightenment. To
establish the position (of a shangzuo) in the past and now one was appointed
based on the age, virtue and intellectual ability. What is now called shouzuo
in the Chan denomination, is a person who must, after he has chosen his
own business, render service to the community. He is appointed according
to how he practices virtue and merit.) Almost verbatim quoted in the Chi-
xiu-baizhang-qinggui 勅修百丈清規, compiled by Dehui 德煇 and Dasu 大
訴 (both first half of fourteenth century) (T. 2025.1131a02ff.), and abridged
in the Dasong-sengshi-lüe 大宋僧史略 (T. 2126.244c.26ff.).
32
Silk 2008: 135, note 39, refers to the passage but gives no explanation of the
term.
33
See Wang Sengru’s 王僧儒 (465–522) Zhongsi-bei 中寺碑: 中寺者，晉
太元五年僧稽王司馬道子之所立也。 . . . 天藍十五年，上座僧慈等，
更錆日架，赫然霞立。 (The Zhongsi was built by the examiner of the
saṅgha Sima Daozi in the fifth year of the (era) Taiyuan (380) of the Jin(-
dynasty) … In the fifteenth year of (the era) Tianlan (516) the shangzuo
138 Max Deeg
The references seem to imply that, at least in the Chinese context,

shangzuo was either a term for a high-standing monk in the canonical
Āgama texts, or later on represented a monastic title, but that it was
not used to distinguish denominationally bound individuals (nikāya
affiliation). As a monastic title it became institutionalized in a strict
sense as one of the three leading administrative figures in a monastery.
Sthavira as an institution (nikāya/bu 部) in Chinese sources
To assist the analysis, further attention can be given to a term noted

above: shangzuo-bu 上座部. It is only with this term that we see
reference to a clear denominational and institutionalized body as in
Pali Theravāda. Shangzuo-bu is closely linked to the reports of the first
schism and the later development of the Buddhist schools.34 Especially
in the light of the absence of the term *Sthaviravāda or similar terms
in the corpus of Indian inscriptions,35 it is quite possible that what we
see here with the term shangzuo-bu is part of an idealized version of
Buddhist sectarian history which came into being in the first centuries
of the Christian era rather than an old division of the group.
Shangzuo-bu stands for Sthavira-nikāya, the ‘section (or
denomination) of the Sthavira.’ It is, as far as I am aware, first found in
Chinese Buddhist literature in what is considered to be Kumārajīvas’s
first Chinese translation of Vasumitra’s (Shiyou 世友) work Shiba-
bu-lun 十八部論/*Samayabhedoparacanacakra.36 In the following I
Sengci and others experienced fierce sun beam and bright red clouds
building up.) (quoted after Hanyu-dacidian, s.v. shangzuo).
34
On the historical credibility of these records see now Golzio 2009.
35
According to Tsukamoto’s comprehensive work: Tsukamoto 1996, 1998,
2003.
36
Dated to the third century AD, Vasumitra’s text was translated three times
into Chinese, after Kumārajīva again by Paramārtha/Zhendi 真諦 (500–569)
and later by Xuanzang. There is also a Tibetan translation from an Indian
original; Demiéville 1973: 81, states that Wasilliev’s history of the schism in
his Der Buddhismus (referring to Schiefner’s translation from Russian into
German: Wasilliev 1860) represented a translation of the Tibetan version
of Vasumitra, but in reality Wasilliev’s text here is based on Tārānātha’s
‘History of Buddhism.’
give the relevant portion about the schisms, and also provide some
comments on the names of the nikāyas which reflect Prakrit terms
and some interesting irregularities, especially in the light of a possible
underlying Indian original.
It was 116 years after the parinirvāṇa of the Buddha, in the city of
Vārāṇasī, when the king Aśoka ruled over Jambudvīpa and harmonized
the realm. At that time the great saṅgha became divided into (different)
denominations and different dharmas. There were bhikṣus, one called
Śākya (Neng 能), the second called Nidāna (Yinyuan 因緣), and the
third called Bahuśruta (Duo-wen 多聞),37 who expounded five points
by which they taught the living beings; (these should be) known that
from them is achieved benefit for the ignorant ones; (and they) doubted
that one can achieve enlightenment through the inspection of what was
preached. (That therefore) the Buddha had already given rise to two
nikāyas (bu 部), the first one being the Mahāsāṅghika (Mohesengqi 摩
訶僧祇), the second called Tabiluo 他鞞羅/*Thavira (in the language
of the Qin this is the ‘nikāya of the High-seated’). And in about
another one hundred years time the nikāya of the Mahāsāṅghika came
up with another different faction called Ekavyavahārika (Yishuo 一
說), the second one called Lokottaravāda (Chushijian-shuo 出世間
說),38 the third one called Kaukulika (Kuju 窟居).39 And in another
one hundred years time another faction of the Mahāsāṅghika arose
which was called Prajñaptiśāstrika (Shishelun 施設論). Again,
during the second century (thereafter), the heretic recluse Mahādeva
(Mohetipo 摩訶提婆) lived on the Caityaśaila (Zhiti-shan 支提山),
and another three factions were established in the Mahāsāṅghika: one
was called Caitika (Zhitijia 支提加),40 the second one Fopoluo 佛婆
37
Or: ‘(groups of) bhikṣus.’ These three names seem to correspond vaguely –
the only identical term is bahuśruta – to the equally mysterious four ‘groups
of assemblies’ in Xuanzang’s version: see Masuda 1925: 14, and Willemen,
Dessein, Cox 1998: 42, note 29.
38
This, and the Sūtrāntavāda/Pali Suttavāda (see below), are the only nikāya
where -vāda is denoted by shuo 說 (respectively lun 論). Paramārtha
transformed this into Chushishuo-bu 出世說部.
39
*khwət-kə̌ stands for Kukkulika where one would rather expect the two
characters in an inverse order (to represent something like *Kukkuṭa). On the
different semantic renderings of this name see Demiéville 1973: 42, note a.
40
Probably jia 迦 for jia 加.
140 Max Deeg
羅 (?),41 the third Uttaraśaila (Yuduoluoshiluo 欝多羅施羅). Thus the

Mahāsāṅghika were divided into nine nikāyas:42 the first was called
Mahāsāṅghika, the second was called Ekavyavahārika, the third was
called Lokottaravāda, the fourth was called Kaukulika, the fifth was
called Bahuśrutīya, the sixth was called Prajñaptika (Shishe 施設),
the seventh was called Yoga (Youjia 遊迦),43 the eighth was called
Aluo-shuo (阿羅說),44 the ninth was called Uttaraśaila-nikāya. In a
period of three hundred years amongst the Sthavira-nikāya, different
denominational (sections) were established: one was called Sarvāsti
(Sapoduo 薩婆多),45 which is also called ‘Hetuvādapūrva-Sthavira-
nikāya’ (Yinlunxian-shangzuo-bu 因論先上座部); the second is
called Haimavata-nikāya (Xueshan-bu 雪山部). Then in these three
hundred years in the Sarvāsti-nikāya occurred another division into
a nikāya called Vātsīputrīya (Duzi 犢子). Then in these hundred
years the Vātsīputrīya split up into different nikāyas, one being called
Dharma-uttarīya (Damoyuduoli 達摩欝多梨),46 the second called
Bhadrāyanīya (Batuoluoyeni 跋陀羅耶尼), the third called Mili 彌離,
also called Sāṃmitīya (Sanmidi 三彌底), the fourth called the ‘Nikāya
of Six Cities’ (Liucheng-bu 六城部/Ṣaṇṇāgarika).47 Then in these three
hundred years in the Sarvāsti-nikāya occurred another division called
Mahīśāsaka (Misha-bu 彌沙部),48 in the Mahīśāsaka occurred another
41
This certainly is a mistake and may be reconstructed as Apoluo 阿婆羅 for
Apara(śaila), so that, against Bareau’s (1955: 104) statement, this nikāya is
indeed attested in the older translation of Vasumitra’s text.
42
The following list does not correspond with the earlier explanation of the
branches and it is difficult to correlate them completely.
43
This is an absolutely tentative reconstruction of what seems to be a corrupted
passage; the normal place here would be held by the Caitika (see Masuda
1925: 16, and Bareau 1955: 16-22) of which the character jia 迦 may still be
a trace.
44
Probably for 阿婆羅說 = Apara(śaila-)vāda.
45
*sat-ba-ta. This cannot be a transliteration of sarvāsti nor a mistake since
it is found too often in Chinese Buddhist texts and as part of titles. That the
term was not always interpreted in the ‘traditional’ way as yiqie-you 一切
有, ‘everything exists’, is clear from the dictionary Fanfanyu 翻梵語 where
it is explained as yiqie-xing 一切性, ‘integrality, completeness’ for sarvatā,
sarvatva/Prakrit *savata (T. 2130.984c.4).
46
*dam-ma-ʔut-ta-li; the transliteration interestingly restores the word-sandhi:
dharma-uttara.
47
Demiéville 1973: 59, note d.
48
*mji-şε:-sək as an abbreviated form of Mishasai 彌沙塞.
division which, because their leader (always) referred (to the Buddha)49
was called Dharmaguptaka (Tanwude 曇無德).50 Then in these three
hundred years in the Sarvāsti-nikāya occurred another division called
(Youlisha 優梨沙),51 also called Kāśyapīya (Jiayewei 迦葉惟). In four
hundred years in the Sarvāsti-nikāya occurred another division which,
according to its great master Uttara (Yuduoluo 欝多羅) was called
Saṅkrānta (Sengjialanduo 僧迦蘭多), also called ‘Expounding the
Sūtra’ (Xiuduoluo-lun 修多羅論/Sūtrānta-vāda). Thus the Sthavira-
nikāya split up into twelve nikāyas:52 the first was called Sthavira-
nikāya, the second was called Haimavata, the third was called Sarvāsti,
the fourth was called Vātsīputrīya, the fifth was called Dharmottarīya,
the sixth was called Bhadrāyanīya, the seventh was called Saṃmatīya
(Milidi 彌離底),53 the eighth was called ‘Nikāya of the Six Cities’, the
ninth was called Mahīśāsaka (Mishasai 彌沙塞), the tenth was called
Dharmaguptaka, the eleventh was called Kāśyapīya, the twelfth was
called Nikāya of ‘Expounding the Sūtra.’54
49
This refers to Maudgalyāyana always following the Buddha in expounding
the dharma: see Demiéville 1973: 60f.
50
On this phonetic rendering of a probably Prakrit name (EMC 曇無德 dam-
muə̌-tək = *dham(m)a’ut(t)ika, similar to the form preserved in Gāndhārī
on the lid of a pot in which the famous British Library manuscripts were
deposited?), see Demiéville 1973: 59a.
51
I have no idea for what name this transliteration – a hapax legomenon in the
canon – stands, but it seems to reflect somehow Paramārtha’s Shansui-bu
善歲部/Suvarṣaka = Yinguang-dizi-bu 飲光弟子部/Kāśyapīya (yinguang
being a semantic translation for Kāśyapa based on an analysis into the Skt.
roots √pā- for yin 飲, and √kāś- for guang 光): see Demiéville 1973: 62, note
a.
52
Again it should be noted that the following list does not correspond to the
explanations given before.
53
*mji-li-tεj’; this is a complete conflation of the two versions of the name
Sāṃmitīya – Mili 彌離 or Sanmidi 三彌底 – given before and phonetically
makes no sense.
54
T. 2032.18a.9ff. 佛滅度後百一十六年，城名巴連弗，時阿育王王閻
浮提，匡於天下。爾時大僧別部異法。時有比丘，一名能，二名因
緣，三名多聞，說有五處以教眾生；所謂從他饒益無知；疑由觀察言
說得道。此是佛從始生二部，一謂摩訶僧祇，二謂他鞞羅(秦言上座
部也)；即此百餘年中摩訶僧祇部更生異部﹕一名一說，二名出世間
說，三名窟居。又於一百餘年中摩訶僧祇部中復生異部﹕名施設論。
又二百年中摩訶提婆外道出家住支提山，於摩訶僧祇部中復建立三
部﹕一名支提加，二名佛婆羅，三名欝多羅施羅。如是摩訶僧祇中
142 Max Deeg
Without going into details about the historical value of these highly
systematized schism reports, I am tempted to question their reading as
sources of actual and objective events in the past as they are described
in the texts. I would rather suggest that the narratives project back an
originally regional diffusion process, and that especially the original and
first schism between the Sthavira and Mahāsāṅghika at best describes
a gradually increasing regionalization of the saṅgha in institutional
terms, which finally led indeed to the formation of denominations with
(more or less) distinct self-identities, doctrinal characteristics and a
corpus of literature of their own.55 The fact that the different ‘schools’
from around the second quarter of the first millennium agreed on a
master narrative, a chronology of assumed factional splits, does not
prove the historical factuality of the narrative itself. The differences in
the sources which scholars like André Bareau tried to harmonize for
the sake of historical consistency,56 point rather to denominational sub-
narratives than to actual events and institutionalized denominations –
hence the problems of finding inscriptional, not to mention scriptural,
分為九部。一名摩訶僧祇。二名一說。三名出世間說。四名窟居。五
名多聞。六名施設。七名遊迦。八名阿羅說。九名欝多羅施羅部。
至三百年中上座部中因諍論事，立為異部﹕一名薩婆多，亦名因論先
上座部；二名雪山部。即此三百年中於薩婆多部中更生異部，名犢
子；即此三百年中犢子部復生異部，一名達摩欝多梨，二名跋陀羅耶
尼，三名彌離，亦言三彌底，四名六城部；即此三百年中薩婆多中更
生異部，名彌沙部；彌沙部中復生異部，因師主因執連名曇無德。即
此三百年中薩婆多部中更生異部，名優梨沙，亦名迦葉惟。於四百年
中，薩婆多部中更生異部，因大師欝多羅，名僧迦蘭多，亦名修多
羅論。如是上座部中分為十二部，一名上座部，二名雪山，三名薩婆
多，四名犢子，五名達摩欝多梨，六名跋陀羅耶尼，七名彌離底，
八名六城部，九名彌沙塞，十名曇無德，十一名迦葉惟，十二名修多
羅論部。 See also Paramārtha’s translation of the text, Bu-zhiyi-lun 部執
異論 (T. 2033.20a.17ff.) where the denomination of the Sthavira are called
Shangzuo-dizi-bu 上座弟子部, the ‘Nikāya of the High-Seated Disciples’,
a term only found again as a quote from Paramārtha in Jizang’s 吉藏 (549-
623) Sanlun-xuanyi 三論玄義 (T. 1852.9b.14ff.).
55
As similar opinion was already expressed by Erich Frauwallner in his
important essay on the Buddhist councils (Frauwallner 1952: 241). A
sceptical view on the historical ‘reality’ of clear-cut early schisms has been
expressed by Bhikkhu Sujato 2006.
56
Bareau 1955.
evidence and proof of some of the groups found therein (e.g. the
Vātsīputrīya, the Ṣaṇṇāgarika, etc.).
Yijing 義淨 (635-713), who traveled and worked in India and in
Southeast Asia in the second half of the seventh century, in his Nanhai-
jigui-neifa-zhuan 南海寄歸內法傳 provides us with the following
interesting comments on the Sthavira-nikāya, once fully transliterated
as Aliyexitabiluo-nijiaye 阿離耶悉他陛攞尼迦耶 (see above) and
translated as Shengshangzuo-bu 聖上座部, and later only refered to as
‘High-seated’ (shangzuo 上座) – and other denominational groups and
their distribution over South and South-East Asia:
Furthermore, (as regards) the assemblies of the arhats spreading the

dharma [i.e., the first and second council], they differ by having had
five and seven (hundred participants). The ‘vinayadhara-generals’
(chilü-dajiang 持律大將) are divided into eighteen special (groups),
according to what specific Tripiṭaka they know. The way they wear
the lower garment is (either) wrong or correct, and the way they
drape the upper garment over the shoulder is (such) that the strips are
(either) narrow or broad. Living together or having separate cells or
surrounding (the beds) with ropes – both (ways) are not (regarded)
as offenses (against the vinaya). To accept food is done by using
the hands or by marking a place on the ground, on which to put the
food, both ways being without fault; each (of these ways) has its own
tradition from teacher to teacher (paraṃparā), and the matter (vastu)
must not be mixed.
([Yijing’s running note:] In case of the Sarvāstivāda-nikāya
(You-bu 有部) (the undergarments are cut) straight, (while) the other
three (cut them) irregularly. In case of the Sarvāstivāda-nikāya it is
prescribed that the rooms (of the monks) are separated, (while) in case
of the Sāṃmitīya(-nikāya) (Zhengliang 正量) the beds are surrounded
with ropes. The (monks of the) Sarvāstivāda-nikāya beg (for) food with
their hands, (but the monks of) the Mahāsāṃghika(-nikāya) (Sengqi 僧
祇) draw (a mark) on the ground to accept food.)
The various nikāyas and branches have different origins, and there
is only a system of four principal (nikāyas) that has been transmitted
in the Western Regions.
144 Max Deeg
([Yijing’s running note:] (1) The Āryamahāsāṃghika-nikāya,57

in (the language of) the Tang called the ‘Sacred Nikāya of the Great
Assembly’, is divided into seven nikāyas, and each of the three
baskets (of the Tripiṭaka) has a hundred thousand verses, which would
probably be a thousand fascicles translated into (the language of) the
Tang. (2) The Āryasthavira-nikāya, in (the language of) the Tang called
the ‘Sacred Nikāya of the High-Seated’, is divided into three nikāyas,
and the length of its Tripiṭaka is the same as that of the preceding
(nikāya). (3) The Āryamūlasarvāstivāda-nikāya, in Chinese called the
‘Sacred Original Nikāya of Everything-Exists’, is divided into four
nikāyas, and its Tripiṭaka is the same as that of the preceding (nikāya).
(4) The Āryasāṃmitīya-nikāya,58 in (the language of) the Tang called
the ‘Sacred Nikāya of Correct Measures’, is divided into four nikāyas,
and its Tripiṭaka consists of three hundred thousand verses. But the
transmission of the nikāyas often show differences. Now according to
the real situation it is said to have eighteen (branches). A division into
five nikāyas is not known in the Western Kingdoms.)
Their splits and appearance and disappearance, the specific names
of the nikāyas (and) the events are not the same; they are discussed
elsewhere are not recorded in detail here. Therefore in all regions of the
Five Indias and as well on the islands of the Southern Sea everybody
speaks of the four kinds of nikāyas (nijiaye), but their veneration
(in certain) places is sometimes stronger, sometimes weaker. In
Magadha all four nikāyas are aptly studied, (but) the Sarvāstivāda(-
nikāya) (You-bu 有部) is predominant. In Lāṭa and Sindhu – names
of kingdoms in West India – three of the nikāyas have few followers,
but the Sāṃmitīya is particularly widespread. The whole north
(follows) the Sarvāstivāda(-nikāya), though sometimes (one) finds the
‘Great Assembly.’ In the south all the monks follow the ‘High-seated’
(shangzuo 上座), while the other nikāyas are rare. In the kingdoms
of the eastern borderlands the four nikāyas are practiced in various
ways. (…) On the Island of the Lion,59 all (follow) the ‘High-Seated’
(Shangzuo 上座), while the ‘Great Community’ (Dazhong 大眾) is
repulsed. But in the Southern Sea there are more than ten kingdoms
where only the Mūlasarvāstivāda-nikāya (Genbenyou-bu 根本有部)
57
Aliye-mohesengqi-nijiaye 阿離耶莫訶僧祇尼迦耶/*ʔa-li-ya-mak-xa-səŋ-
gji-nri-kia-ya, phonetically rather *Āryamahāsāṅghī-nikāya.
58
Aliyesanmilidi-nijiaye 阿離耶三蜜栗底尼迦耶/*ʔa-li-ya-sam-mjit-lit-tεj’-
nri-kia-ya, with the odd li 栗, is phonetically rather *Āryasaṃmit(t)i-nikāya.
59
Shizi-zhou 師子洲, Skt. Siṃhaladvīpa, i.e. Śrī Laṅkā.
is predominant, (though) occasionally the Sāṃmitīya (Zhengliang 正

量) is venerated. Since recently a few (followers) of the other two
nikāyas60 are also found here.61
Heinz Bechert already noted that one has to be careful to read these
standardized reports as those of actual historical events, and has pointed
out that the vinaya-nikāyas are certainly earlier than the dogmatic
divisions among those ‘schools.’62 This being true one should, however,
also be careful not to project these ‘schools’ into the monastic landscape
of India on the basis of Chinese (and Tibetan) observations which
finally are not completely corroborated, e.g., by epigraphic evidence.
The Chinese seem to have internalized the traditional narrative of the
division of the nikāyas even more easily because there was no clearcut
division of the saṅgha into different nikāyas. The complete absence
of an institutional Sthavira in China ironically could foster the idea
of a strong Sthavira-nikāya in India. It seems that the term Shangzuo-
bu frequently occurs in the Tang period, especially in the context of
60
I.e.: the Sthavira and the Mahāsāṅghika.
61
T. 2125.205a.20ff. (punctuation partly following Wang 1995) 次有弘法應
人結集，有五、七之異。持律大將部分，為十八之殊，隨所見聞三藏
各別。著下裙則裙有偏正，披上服則葉存狹廣。同宿乃異室繩圍，兩
俱無過。受食以手執畫地，二並亡愆。各有師承，事無和雜(有部則
正，餘三並偏。有部則要須別室，正量以繩圍床。有部手請，僧祇畫
地也)。諸部流派，生起不同，西國相承，大綱唯四(一，阿離耶莫訶
僧祇尼迦耶，唐云﹕聖大眾部，分出七部；三藏各有十萬頌，唐譯
可成千卷。二，阿離耶悉他陛攞尼迦耶，唐云﹕聖上座部，分出三
部；三藏多少同前。三，阿離耶慕攞薩婆悉底婆拖尼迦耶，唐云﹕
聖根本說一切有部，分出四部；三藏多少同前。四，阿離耶三蜜栗底
尼迦耶，唐云﹕聖正量部，分出四部；三藏三十萬頌。然而部執所
傳，多有同異，且依現事，言其十八。分為五部，不聞於西國耳)。
其間離分出沒，部別名字，事非一致，如餘所論，此不繁述。故五天
之地。及南海諸洲，皆云四種尼迦耶，然其所欽，處有多少。摩揭陀
則四部通習，有部最盛。羅荼、信度(西印度國名)則少兼三部，乃正
量尤多。北方皆全有部，時逢大眾。南面則咸遵上座，餘部少存。
東裔諸國雜行四部(…)。師子洲並皆上座，而大眾斥焉。然南海諸
洲有十餘國，純唯根本有部，正量時欽。近日已來，少兼餘二。 My
translation, over long passages, disagrees with the other two available: Li
2000: 10f.; Takakusu 1896: 6f.
62
Bechert 1993.
146 Max Deeg
Xuanzang’s work and his influence. It is, of course, also found in

Xuanzang’s own translation of the *Samayabhedoparacanacakra, the
Yibu-zonglun-lun 異部宗輪論,63 which differs considerably from the
older versions.64
An interesting explanation – which puts the split into Mahāsāṅghika
(Dazhong-bu 大眾部) and Sthavira (Shangzuo-bu 上座部) beginning
already with the first council in Rājagṛha shortly after the parinirvāṇa
of the Buddha, and which, to my best knowledge, hitherto has not been
included in the discussion of this question – is found in Huaihai’s 懷
海 (749-814) Baizhang-conglin-qinggui-zhengyi-ji百丈叢林清規證
義記, in the first part of the seventh fascicle, in an appendix on the
Vinaya-school, Fu-Nanshan-lüzong 附南山律宗:
In the Vinaya-school of Nanshan the Vinaya (pini) flourishes widely.

Pini means ‘to extinguish’,65 because it is able to extinguish the evils
of body and mouth – (therefore) the vinaya is also dharma. The vinaya
as the only systematic (set) of rules of the Buddha was compiled at the
(first) council, and is not only (the product) of this man (i.e. Upāli): at
the beginning Mahākāśyapa and the group of the five hundred other
saints gathered with Upāli in the Pippala-cave; this was called the
‘Section of the High-seated.’ Next Bāṣka (Poshijia) and one thousand
saints gathered in front of the cave; this was called the ‘Section of
the Large Community’; this second one is commonly called vinaya
of the Mahāsāṅghika. From Kāśyapa (to) Ānanda, Madhyanti(ka),
Śanakavāsa, Upagupta, five generations, the understanding of (the
dharma) was personally passed on, and therefore the teaching did
not split. After that Upagupta had five disciples who each held their
own views and accordingly the vinaya-piṭaka was divided into five
sections: 1. the Dharmaguptaka (Tanwude), that is the ‘Vinaya in Four
Sections’ (Sifen-lü), 2. the Sarvāstivāda (Sapoduo), that is the ‘Vinaya
of Ten Recitations’ (Shisong-lü), 3. the Kāśyapīya, that is the ‘Vinaya
63
T. 2031.15a17ff. For a translation see Matsuda 1925 – who translates
Shangzuo-bu by ‘Sthaviravāda’ – where the names of the schools in
Xuanzang’s rendering are given on pp. 15ff.
64
A detailed comparative study of the three versions of the text would be
desirable but cannot be done in the framework of this paper.
65
This explanation seems to etymologize the word vinaya – or vini, pini 毗尼
– according to its more general sense in Sanskrit, vi-√nī-, ‘to remove, dispel,
get rid of’ : mie 滅.
of Extrication’ (Jietuo-lü), 4. the Mahīśāsaka, that is the ‘Vinaya in

Five Sections’ (Wufen-lü), 5. the Vātsīputrīya whose vinaya has not
come to this kingdom (China).66
According to this report – which is, as far as I see, only repeated in

the Buddhist historiographer Zhipan’s 志磐 (active 1258–1269) Fozu-
tongji 佛祖通記67 – the division between Sthavira and Mahāsāṅghikas
was rather a natural one occurring during the first council than being a
schism, which only occurred around the events of the second council in
Pāṭaliputra. Although this version keeps the elitist view of the sthaviras
as being a minority of saints it can be read as an attempt to keep the
unity of the saṅgha in presenting an inclusivistic narrative of the first
council.
In the light of the importance that the denomination plays in the
schism reports and in other texts it is strange that no translation from
the canon of the Sthavira is found in Chinese Buddhist literature. In the
Xiyu-ji 西域記 it is mentioned that Xuanzang brought back fourteen
Sthavira works from India (T. 2087.946c.16), but apparently they were
never translated.
In the earliest extant Chinese catalogue, Sengyou’s 僧祐 (445–518)
Chu-sanzang-jiji 出三藏集記, we find an entry for what evidently was
a Sthavira-vinaya (tapili 他毘利, Pkt. *thavirīya), translated by a monk
called Mahāyāna/Dasheng 大乘 or (hybrid Sanskrit-Chinese) Mohe-
sheng 摩訶乘.68 Unfortunately not much is known about this monk
66
X.1244.498c13ff. (X. = Zoku-zōkyō/Xu-zangjing 續藏經) 南山律宗盛宏
毗尼。毗尼此云滅；能滅身口之惡故，亦律法也。律唯佛制而結集
分合，不一其人﹕初大迦葉等五百聖眾於畢鉢羅窟內命優波離結集，
名上座部。次婆尸迦等一千凡聖窟外結集，名大眾部。此二通稱摩訶
僧祇律也。自迦葉、阿難、末田地、商那和修、優波毱多五代體權
通道，故不分教。後優波毱多有五弟子，各執一見，遂分律藏為五
部焉﹕(一)曇無德部即四分律；(二)薩婆多部，即十誦律；(三)迦葉遺
部，即解脫律；(四)彌沙塞部，即五分律；(五)婆蹉富羅部，律本未
來此土。
67
T. 2035.168b.29ff.
68
T. 2145.13b.17ff. 他毘利(齊言宿德律；未詳卷數，闕) … 齊武皇帝時
外國沙門大乘於廣州譯出；未至京都。(Tapili; in the language of the
Qi (this is) the ‘Code of the Elder’; fascicle number unknown, lost. … At
the time of the Qi-emperor Wu (483–493) the foreign śramaṇa Mahāyāna
148 Max Deeg
except that it was assumed that he came from the Western Regions
(xiyu 西域).69
The other, well-known example of Theravāda literature translated
into Chinese is the Shanjian-lü-piposha 善見律毘婆沙 (T. 1462;
*Sudarśanavinaya-vibhāṣā?),70 frequently described in modern
scholarship as a translation of the Sāmāntapāsādikā, Buddhaghosa’s
commentary on the vinaya, translated in 489 by Sengjiabatuoluo 僧伽
跋陀羅 (Saṅghabhadra, active 488-489).71 It is not quite clear, at least
to me, if the Shanjian-lü 善見律 which is mentioned72 and sometimes
(Dasheng) had translated [this work and the before-mentioned Wubai-

bensheng-jing] in Guangzhou but it has not reached the capital.) See also
Wang 1994: 171f. As often the case with lost works the information about it
becomes more specific in later catalogues: the Lidai-sanbao-ji 歷代三寶紀,
T. 2034.95b.15, calls this a vinaya in one fascicle (tapili-lü yijuan 他毘利律
一卷), a piece of information which is then repeated by the Tang catalogues;
see Datang-neidian-lu 大唐內典錄, T. 2149.262a.28; Gujin-yijing-tuji 古今
譯經圖紀, T. 2151.363b.20, where tapili is explained as shude 宿德; see

Dazhou-kanding-zhongjing-mulu 大周刊定眾經目錄, T. 2153.434a.10;

Kaiyuan-shijiao-lu 開元釋教錄, T. 2154.535c.4 (and 649a.16). The
Zhenyuan-xinding-shijiao-mulu 貞元新定釋教目錄, T. 2157.833c.1 (and
985a.14) claims that the translation was done in the seventh year of the reign
of emperor Wu (see below).
69
This term was in use at least since the Lidai-sanbao-ji 歷代三寶紀,
submitted to the Sui 隋 court in 597, (see T. 2034.60a.27 for a sūtra; 94b.8
and 124b.6 for the translator), and its compilator Fei Zhangfang 費長房
may be responsible for its creation, although he claims that it is older (see
92a.16, repeated in the Tang catalogue 2149.259c.11). Zhipan 智盤, in
his Fozu-tongji 佛祖統紀, claims that Mahāyāna came from West India:
T. 2035.347b.23f. 西天沙門摩訶乘、德進等譯諸經律。 (The śramaṇas
Mahāyāna, Dejin (*Guṇavīrya?) from West India and others translated
sūtras and the vinaya.) The catalogue from empress Wu Zetian’s 武則天
time even adds the detail of the place of translation, the Zhulin-si 竹林寺
in Guangzhou, and claims that this is retrieved from the Lidai-sanbao-ji
(T. 2153.434a.11).
70
On the name and its possible underlying Indian form see Pinte 2010.
71
See Heirman 2004, and Wang 1994: 172; for an English translation see
Bapat and Hirakawa 1970.
72
Such quotations are often from the Vibhāṣā: Qishi-yinben-jing 起世因本經,
T. 25. 420a.16f., translated by Damojiduo 達摩笈多/Dharmagupta (active
590–516, † 519), corresponding to Vibhāṣā T. 1462.753c.13f.; Renwang-
huguo-banruojing-shu 仁王護國般若經疏, T. 1705.264b.23f., by Chiyi
even quoted in Chinese Buddhist literature73 is the vinaya underlying

this commentary-translation, and if so, how and whether at all this lost
work was connected to the Sthavira-vinaya mentioned in Sengyou’s
catalogue. From this evidence it can at least be seen that Sthavira-/
Theravāda-literature did not get a foothold in China.74 This may also be
reflected by the fact that Sengyou, in his catalogue, quotes from three
reports about the nikāyas in which the Sthavira are not mentioned at
all.75
From this evidence, I conclude and suggest that a lack of actual
and literary institutional reality freed the term shangzuo for a specific
institutional use in a Chinese monastic context: shangzuo became a
hierarchical position in general and, in case of the monastic system of
Chan monasteries, a very specific role (see above). The low-ranked
virtual Hīnayāna-sthavira had regained a high status in reality again.
Another point I would like to stress here is that despite the fact
that we possess some degree of information about Śrī Laṅkā and Śrī
Laṅkan monks from Chinese sources, none of them really addresses
the question of the school affiliation. This starts with Faxian’s 法
顯 (ca. 350–430) travelogue, the Gaoseng-Faxian-zhuan 高僧法
顯傳 (‘Biography of the Eminent Monk Faxian’) or Foguo-ji 佛國
記 (‘Record of Buddhist Kingdoms’), in which he comments on the
two main monastic institutions on the island, the Abhayagirivihāra
(Wuwei-si 無畏寺) where he himself had stayed, and the competing
Mahāvihāra, but surprisingly has nothing to say about their nikāya-
affiliation, although he reports that he obtained a copy of the
Mahīśāsaka-vinaya (Mishasai-lü 彌沙塞律) there.76 This may not
智顗 (538–598), and Renwang-jing-shu 仁王經疏, T. 1708.379a.3f., by

Yuance 圓測 (613–696), both corresponding to Vibhāṣā T. 1462.759b.27.,
the broader context of which is also referred to in Amituo-jing-shu 阿彌陀
經疏, T. 1757.314b.18ff., by Kuiji 窺基 (632–682).
73
An identification of the Shangzuo-bu and the Shanjian-lü is, as far as I can
see, not made at all.
74
See Wang 1994: 172.
75
T. 2145.19c.8ff.: Xinji-lü-fenwei-wubu-jilu 新集律分為五部記錄; 20a.4ff.:
Xinji-lü-fenwei-shibabu-jilu 新集律分為十八部記錄; 20a.12ff.: Xinji-
lü-lai-handi-sibu-xulu 新集律來漢地四部續錄. Discussed also by Wang
1994: 173f.
76
See Deeg 2005: 571f., and recently Deeg 2009.
150 Max Deeg
be so astonishing after all, as at that time, the early fifth century, the
Chinese probably had no complete picture of the nikāya-situation in
India at all. The reports about the establishment in China of a full-
fledged order of nuns (bhikṣuṇī-saṅgha) around the same time mention
Śrī Laṅkan nuns and their master but again they have nothing to say
about the nikāya – which is even more intriguing since in this case the
whole issue is the establishment of a correct ordination line.77 In the
Tang period there are some eminent Śrī Laṅkan masters in China but
again the topic of their school-affiliation, either in terms of general
Hīnayāna-Mahāyāna distribution or nikāya, is not touched upon at all78
(on Bodhiruci, see below).
High-seated and great: The case of the Mahāyānasthavira
Finally I would like to reassess the somewhat mysterious term

dasheng-shangzuo(-bu) 大乘上座(部), *Mahāyānasthavira(-nikāya),
found in Xuanzang’s travelogue, the Xiyu-ji 西域記 (‘Records of the
Western Regions’), submitted to the court in the year 646, and from
there used in other Chinese works. One intriguing point now is that
this term is not found in Xuanzang’s biography, the Datang-ciensi-
sanzang-fashi-zhuan 大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳 (T. 2053) by his
disciple Huili 慧立 (seventh century). It is also, no wonder, not found
in the Buddhist inscriptional corpus from India.79 This term has caused
a lot of confusion as it seems to be a contradictio in adiecto:80 it claims
that members of a typical Hīnayāna-institution, the sthavira(-nikāya),
saw themselves as Mahāyānist.
77
Deeg 2005: 177ff.
78
See the discussion of Shijiamiduoluo 釋迦彌多羅/Śākyamitra, a Śrī
Laṅkan monk and physicist in Chang’an who is said to have bestowed the
bodhisattva-precepts on the Huayan-master Fazang 法藏 (643–712): Forte
2002a; Chen 2007: 102ff.
79
It is not recorded in Tsukamoto 1996, 1998, 2003; see also Schopen 1979.
For an example in Thai epigraphy, see Prapod 2010, p. 88.
80
See e.g. Bechert 2005: 60f., who, as many others, misreads the
English translation (Beal) of the Chinese text as mainly referring to the
Abhayagirivāsins.
Xuanzang reports the existence of this group in the following places

in India: The thousand monks of the monastery founded by the Sinhalese
king in Bodhgayā study this very branch.81 Another small group of
five hundred monks lived in the East Indian Kaliṅga/Jielengqie 羯篏
伽.82 Relatively big saṅghas are given for Bharukaccha/Balujiezhanpo
跋祿羯呫婆83 and Śurāṣṭra/Sulatuo 蘇剌佗,84 but the historical value
becomes questionable in the light of the almost identical wording of
both passages. Common to all these saṅghas is that they are located
either in South India or in an area which had clear links with Śrī Laṅkā
(such as Kaliṅga).
The biggest group of the Mahāyānasthavira-nikāya is attested for
Śrī Laṅkā, and Xuanzang’s description is also, in my opinion, the key
81
T. 2087.918b.14f. 僧徒減千人，習學大乘上座部法；律儀清肅，戒行貞
明。 (The saṅgha is less than one thousand (monks) who study the dharma
of the Mahāyānasthavira-nikāya; they follow the conduct (prescribed by) the
vinaya in pure form and truly practice the śīlas.) Referred to in Xuanzang’s
biography (zhuan 傳) in the Xu-gaoseng-zhuan 續高僧傳, T. 2060.451a.3,
in the Shijia-fangzhi 釋迦方志, T. 2088.963b.5f., and in the Fayuan-zhulin
法苑珠林, T. 2122.502b.14f. and 504a.2.
82
T. 2087.929a.2ff. 辭旨風則頗與中印度異焉。少信正法，多遵外道。
伽藍十餘所，僧徒五百餘人，習學大乘上座部法。天祠百餘所，異
道甚眾，多是尼乾之徒也。 (The (people’s) intentions and rules differ
considerably from (those) in Middle-India. (Only) a few believe in the
true dharma (but) many follow the heretics. There are ten monasteries
and a saṅgha of five hundred (monks) who study the dharma of the
Mahāyānasthavira-nikāya. There are a hundred deva-temples and a lot of
heretics, most them being followers of the Nigranthas (Jains).) Quoted in
Shijia-fangzhi, T. 2088.966b.1f.
83
T. 2087.935c.1ff. 不知學藝，邪正兼信。伽藍十餘所，僧徒三百餘
人，習學大乘上坐部法。天祠十餘所，異道雜居。 ((The people) do
not know learning and arts and mix right and wrong beliefs. There are fifty
monasteries and a saṅgha of three thousand (monks) who study the dharma
of the Mahāyānasthavira-nikāya. There are ten deva-temples and heretics
living at various places.)
84
T. 2087.936c.14ff. 不好學藝，邪正兼信。伽藍五十餘所，僧徒三千餘
人，多學大乘上座部法。天祠百餘所，異道雜居。 ((The people) do
not like learning and arts and mix right and wrong beliefs. There are fifty
monasteries and a saṅgha of three thousand (monks) who mostly study the
dharma of the Mahāyānasthavira-nikāya. There are a hundred deva-temples
and heretics living at various places.)
152 Max Deeg
to solve the problem of the mysterious term dasheng-shangzuo(-bu)

大乘上座(部) which is, after all, not so mysterious at all:
The kingdom of Siṃhala in ancient times only worshiped false gods,

(but) in the first hundred years after the Buddha had left the world, the
younger brother of king Aśoka, Mahendra (Moxiyintuoluo), gave up
the worldly passions and strove for the fruit of holiness, (and after) he
had reached the six supernatural powers and the eight liberations he
walked through the air and came to this kingdom, preached the true
dharma and spread the legacy of the teaching (of the Buddha). From
then on the (kingdom) had pure faith (in the dharma). There are one
hundred monasteries and a saṅgha of twenty thousand (monks) who
practice the Mahāyānasthavira-nikāya. Two hundred years after the
dharma of the Buddha had arrived each of (the monasteries) assumed
its own practice, (and the saṅgha) split into two (groups), one being
called the ‘Nikāya dwelling in the Mahāvihāra’ (Mohepiheluo-zhu-
bu) and rejecting the Mahāyāna and practicing the Lesser Teaching
(Hīnayāna); the second being called ‘Nikāya dwelling in the
Abhayagiri(-vihāra)’ (Afaye85qili-zhu-bu) simultaneously studies both
vehicles (yāna) and spreads the Tripiṭaka. The monks practice the śīla
in a pure way, their samādhi is concentrated, their demeanor is a model
(for others) and magnificent.86
There are striking statements in this passage: Xuanzang claims that

Śrī Laṅkā had belonged to the Mahāyānasthavira-nikāya from the
time of the conversion of the island through Mahendra (P. Mahinda)
during Aśoka’s time. It seems that the Abhayagiri-branch of Śrī
Laṅkan Buddhism was identified by Xuanzang or his informants as
the one opposed to the Mahāvihāra-branch by the fact that the monks
studied (and probably practiced) both, the ‘classical’ Sthavira and
what was seen as Mahāyāna – without us being able to say anything
85
I read ye 耶 instead of T. xie 邪.
86
T. 2087.934a.10ff. 僧伽羅國先時唯宗淫祀。佛去世後第一百年，無憂
王弟摩醯因陀羅捨離欲愛，志求聖果，得六神通，具八解脫，足步虛
空，來遊此國，弘宣正法，流布遺教。自茲已降，風俗淳信。伽藍數
百所，僧徒二萬餘人，遵行大乘上座部法。佛教至後二百餘年，各擅
專門，分成二部。一曰摩訶毘訶羅住部，斥大乘，習小教；二曰阿跋
邪祇釐住部，學兼二乘，弘演三藏，僧徒乃戒行貞潔，定慧凝明。儀
範可師，濟濟如也。
about what this was in concrete terms.87 One has to keep in mind that
Xuanzang did not go to Śrī Laṅkā but that he received his information
from monks who had fled the island because of political upheaval.
The Abhayagirivāsin are generally accepted to have been more open-
minded than their opponents from the Mahāvihāra88 and to have even
had a vinaya which differed from that of the Mahāvihāravāsin.89 Into the
time-frame fits that Bhavya (also known as Bhāviveka or Bhāvaviveka,
between fifth and seventh centuries) who in his Tarkajvālā refers to
the Sthavira-Abhayagirivāsin (gnas-brtan-pa ’jigs-med-pa gnas-
pa) and their *Buddhavaṃsa,90 a term which might suggest that the
Abhayagirivāsin belonged to the denomination of the Sthavira. In a
clearly Mahāyāna-chauvinist fashion, this form of Buddhism was
held as the real preserver of the Tripiṭaka (sanzang 三藏), something
which, in a non-Mahāyāna and purely Theravāda context, would not
have gone without strong opposition. In the light of what has just been
said I would consider the *Mahāyāna-Sthavira-nikāya as an invention,
an attempt, as it were, by Xuanzang to upgrade the otherwise, at least
in a Chinese context, low-ranked Hīnayāna-sthaviras to the respected
status of Mahāyāna-monks.
87
For such an identification see already Bareau 1955: 208, criticized by Crosby
1999: 108.
88
For a different view see Bechert 1977: 361f. An overview on the information
about the Abhayagirivāsin and their relation to the Mahāvihāravāsin is
given by Skilling 1993a: 165–167. For a critical assessment of the literature
attributed to the Abhayagirivāsin see Norman 1991, Crosby 1999, and L. S.
Cousins, Chapter 2 above. I think that, in the light of the Chinese evidence
scrutinized in the same careful way as the Indic and Tibetan material, a
strong role of the Abhayagirivihāra on the island and beyond can well be
assumed. Already Faxian had stayed in the monastery at the beginning of the
fifth century, and his travel report even seems to reflect the existence of an
Abhayagiri-related vaṃsa: see Deeg 2005: 159, and especially Deeg 2009.
89
See Crosby 1999: 504, von Hinüber 1996: §43, 22, and Bechert 2005:
53. I think that Crosby over-estimates the fact that Buddhaghosa quotes
differences between the two traditions in assuming that this already means
different vinayas and consequently the existence of two different nikāyas.
Buddhaghosa, as a strict Mahāvihāravāsin, had a clear propagandistic
purpose for over-drawing the differences between the two main concurring
vihāras.
90
Skilling 1993a: 169f.
154 Max Deeg
Now if we compare this with the use of the ‘pure’ term shangzuo
or shangzuo-bu in the Xiyu-ji it is striking that there is only one
occurrence of the latter for Sanmodazha 三摩呾吒/Samataṭa (near
the mouth of the Gaṅgā river).91 The remaining occurrences either
refer to dates from the life of the Buddha which are different in the
respective Buddhist traditions or, in very general terms, to literature of
the denomination brought back by Xuanzang.92
In this context one might remember Yijing’s statement:
Among the four groups (sibu 四部, nikāya; i.e. Sthavira, Mahāsāṅghika,
Saṃmatīya, Sarvāstivāda) the division between Mahāyāna and
Hīnayāna is not distinct. The prefectures in North India and the
Southern Sea are purely Hīnayāna, while the regions of the Divine
Land and the Red Counties concentrate on the Great Teaching, and in
other places the Great and the Small (Vehicle) are practiced in a mixed
way.93
Here the Vinaya specialist Yijing, even when he describes North India
and Southeast Asia as dominated by the Hīnayāna, stresses the point
that there was no clear nikāya affiliation in terms of the two yānas,
91
T. 2087.927c.22ff. 人性剛烈，形卑色黑。好學勤勵，邪正兼信。伽藍
三十餘所，僧徒二千餘人，並皆遵習上座部學。天祠百所，異道雜
居，露形尼乾，其徒甚盛。 (The character of the people is violent, their
appearance vulgar and they are of dark color. They like labor and believe in
both false and true faith. There are thirty monasteries and a saṅgha of two
thousand (monks) who all study the teaching of the section of the Sthavira.
There are a hundred deva-temples and heretics living at various places (like)
naked nirgranthas (whose) followers are extremely numerous.)
92
上座部經律論一十四部。 (fourteen collections of sūtras, vinaya and
śāstras of the section of the Sthavira) The order of Xuanzang’s list is
remarkable: after listing 124 Mahāyāna-sūtras and 190 Mahāyāna-śāstras,
he enumerates works of the Mahāsāṅghika (Dazhong-bu 大眾部, 15),
Sāṃmitīya (Sanmidi-bu 三彌底部, 15), Mahīśāsaka (Mishasai-bu 彌沙塞
部, 22), Kāśyapīya (Jiayepiye-bu 迦葉臂耶部, 17), Dharmaguptaka (Fami-
bu 法密部, 42) and Sarvāstivādin (Shou-yiqieyou-bu 說一切有部, 67). He
thus follows exactly the traditional historical scheme of development of the
Buddhist nikāyas instead of giving the natural order according to number or
importance of the respective nikāyas.
93
T. 2125.205c.8ff. 其四部之中大乘小乘區分不定。北天南海之郡純是小
乘，赤縣之鄉意存大教；自餘諸處大小雜行。
Hīnayāna or Mahāyāna. A clearcut attribution of one nikāya to one

of the yānas, as Xuanzang expresses with his Mahāyāna-sthavira,
was probably not evident, but the religious reality was, from this
Chinese standpoint, rather a mixture between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna
elements.
The only reference to the Mahāyāna-sthaviras which is not
completely dependent or relying on Xuanzang’s report is found in
Zhisheng’s 智昇 (669–740) Xu-gujin-shijing-tuji 續古今譯經圖
紀, embedded in the biographical sketch of the South Indian monk
Putiliuzhi 菩提流支/Bodhiruci (active in China 693–727):94
The śramaṇa Bodhiruci was originally called Dharmaruci; in (the

language) of the Tang this means ‘Precious of the Dharma’, but the
empress-dowager (Wu Zetian) changed (his name) into Bodhiruci; in
(the language) of the Tang this means ‘Love of the Bodhi.’ He was
from South India and came from a brahmin family bearing the clan
name Kāśyapa. His intelligence was unsurpassed and his manners
extraordinary. At the age of twenty he was ordained as a heretic. He
was extraordinarily versed in grammar (shengming : vyākaraṇa), and
in his free time he (occupied himself with) mathematics, the lunar
and solar calendars, geography, astronomy, magic, medicine – in all
(these disciplines) he had a deep understanding. When he reached
a mature age95 he declared himself to be a hermit. He provoked the
monks to discuss (with him and) to risk their individual (independence
in case of defeat). At that time there was a Tripiṭaka(-master) of the
Mahāyānasthavira-nikāya. His name was Yaśoghoṣa (Yeshequsha).96
He knew his maturity and therefore entered into a discourse with
(him). (Bodhiruci) had not gone beyond some points and the meaning
of his words was altogether skewed (when) he finally started to
realize (that) the sun of the Buddha was brilliant and not (just like) the
radiance of a firefly or a lantern; how could the ocean of the dharma
94
Repeated in the same author’s Kaiyuan-shijiao-lu 開元釋教錄
(T. 2154.570a.9) and Yuanzhao’s 圓照 (eighth-century) redaction Zhenyuan-
xinding-shijiao-mulu 貞元新定釋教目錄 (T. 2157.872c.26). On Bodhiruci
see Forte 2002b.
95
ershun耳順 here possibly does not have the meaning of the locus classicus
Lunyu 論語, chapter Weizheng 為政, where it means the achievement of
understanding at the age of sixty.
96
See Forte 2002b: 82f.
156 Max Deeg
be so deep and wide – (when) the drops (of the other doctrines) were
(only) like moisture? Thereupon by (his) self (he) respectfully served
(Yaśoghoṣa), studied the vehicle of the Buddha, accepted the śīlas
without shortcoming, and his understanding and learning were wide
and deep. In less than five years he had mastered the Tripiṭaka.97
This is the only reference to the Mahāyāna-sthavira outside of

Xuanzang’s work or in sources dependent on him, and the biography
of Bodhiruci in general and the early part of it in India is a highly
hagiographical piece of work – Bodhiruci died at the age of over 150
years, which means he should have already been approximately 120
years old when he became active in China. Furthermore, the version of
Bodhiruci’s biography found in the preface of the Da-baoji-jing 大寶
積經/Mahāratnakūṭa-sūtra and allegedly written by the retired Tang
emperor Ruizong 睿宗 (r. 684–690 and 710–712) in the year 713 does
refer to Yaśoghoṣa but does not mention his sectarian affiliation.98 Thus
it becomes quite probable that Zhisheng’s reference to Yaśoghoṣa’s
denominational tradition cannot be taken as an independent evidence
for the existence of such a denomination in South India, but was
probably itself influenced by Xuanzang’s report in order to try to
portray the original Hīnayāna-Sthavira Bodhiruci and his teacher as
‘orthodox’ Mahāyānist.
97
T. 2152.371a.15ff. 沙門菩提流志，本名達摩流支；唐言法希，天后改為
菩提流志，唐云覺愛。南印度人，婆羅門種，姓迦葉氏；聰叡絕倫，
風神爽異。生年十二，外道出家。師稟波羅奢羅，學彼經術，遂洞曉
聲明，尤閑數論、陰陽、曆數、地理、天文、呪術、醫方皆如指掌。
年登耳順，自謂孤行。撩僧論議，貨以身事。時有大乘上座部[部]三
藏，厥號耶舍瞿沙，知其根熟，遂與交論。未越幾關，詞理俱屈。始
知佛日高明，匪螢燈並照，法海深廣，豈涓渧等潤？於是沒身敬事，
專學佛乘。奉戒無虧，志節高峻，崇慧有在，解學寬深，未越五年，
通達三藏。 For another, slightly different translation see Forte 2002b: 81f.
and 92.
98
See Forte 2002b: 78f.
Conclusion
To sum up: for the Chinese, until the early fifth century the Sthavira/
Shangzuo-bu were probably an unknown nikāya. There is no linguistic
trace of a term *Sthaviravāda corresponding with Theravāda in the Indic
and Chinese sources. The Chinese Buddhists knew the name sthavira/
shangzuo (et al.) from the canonical scriptures, but it seems to be only
by means of the first translation of the *Samayabhedoparacanacakra
that it became clear that in India there was an original and distinct
denomination of this name. As the origin of this nikāya was –
according to the Buddhist records – the result of the first split of the
saṅgha, it could not be overlooked and ignored, and when the Tang
travelers went to India in the seventh century they actually found the
existing communities of this nikāya-affiliation. It can be argued that
Xuanzang, in order to establish their credibility in China, seems to
have ‘upgraded’ and institutionalized them to Mahāyāna communities,
maybe on the real basis of a higher degree of openness towards other
strands of practices and thoughts of Buddhism as reflected in the
Abhayagiri lineage of Śrī Laṅkā.
wat ratcha-orot, courtesy santi pakdeekham, 2009.
158 Max Deeg
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S.J., Les Vies Chinoises du Buddha, 1913, fig. 192).
Contributors and editors
Olivier de Bernon obtained his PhD in philosophy in 1984. Afterwards he

spent over twenty years in Southeast Asia, first in Thailand, and then in
Cambodia. In 1991, he became a member of the EFEO (French School
of Far East Studies); based in Phnom Penh, he was active in the revival
of French Khmer studies, and he directed a project which inventoried the
surviving manuscript tradition of Cambodia, which had been devastated
during a decade of war. The project conserved and photographed thousands
of manuscripts in hundreds of monasteries across the country. In 2000 M.
de Bernon received a second doctorate in Khmer language from l’Institut
national des langues et civilisations orientales, Paris. Starting in 2004,
de Bernon coordinated the cataloguing of Norodom Sihanouk’s personal
archives, which the former king had donated to France, and are now stored
in the National Archives in Paris. During this period, de Bernon also gave
courses on aspects of Buddhism in Indochina at several institutes in Paris.
In September 2011 he became president of the Musée Guimet.
Anne M. Blackburn is Professor of South Asian and Buddhist Studies

at Cornell University. She studies Buddhism in South and Southeast
Asia, with a special interest in Buddhist monastic culture and Buddhist
participation in networks linking Sri Lanka and mainland Southeast Asia
before and during colonial presence in the region. Her publications include
Buddhist Learning and Textual Practice in Eighteenth-Century Lankan
Monastic Culture (2001) and Locations of Buddhism: Colonialism and
Modernity in Sri Lanka (2010).
Jason A. Carbine earned his doctorate from the University of Chicago (2004)
and is Associate Professor of Religious Studies at Whittier College. His
research traverses the Buddhist cultures of Myanmar and Sri Lanka, past
Plate F 599
600 Contributors and editors
and present, monastic and lay, and he teaches widely on religion and
society across Asia and around the globe. He has published on topics
such as yaktovils (healing rituals), monastic funerals, and social order and
disorder. His recently published book, Sons of the Buddha (2011), explores
the theme of continuity and rupture in a Burmese monastic tradition. He
is currently working on a new translation and study of the famed Kalyani
Inscriptions.
Claudio Cicuzza studied at the University of Rome, “La Sapienza”, where

he received his MA and PhD in Indology. At present he is teaching
Buddhism and Religious studies in Webster University, Thailand, and his
current research focuses on the Pali literature of Central Siam and Pāla
period scholasticism of Northern India. His publications include The
Laghutantraṭīkā by Vajrapāṇi (Rome 2001), La rivelazione del Buddha
(co-authorship, Milan 2001 and 2004), Peter Skilling. Buddhism and
Buddhist Literature of Siam. Selected Papers (editorship, Bangkok 2009),
A Mirror Reflecting the Entire World. The Pāli Buddhapādamaṅgala or
“Auspicious signs on the Buddha’s feet” (Bangkok 2011).
Max Deeg is Professor of Buddhist Studies at Cardiff University. He

specializes in the transmission and adaptation of Buddhist traditions in
their movements from India to Central Asia and China. He has a particular
interest in the use of narrative to construct and re-construct religious and
political identities and past(s). Besides numerous articles in published
volumes and academic journals, his monographs include Das Gaoseng-
Faxian-zhuan als religionsgeschichtliche Quelle. Der älteste Bericht eines
chinesischen buddhistischen Pilgermönchs über seine Reise nach Indien
mit Übersetzung des Textes (“The Gaoseng-Faxian-zhuan as a source for
the history of religion. The oldest report of a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim on
his journey to India – with a translation of the text”) (2005).
Rupert Gethin is Professor of Buddhist Studies at the University of Bristol

where he teaches courses in Indian religions. He obtained his doctorate
from the University of Manchester (1987) with a dissertation on the
theory of meditation in the Pali Nikāyas and Buddhist systematic thought.
In addition to his dissertation in 1992, he has published a number of
articles on aspects of Pali literature and the psychology and philosophy
of Theravāda systematic thought, as well as an English translation (with
R. P. Wijeratne) of the Abhidhammatthavibhāvinī (2002), a commentary
on the Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, and an introduction to Buddhist thought
and practice, The Foundations of Buddhism (1998), Sayings of the Buddha

(2008). Since 2003 he has been President of the Pali Text Society, and
in 2008 he was Numata Visiting Professor of Buddhist Studies at UC
Berkeley.
Lilian Handlin received her PhD from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
where she was a member of the history department until 1977. She is the
author of numerous reviews and articles, and several books, including a
four-volume Liberty in America, 1600 to the Present (1986–1994), co-
authored with her late husband, Oscar Handlin.
Todd LeRoy Perreira is a PhD candidate in Religious Studies at the University

of California, Santa Barbara. He is currently working on a new study that
utilizes a transnational framework for exploring the transferability of
religious practices, cultural loyalism, and symbolic capital in the interplay
between “Asians” and “Americans” with the emergence of Thai Buddhism
as a global phenomenon. The working title is Where Dhamma Dwells: On
the Transnational Borders of Thai Buddhism in America. Perreira is also a
lecturer at San José State University and a graduate of Harvard University
(M.T.S.).
Ven. Anil Sakya was educated at the universities of Cambridge and Brunel in
the UK. He is a Deputy Dean of Faculty of Social Sciences at Mahamakut
Buddhist University of Thailand and founding honorary treasurer of the
Association of Theravāda Buddhist Universities (2007). Since 2003, he
has been Visiting Professor of Religious Studies of Santa Clara University,
USA, every other Spring quarter. He is also Assistant Secretary to His
Holiness Somdet Phra Nyanasamvara, the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand.
As a broadcaster and Dhamma speaker he runs “Sunday Dhamma Talk”
on Radio Thailand and is a regular guest of many television programs in
Thailand. In addition to numerous articles in journals and edited collections,
he is author of A Modern Trend of Study of Buddhism in Thailand: King
Mongkut and Dhammayutikanikaya (2005).
Santi Pakdeekham graduated from Silpakorn University (MA, Oriental

Epigraphy) and obtained a PhD in Literature and Comparative Literature
at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, in 2007. He is Assistant Professor
in the Department Thai and Oriental Languages at Srinakharinwirot
University, Bangkok, Thailand. He publishes regularly on Thai literature
and especially on cultural, literary and historical relations between
Thailand and Cambodia. Included among his publications are Jambūpati-
602 Contributors and editors
sūtra: A synoptic Romanized edition (Bangkok and Lumbini 2009) and

Piṭakamālā: The Garland of the Piṭaka (Bangkok and Lumbini 2011).
Arthid Sheravanichkul earned his PhD in Thai literature from the Faculty
of Arts, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. His dissertation is entitled
“Dana and Danaparami: Significance in the Creation of Thai Buddhist
Literature.” At present he teaches in the Department of Thai and researches
Anisamsa texts and the Mahachat ceremony.
Peter Skilling is Maître de Conférences with the École française d’Extrême-

Orient, Bangkok. He received his PhD (2004) and his Habilitation (2008)
from the École Pratique des Hautes Études, Paris. He specializes in the
history and literature of the Buddhism of South and South-East Asia. He
has been Visiting Professor at Harvard, Oxford, Berkeley, and Sydney. At
present he is Special Lecturer at Chulalongkorn University, and Honorary
Associate, Department of Indian Sub-Continental Studies, University
of Sydney. In 2009 he was awarded the Ikuo Hirayama Prize from the
Académie des Inscriptions et Belle-Lettres, Paris for his work in general
and the publication Wat Si Chum, Sukhothai (Bangkok 2008).
Plate G
Indexes
The indexes follow the orthography of the individual
authors, chapters, and documents cited, and are cross-
referenced when necessary.
Names
Burmese Names 262, 263, 268, 273, 539, 542, 543,
Citradūta 255 568, 585
Dhammaceti (King) xxiv, 243, 245,
247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, Chinese names
254, 255, 256, 257, 260, 261, 262, Fa-hsien (法顯) (see also Faxian) 69,
263, 264, 266, 273, 278, 284 70, 71, 121, 438
Kyanzittha (King) xxiv, 165, 166, 168, Faxian (法顯) (see also Fa-hsien) 18,
169, 170, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 131, 149, 153, 158, 422, 423, 424,
180, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 475, 531, 583, 600
189, 191, 192, 194, 195, 197, 198, Fayun (法雲) 136
200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 208, Hsüan-tsang (玄奘) (see also
209, 210, 211, 212, 214, 216, 217, Xuanzang) 70, 71, 116
219, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, Huili (慧立) 150
227, 228, 230, 231 Huilin (惠琳) 132
Mahāsīrijeyyasūra Minkyinnyo (King) I-ching (義淨) (see also Yijing) 70
553 Kumārajīva (鸠摩罗什) 131, 132, 138
Mahāsīvali, Thera 255 T’ai-hsü 448
Mehti Sayadaw xx, xxiv, 553 Xuanzang (玄奘) (see also Hsüan-
Moggallāna, Thera 255 tsang) 130, 134, 138, 139, 146,
Rājakumār (King) 174, 175, 177, 196, 147, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155,
204, 205, 210, 215, 228, 233, 235 156, 157, 422, 475
Rāmadūta 255 Yijing (義淨) (see also I-ching) 50,
Tāmalinda 254 133, 143, 144, 154, 160
Taw Sein Ko 241, 242, 244, 247, 253, Zanning (贊寧) 136
254, 255, 256, 257, 259, 260, 261, Zhipan (志磐) 147, 148
Plate H 605
606 Indexes
Indian and Sri Lankan names Dharmadinnā 98

Aḍḍhakāsī̆ 98 Dharmapāla, Anagārika xxviii, 452,
Āḷāra Kālāma 5, 6 459, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504,
Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji 445, 447 506, 507, 508, 510
Amitābha 424 Dīpaṅkara 178, 179, 213, 215
Ānanda (author) 17, 107, 110 Duṭṭhagāmaṇī (Abhaya Duṭṭhagāmaṇī)
Ānanda xxvii, 146, 163, 198, 225, 254, (King) 26, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78
361, 362, 363, 386, 423, 592 Eḷāra (King) 74
Anāthapiṇḍika 313, 361 Gajabāhu (King) 75
Asoka (Aśoka) (King) xvi, xxv, 23, 24, Gotiputa 38, 40
25, 26, 28, 31, 33, 34, 39, 40, 41, Hikkaḍuvē Sumaṅgala (Ven.) xxiv,
42, 43, 45, 60, 62, 74, 139, 152, xxv, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287,
191, 243, 417, 423, 424, 444, 463, 288, 289, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496,
475, 481, 490, 543, 577, 592, 597 501, 506, 538, 540
Atthadassin 18 Indra 197, 223, 225, 227, 323, 574,
Bahulamassutissa 80 582, 590, 591
Bāvarī 198 Irandatī 586, 587, 588
Bhaddākaccāyanā Bhikkhunī 365 Iṭṭhiya 34, 35
Bhātiya (King) 83, 94 Jambūpatī (King) 317, 322, 337, 377,
Bhavya (Bhāviveka) 69, 93, 120, 124, 389
125, 153 Jūjaka 441
Bhuvanekabāhu VI (King) 283 Kaniṣka (King) 417
Bimbisāra (King) 190, 200, 222, 313 Kapila 76, 118
Bodhiruci (Dharmaruci) (菩提流支) Kassapa (Kāśyapa) 19, 25, 29, 31, 52,
150, 155, 156, 159 141, 146, 155, 163, 218, 323, 386,
Bodhisiri 35, 36, 38 423, 573, 584
Buddhadatta 13, 590 Kirivattuduwe Paññasara 445
Buddhadeva (Bhikkhu) 18 Kīrtī Śrī Rājasiṃha (King) 279, 281
Buddhaghosa ix, 1, 3, 14, 15, 16, 17, Kosīkiputa 38
19, 20, 21, 35, 42, 43, 45, 52, 56, Kupikkala (Kutthikkula Mahātissa) 79
57, 69, 71, 76, 77, 83, 85, 86, 87, Kutthikkula Mahātissa, see Kupikkala
91, 93, 94, 99, 106, 110, 114, 122, Maddī 593
126, 148, 153, 203, 226, 336, 377, Magha 325, 326
390, 391, 465, 491, 504, 581, 582, Mahādeva 84, 139
589, 590 Mahājambū, see Jambūpatī
Buddhamitta 18, 121 Mahākassapa (Mahākāśyapa), see
Caṇḍavajji 23 Kassapa
Dāsaka 10 Mahā-Mogallāna (Mahā-
Dāṭhānāga 16, 52 Maudgalyāyana) 33, 141, 423
Devānaṃpiyatissa (King) 26, 27, 34, Mahānāma 17, 48, 78, 81, 118, 122,
90, 255, 575, 576, 577 284
Devī 26 Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī 365
Dhammapāla 16, 17, 52, 87, 94, 95, Mahāsena (King) 47, 48, 70, 76, 83,
122, 125 84, 97, 104
Dhammasiri 89 Mahātissa 48, 80, 81
Dhanañjaya (King) 587 Mahendra (see Mahinda)
Indexes
607
Mahinda (Mahendra) xvi, 4, 8, 15, 16, Sāriputta 29, 91, 178, 221, 256, 423,
21, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 573, 574
34, 35, 40, 47, 48, 49, 55, 61, 63, Sena I (King) 53
152, 169, 222, 254, 255, 264, 285, Siggava 10, 23
423, 424, 432, 444, 448, 553, 575, Sīva 26
576 Soṇa (envoy in Suvaṇṇabhūmi) 254
Mahinda IV (King) 225 Soṇa (wicked) 84, 85
Mahosadha 225, 375, 381, 586 Soṇaka 10
Maitreya xxvii, 195, 590, 591 Sujā 322, 323, 325
Malalasekera, G.P. 49, 395, 432, 448, Sujātā (see Sujā)
560 Sumaṅgala 101, 104, 106, 108, 109,
Māra 203, 217, 321, 578 111, 112
Māyā 170, 199 Sumedha 178, 215
Milinda (King) 119, 189, 196, 377, 390 Tagore, Abanindro Nāth 595, 596
Mitta 84, 85 Tibbotuvāvē Buddharakkhita 278, 279,
Mogaliputa 38, 39, 40 281
Mogallāna (Maudgalyāyana), see Uddaka Rāmaputta 5
Mahā-Mogallāna Upagupta 33, 34, 63, 146, 218, 236
Moggaliputta Tissa 4, 10, 23, 24, 25, Upāli 10, 20, 146, 163, 386, 423
26, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, Upatissa 115, 125
42, 46, 47, 50, 54, 55, 63, 206, 207 Uttara 254, 553
Moravāpīvāsi-Mahādatta, Thera 8 Uttara (Yuduoluo) (欝多羅) 141
Nāgārjuna 428, 429 Väliviṭa Saraṇaṃkara 280
Nāgasena 196, 307, 377, 390 Vasubandhu 50, 61
Nāḷāgiri 193, 216 Vasumitra 46, 69, 120, 121, 124, 138,
Paṇḍukābhaya (King) 73 140, 160
Parakkamabāhu I (King) (see also Vaṭṭagāmaṇī (King) 47, 48, 72, 73, 75,
Parākramabāhu I) 248 76, 78, 79, 80, 81
Parakkamabāhu II (King) 248 Vepacitti 325
Parakkamabāhu VI (King) 251 Vessantara xxvi, 179, 312, 322, 328,
Parākramabāhu I (King) (see also 329, 380, 396, 441, 586, 588, 590,
Parakkamabāhu I) 49, 50, 60, 281 591, 593
Paramārtha (真諦) 132, 138, 139, 141, Vibhīṣana 251
142, 159 Vidhura 179, 235, 377, 381, 586, 587,
Puṇṇaka 586, 587, 588 588
Rāhu 170, 226 Vijayabāhu III (King) 248
Rāhula 91, 93, 170, 223, 226, 361 Vijayarājasīha (King) 278, 279
Rāhulâcariya 91 Vimaladhammasūriya I (King) 277
Rāhulapāda 91, 92 Vimaladhammasūriya II (King) 277
Saddhātissa (King) 75, 78 Vinītadeva 50, 69, 124, 125
Sakka 227 Vīrapuruṣadatta (King) 71
Śanakavāsa 146 Vohārikatissa (King) 75, 118
Saṅghamitta 85, 96 Walpola, Rahula xvi, 32, 450, 461
Saṅghamittā xvi, 26, 32, 577 Yasa 25, 31
Saṅghapāla 15 Yasodharā 170, 226
Śāriputra/Shelizi (舍利子) 134
608 Indexes
Japanese names Prisdang Chumsai (Prince), see

Ashitsu, Jitsuzen 512, 513, 518 Jinavaravaṃsa
Hirai, Kinzō 515, 518, 519 Rāma I (King Phra Phutthayotfa
Kasawara, Kenju 511 Chulalok) x, 297, 299, 300, 301,
Nanjō, Bunyū 511 302, 303, 306, 308, 310, 311, 317,
Nichiren (日蓮) xvi 318, 319, 324, 325, 329, 330, 332,
Noguchi, Zenshirō 515, 516, 518, 567 349, 357, 384, 434
Shaku, Sōen (Shaku, Soyen) 504, 518, Rāma II (King Phra Phutthaloetla
521, 522, 524, 525, 526, 529 Naphalai) 325, 349
Shintō, Kuroda 517, 543 Rāma III (King Phra Nangklao
Suzuki, Daisetsu Teitarō 522, 523, 524, Chaoyuhua) 311, 314, 341, 347,
525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 545, 558, 349
559, 560, 561, 568 Rāma IV (King Mongkut: Phra
Toki, Hōryū 514, 515, 518 Chomklao Chaoyuhua) x, xxvi,
Yatsubuchi, Banryū 513, 518 xxvii, 287, 302, 317, 319, 321,
349, 388, 401, 402, 403, 404, 406,
Thai names 407, 408, 410, 412, 427, 428, 502,
Bimaladharrma (Phra) 301, 302, 304 595, 601
Buddhācariya (Phra) 301 Rāma V (King Chulalongkorn: Phra
Chandradat Chudhadharn of Siam Chulachomklao Chaoyuhua) x,
(Prince) xxviii, 502, 503, 510, 565 xx, xxvii, 288, 289, 344, 349, 391,
Chaophraya Cakrī (King) 299 410, 415, 416, 417, 418, 420, 421,
Damrong Rajanubhab (Prince) 310, 422, 423, 426, 428, 430, 431, 433,
314, 342, 425, 426, 428, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 594, 438, 502, 538,
435, 439 555
Dechadison (Somdet Phrachao Rāma VI (King Vajiravudh: Phra
Boromawongthoe Kromphraya) Mongkutklao Chaoyuhua) 349
298 Rāma VII (King Prajadhipok) 418
Jinavarasirivatthana (Supreme Rāmādhipati II (King) 313, 314
Patriarch) 410, 412 Saṃsīthikara 286, 287
Jinavaravaṃsa (Prince Prisdang Saṅgharāja (Somdet Phra) 301
Chumsai) 289, 291, 538 Sīvalī (Phra) 337
Luang Pu Thuat 337 Sommot Amoraphan (Prince) 419,
Malai (Phra) 332, 334, 335, 337, 590, 421, 435
591 Sukich Nimmanheminda 449
Narai (King) xvii Taksin (King of Dhanapurī Śrī
Narisranuvattiwong (Prince) x, 322, Masāsamudra) 299, 301, 305, 316,
415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 422, 324, 349, 426
433, 434, 435, 436, 441, 594 Upāli 280, 286
Paramānujitjinorasa (Somdet Phra Vajirañāṇa (Bhikkhu) xxvi, 439, 594
Mahāsamaṇa Chao Kromma Phra) Vajirañāṇavarorasa (Supreme Patriarch
298 Prince) 250, 273, 403, 404, 406,
Phetraja (Phra) (King) 302 408, 413, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425,
Phuwanet-narinthonrit, Phra 428, 430, 435, 440
Boromawongthoe Kromaluang, Varañāṇamuni 280
298 Visuddhācariya 280
Indexes
609
Wanarat (Somdet Phra) 303, 419, 420, Julien, Stanislas 475

432, 433 Kern, Hendrik 40, 61, 489, 566
von Klaproth, Heinrich Julius 475, 477
Western names Landresse, Ernest-Augustin Xavier
Abel-Rémusat, Jean Pierre 475 Clerc de 475, 477
Alexander the Great 73 de la Loubère, Simon xix
Ananda Metteyya (Ananda Metteya, Luther, Martin 468, 469
Ānanda Maitreya) xxvii, 452, 533, MacGregor, Charles Henry (Allan
534, 535, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, Bennett), see Ananda Metteyya
542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, Marco Polo xvii
549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, McKechnie, J.F. 543, 544, 546, 566
556, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 566 Monier-Williams, Monier 506, 531,
Arnold, Edwin 498, 533, 538, 539, 567
556, 567, 596 Müller, Max 421, 473, 480, 511
Augustine of Hippo 56 Newton, Isaac 469, 564, 570
Barbosa, Duarte xvii Olcott, Henry S. 289, 459, 491, 492,
Beal, Samuel (Rev.) 150, 438, 476, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 504,
477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 484, 487, 505, 516, 538, 567
493, 494, 498, 564 Oldenberg, Hermann 12, 75, 76, 313,
Besant, Annie 560 461, 462, 463, 464, 466, 473, 480,
Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna 493, 509, 498, 552, 554, 562, 567
510, 564 Pétau, Denis 468
Burnouf, Eugène 466, 467, 468, 471, Prinsep, James 117, 474, 475, 557
472, 474, 476, 480, 484, 488, 494, Rhys Davids xxviii, 189, 223, 244,
497, 498, 541, 542, 543, 558, 565 251, 273, 277, 428, 452, 471, 473,
Carus, Paul 520, 521, 522, 524, 526, 480, 481, 482, 484, 485, 486, 487,
527, 529, 537, 538, 540, 545, 565 488, 489, 490, 491, 493, 494, 495,
Fausbøll, Michael Viggo 313, 339, 538 496, 497, 498, 519, 520, 527, 529,
Gogerly, Daniel John (Rev.) 477 531, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 545,
Hamilton, Alexander xviii, 314 548, 549, 552, 555, 556, 558, 560,
Hardy, R. Spence (Rev.) 477, 478, 480, 561, 566, 567, 571
493, 498, 529, 566 Said, Edward 459, 474
Hodgson, Brian H. 473, 474, 475, 477, Suzuki, Beatrice Lane 443
558, 570 Ussher, James 469
Jones, William 469, 471, 570 Wilson, Horace Hayman 483, 568
Place names
Abhayagiri ix, xiv, xxiii, 45, 47, 48, Abhayagirivihāra 41, 45, 47, 48, 49,
49, 53, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 53, 54, 72, 85, 94, 112, 125, 149,
76, 77, 80, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 153, 158, 159; Abhaya Monastery
93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 104, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82,
115, 116, 127, 152, 153, 157, 161, 83, 84, 118, 121, 123
582, 583; Abhaya Hill 72, 74, 75, Afghanistan xxviii, 120, 540
76, 80 Ahogaṅgā 24
Ajanta 300, 580, 588
610 Indexes
Amarapura (Burma) 56, 283, 284, 287, 433, 450, 451, 452, 453, 460, 461,
289, 290, 538 467, 471, 477, 483, 488, 525, 526,
Amaravati 489, 588 528, 529, 531, 532, 538, 539, 542,
Anurādhapura (ancient capital, Sri 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 549, 550,
Lanka) xiv, xvi, 3, 16, 19, 20, 26, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557,
34, 38, 41, 47, 49, 54, 62, 68, 72, 558, 560, 567, 568, 570, 576, 580,
73, 74, 75, 78, 80, 87, 116, 126, 584, 585, 586, 588, 597
169, 255, 279, 292, 465, 497, 576, Cambodia x, 1, 341, 361, 371, 372,
577, 578, 582, 583, 596 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384,
Aparantaka 25, 286 386, 387, 389, 390, 395, 407, 416,
Arakan (see also Rakkhaṅga) xvii, xxv, 432, 450, 451, 453, 460, 461, 466,
116, 277, 278, 279, 280, 290, 334, 599, 601
407, 595 Cetiyagiri 26, 34
Arimaddanapura (Burma) xxiv Cetiyapabbata 69, 70, 84
Asgiriya 282 Ceylon (see also Sri Lanka and Lanka)
Asokārāma 24, 25 xvi, xvii, xviii, xxvi, 18, 32, 34, 35,
Avaraṃta 36 48, 50, 53, 60, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69,
Ayutthaya (ancient capital, Siam) xvii, 70, 72, 77, 82, 84, 86, 87, 94, 114,
xix, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282, 297, 115, 116, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124,
299, 300, 302, 312, 313, 314, 316, 125, 126, 273, 289, 290, 293, 312,
317, 324, 330, 331, 332, 343, 345, 332, 439, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448,
348, 349, 389, 426, 428, 434, 579, 449, 450, 452, 460, 461, 464, 465,
582, 589, 590 467, 472, 473, 474, 475, 477, 480,
Bangkok (Thailand) x, xix, xxiii, xxv, 482, 483, 484, 488, 490, 491, 493,
xxvii, xxxiii, 27, 124, 171, 234, 494, 495, 496, 497, 499, 504, 506,
272, 273, 283, 286, 288, 289, 297, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 514, 516,
298, 299, 300, 302, 303, 304, 305, 517, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530,
307, 308, 314, 317, 321, 323, 324, 531, 532, 533, 538, 540, 541, 542,
325, 326, 329, 333, 335, 339, 341, 543, 545, 550, 551, 553, 554, 556,
345, 347, 348, 349, 351, 352, 355, 557, 558, 560, 565, 568, 575, 576
356, 357, 358, 359, 364, 365, 384, Chao Phraya (river, Thailand) xxiv,
393, 395, 396, 402, 403, 404, 405, 299, 427
408, 409, 411, 412, 413, 418, 419, Chiang Mai (Thailand) v, xiii, 160,
425, 427, 428, 429, 430, 432, 433, 303, 329, 330, 345, 349, 415, 421,
436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 548, 424
575, 576, 577, 579, 581, 588, 589, Chiang Rai (Thailand) 391, 395
592, 593, 594, 595, 600, 601, 602, China xvi, 87, 120, 145, 147, 149, 150,
630 155, 156, 157, 160, 194, 195, 327,
Bodhgaya (Bodhgayā, Bihar, India) 71, 416, 438, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480,
116, 151, 191, 250 481, 483, 485, 487, 488, 509, 511,
Burma (see also Myanmar) xvii, xx, 512, 514, 529, 547, 556, 564, 580,
xxvi, xxvii, 1, 169, 170, 179, 192, 600
198, 211, 225, 226, 227, 233, 234, Cilāta 36
235, 249, 257, 271, 272, 273, 278, Cīna 36
282, 283, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, Cittalapabbata 84
304, 305, 334, 394, 395, 416, 432,
Indexes
611
Colombo (Sri Lanka) xvi, xxiii, xxxiii, Jetavanārāma 51, 53

1, 32, 34, 49, 61, 62, 125, 126, 250, Jetavanavihāra 68
251, 290, 291, 293, 294, 395, 432, Kaliṅga 151
446, 450, 451, 452, 453, 458, 464, Kanaganahalli (Karnataka, India) 588
491, 492, 565, 569, 575, 578, 579, Kāñcipura (Tamil Nadu, India) 71
582 Kandy (Sri Lanka) xxix, 224, 276, 277,
Dakkhiṇavihāra 47, 68, 80 291, 362, 443, 495, 538, 547, 548,
Daḷadā Māligāwa 444 569, 570
Dambulla (temple, Sri Lanka) 575, Kapilavastu 369
576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 582 Kasmira 36; Kasmīra-Gandhāra 25
Damila 36 Kauśāmbī 41
Dabadeṇi (ancient capital, Sri Lanka) Kelaniya Vihara (Sri Lanka) 251
280 Kolambālaka 78, 79
Deccan xv, 87 Lanka (Laṅkā, see also Ceylon and Sri
Dvāravatī 299, 553 Lanka) ix, xiii, xiv, xvi, xvii, xxiii,
Galle (Sri Lanka) 283, 291, 408, 493 xxv, xxviii, xxix, xxxiii, 1, 2, 3, 4,
Gandhara (Gandhāra) xxviii, 25, 34 8, 10, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26,
Gṛdhrakūṭa 424 28, 30, 31, 32, 34, 40, 41, 42, 46,
Hambugallaka 80 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56,
Hamṣāvati 283, 284 60, 61, 124, 125, 126, 144, 149,
Hikkaduva 283 151, 152, 153, 157, 158, 165, 167,
Himālaya 40; Himavanta 25, 40, 321 169, 191, 201, 209, 225, 227, 234,
India xiii, xv, xvii, xxiv, 1, 3, 4, 26, 36, 250, 251, 252, 254, 255, 256, 257,
38, 39, 40, 50, 55, 56, 63, 70, 73, 271, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281,
74, 85, 87, 88, 98, 114, 116, 120, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 289,
124, 126, 129, 143, 144, 145, 147, 291, 293, 303, 304, 312, 315, 330,
148, 150, 151, 154, 155, 156, 157, 334, 343, 407, 408, 409, 412, 416,
160, 161, 186, 198, 218, 236, 241, 423, 424, 432, 433, 444, 445, 446,
250, 254, 255, 293, 302, 303, 304, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453,
315, 343, 401, 416, 417, 421, 422, 460, 461, 462, 464, 466, 538, 561,
423, 438, 439, 445, 446, 447, 448, 575, 576, 577, 578, 580, 581, 582,
450, 451, 465, 468, 471, 472, 473, 585, 589, 590, 592, 595, 599
474, 475, 478, 480, 481, 486, 488, Laṅkādīpa (Isle of Lanka) xiii, 264
489, 490, 491, 508, 511, 517, 530, Lāṭa 144
540, 541, 545, 547, 548, 556, 557, Lokahteikpan (Pagan, Burma) 167,
567, 568, 571, 580, 584, 585, 587, 193, 197, 198, 201, 205, 233, 586
596, 597, 600; Central India xv, Madras (Tamil Nadu, India, modern
xvii, 26, 39, 40 Chennai) xvii, 493, 515, 560, 567,
Jambudvīpa 139 576, 581
Japan xvi, xviii, 126, 346, 396, 416, Magadha 144, 336, 473, 481, 577, 582,
458, 483, 488, 495, 496, 499, 500, 590
510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, Mahāraṭṭha 25
517, 518, 519, 521, 522, 523, 524, Mahāvihāra xiv, xxii, xxiii, 3, 4, 14, 15,
525, 526, 529, 544, 556, 569, 570 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26, 28,
Jetavana xvi, 41, 47, 48, 53, 54, 70, 30, 34, 35, 36, 41, 44, 45, 47, 48,
190, 212, 222, 302, 313 49, 50, 54, 56, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71,
612 Indexes
72, 75, 76, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, Pak Seng (Thailand) 578
85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, Pakistan xxviii
97, 98, 99, 104, 110, 112, 114, 115, Palura 36
118, 123, 130, 149, 152, 153, 165, Pāṭaliputta (Pāṭaliputra, modern Patna,
181, 196, 222, 251, 255, 264, 276, Bihar, India) 26, 39, 147, 222, 421,
279, 283, 284, 285, 289, 292, 330, 422, 440
331, 332, 371, 457, 465, 553, 574, Pathothamya (temple, Pagan, Burma)
575, 576, 581, 582, 592 170, 178, 190, 191, 200, 201, 225
Mahiṃsa 25 Pegu (Burma) xvii, 245, 247, 251, 252,
Mahindataṭa (Mihindatalē) 26 271, 273, 278, 283, 284, 285, 467
Malwatte 278, 282 Phetchaburi (Thailand) 322
Mātuvelaṅga 79 Poḷonnāruva (Sri Lanka) 280
Mihintalē (Mahindataṭa) 26, 34, 40 Pondicherry (India) 505
Mongolia 2, 416, 483, 488, 512 Pugāma (see also Pagan) xxiv
Muttima 254 Punjab (India) 121
Myanmar (see also Burma) 166, 167, Rājagaha 190, 423, 587
169, 170, 176, 179, 180, 181, 184, Rakkhaṅga (see also Arakan) 277, 278
189, 191, 192, 194, 196, 197, 199, Rāmaññadesa xxiv, 241, 243, 247, 254,
200, 211, 214, 227, 228, 232, 235, 264, 269
236, 241, 249, 272, 460, 466, 545, Rammanagara 213
569, 584, 599 Rangoon (Yangon, Burma) 167, 205,
Myazedi (temple, Pagan, Burma) 174, 225, 233, 268, 273, 452, 535, 544,
205, 210 550, 560, 566, 581, 586
Myinkaba Kubyauggyi (temple, Pagan, Sāmagalla 79
Burma) 173, 174, 185, 189, 190, Samaṇakūṭa 589
191, 198, 202, 204, 206, 207, 209, Samut Songkhram (Thailand) 324
213, 214, 221, 224, 229, 230, 573 Sanchi (Sāñcī) (Madhya Pradesh,
Nāgārjunakoṇḍa (Andhra Pradesh, India) 38, 40, 41, 312, 588
India) 35, 36, 37, 38, 71, 121 Sārnāth (Uttar Pradesh, India) 41
Nagayon (temple, Pagan, Burma) 171, Sāvatthī (Śrāvastī) (Uttar Pradesh,
172, 179, 187, 188, 190, 191, 196, India) 302, 361, 574
198, 199, 200, 201, 204, 214, 216, Shwedagon (pagoda, Rangoon, Burma)
223 250
Nakhon Si Thammarat (Thailand) 330, Siam (modern Thailand) xvii, xviii, xx,
343 xxv, xxvii, xxviii, xxxiv, 277, 278,
Pagan (Burma, ancient Pugāma) ix, 279, 282, 283, 286, 287, 289, 290,
xxiv, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 291, 299, 304, 306, 308, 312, 317,
171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 177, 179, 327, 329, 330, 331, 334, 337, 341,
181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 191, 192, 342, 345, 352, 355, 356, 357, 358,
193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 388, 389, 391, 395, 402, 407, 409,
201, 204, 208, 209, 211, 212, 214, 412, 413, 415, 416, 420, 421, 423,
215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 424, 425, 426, 429, 430, 432, 433,
224, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 434, 435, 439, 440, 452, 467, 472,
233, 234, 235, 236, 254, 343, 391, 477, 483, 485, 488, 502, 509, 510,
395, 573, 576, 580, 581, 584, 585, 512, 514, 517, 525, 526, 529, 531,
586, 588 532, 538, 543, 547, 548, 550, 551,
Indexes
613
553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 560, Thonburi (Thailand) 286, 299, 300,
565, 575, 585, 590, 592, 595, 600 305, 316, 317, 320, 321, 324, 335,
Siem Reap (Cambodia) xxvi, 371, 379, 345, 349, 350, 426, 548, 581, 589,
391 597
Sīhaladīpa (Island of Lanka), see Lanka Tibet 2, 194, 235, 416, 483, 488, 509,
Sindhu 144 556
Sineru (Sumeru) 321, 363 Tosali 36
Sonārī 40 Uttaravihāra (Abhayagiri) 45, 68, 90,
Southeast Asia ix, xiii, xvii, xviii, xix, 91
xxiv, xxvi, xxvii, xxviii, xxxiii, 63, Vaisali (Vaiśālī) 290, 496
143, 154, 160, 168, 170, 186, 195, Vaṃga 36
218, 234, 235, 236, 245, 246, 254, Vanavāsa 36, 115
264, 271, 272, 279, 282, 288, 298, Vanavāsi 25, 36
306, 330, 343, 345, 346, 387, 391, Vārāṇasī 139
392, 393, 424, 432, 450, 451, 457, Vatt Tā Tok (Cambodia) x, 371, 372,
458, 461, 466, 525, 545, 549, 550, 375, 384, 390
553, 561, 562, 569, 589, 599 Vatt Thipadey (Cambodia) 372, 390
Sri Lanka (Śrī Laṅkā, see also Ceylon Vedisa 26, 40, 63
and Lanka) xvi, xvii, xxiii, xxix, Vediśā 39, 40
xxxiii, 1, 2, 32, 34, 48, 49, 50, 54, Vesali (Vesālī) 23
55, 56, 60, 61, 124, 125, 126, 144, Vidyalankara Pirivena 445
149, 151, 152, 153, 157, 158, 165, Vīraṅkurārāma 53
167, 191, 201, 209, 225, 227, 234, Wat Anam Nikayaram (Bangkok) 427,
250, 251, 252, 254, 255, 256, 257, 428
271, 276, 278, 293, 312, 330, 407, Wat Bang Wa Yai (Bangkok) 325
408, 412, 416, 432, 444, 445, 446, Wat Bangwayai (Bangkok) 304, 305
447, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 460, Wat Benjamabophit (Bangkok) 436,
461, 462, 464, 466, 538, 561, 575, 437
576, 580, 582, 599 Wat Bodhārāma (Wat Pho, Bangkok)
Śrīkṣetra (Burma) 586 302, 305, 310, 311
Śrīvijaya 425 Wat Bovoranives (Bangkok) xxxiv,
Sukhothai (Thailand) 330, 343, 384, 404, 406, 408, 409, 410, 413, 588
426, 602 Wat Dusidaram (Wat Tusitārāma)
Suvaṇṇabhūmi 25, 243, 254 (Bangkok) 321, 335
Swat (Pakistan) 120 Wat Mahathat (Bangkok) 322, 358,
Tambapaṇṇi 26, 27, 35, 36 359
Tāvatiṃsa (heaven) 92, 197, 199, 212, Wat Pho (see also Wat Bodhārāma,
220, 574 Wat Phra Chetuphon, Wat Phra
Thailand (see also Siam) xxiii, xxxiii, Jetubana) 297, 302, 308, 310, 311,
1, 211, 236, 272, 293, 302, 314, 317, 318, 319, 321, 323, 327, 334,
325, 335, 341, 349, 351, 356, 369, 352, 364, 365, 577
372, 386, 387, 390, 402, 408, 410, Wat Phra Chetuphon (Wat Pho) x,
412, 413, 416, 417, 418, 432, 449, xxxiii, 297, 299, 302, 304, 307,
450, 451, 453, 460, 461, 466, 533, 308, 309, 310, 311, 314, 316, 317,
575, 578, 588, 590, 591, 594, 597, 318, 321, 327, 329, 341, 347, 351,
599, 600, 601, 602, 630 352, 364, 365, 432, 433, 440, 592
614 Indexes
Wat Phra Jetubana Vimalamaṅgalāvāśa Wat Rakhang Ghoṣitārāma (Thonburi)

(Wat Pho) 302 326
Wat Phra Sisanphet (Ayutthaya) 313, Wat Ruak Bang Bamru (Thonburi) 320
314, 316, 318, 319 Wat Suthat Thephawararam (Bangkok)
Wat Prayun Wongsawat (Thonburi) 418, 419
286 Wat Thepthidaram (Bangkok) 341, 592
Wat Rājasiddhārāma (Thonburi) 321 Yavana 36, 73
Yonakaloka 25
Selected subjects
Abhay’-uttara 94, 95 Buddhaśāsanā xvii, xx, xxi, xxiv, xxvii,
Abhayagirika 68, 70, 81, 83, 85, 94, 95 xxviii, xxxv, 590
Abhayagirivāsika 68, 94, 95 Cetiya (caitya) xv, 44
Abhayagirivāsin 49, 86, 88, 90, 94, Chan 130, 135, 137, 149
100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, Channāgārika 44
108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, Chaṭṭhasaṅgāyana 7, 256
116, 117, 150, 153 Chao Mae Kuan Im, see Kuan Yin
abhidhamma 7, 87, 91, 92, 100, 105, Chatukham Ramathep 337
115, 117 Chola 583
ācariya-kula 11 Dakkhiṇa-nikāya 429, 430, 433
ācariya-vāda 11 Dakṣiṇa-nikāya 430
ācariyavāda 8, 11, 42, 43 Dārṣṭāntika 122, 123
Ācariyavāda xx, 331 Dhammagutta 120, 121
agnihotra 24 Dhammaguttika 44
Ājīvaka 73 Dhammaruci 68, 94, 95
akappiya 76, 96, 118 Dhammarucika 52, 94
ālaya-vijñāna 50 Dhammarucikavāda 94
Andhakas 44 Dhammaruci 47
Aniruddha 585 Dhammaruciya 82
ānisaṃsa xxvi, 304, 310, 341 dhammavādī 251, 266
Aparaseliya 43, 44 Dhammayuttika 287, 289, 426
Ariyaka xxvi, 402, 404, 405, 406, 407, Dhammayuttika Nikāya 287, 289
408, 409, 410, 595 dhāraṇī xv, xxv
aṭṭhakathā 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, Dharmaguptaka 2, 141, 146, 154, 250
17, 20, 22, 23, 29, 30, 35, 42, 49, dhutaṅga 100
84, 90, 96, 114, 115, 116, 119, 122, Dīghabhāṇaka 93
247, 360, 432, 574 Ekabyohārika 44
Bāhuliya 44 Ekavyavahārika 139, 140
Bahuśrutīya 140 Emerald Buddha, see Phra Kaew
Bhadrayānika 44 Morakot
Bhadrāyanīya 140, 141 gnas-brtan 131, 153
bhavāṅga-vijñāna 50 Gokulika 44
Bodhi Tree xvii, 26, 32, 330 Hemavatika 43, 44
brāhmaṇa xv Hīnayāna x, 62, 70, 129, 130, 149, 150,
buddhamāmaka xx 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 395,
Indexes
615
415, 416, 417, 418, 420, 422, 423, 494, 495, 498, 500, 508, 510, 511,
424, 425, 426, 429, 430, 432, 433, 512, 514, 517, 518, 519, 521, 522,
434, 435, 438, 450, 451, 453, 454, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530,
455, 456, 457, 458, 460, 461, 476, 531, 532, 540, 543, 544, 552, 557,
494, 498, 500, 510, 514, 517, 518, 558, 559, 560, 569, 594
519, 521, 522, 528, 529, 530, 531, *Mahāyānasthavira-Nikāya 150, 151,
532, 540, 543, 544, 545, 550, 552, 152, 155
553, 557, 569 Mahiṃsāsaka (Mahīśāsaka) 11, 17, 18,
iddhipāda 107 19, 38, 44, 50, 60, 115, 119, 120,
Jetavanavāsin 52 121, 122, 123, 125, 133, 140, 141,
Jetavanīyas 5, 47 147, 149, 154, 250, 464
jhāna 7, 87, 101 maṇḍala xv
Kalyāṇī inscription xxiv, 241, 242, Meiji era 458, 511
243, 245, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, middha 87, 101, 104, 105
252, 254, 255, 262, 264, 265, 267, Mon xxiv, 116, 166, 167, 168, 169,
268, 269, 271, 273 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176,
kappiya 96 177, 180, 182, 184, 187, 189, 191,
Kassapika 44, 120, 121 192, 196, 198, 200, 201, 203, 204,
Kāśyapīya 141, 146, 154 208, 211, 212, 216, 217, 218, 219,
Kaukulika 139, 140 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228,
khaṇḍasīmā 97 233, 234, 235, 245, 247, 254, 268,
Konbaung dynasty 249, 553 331, 332, 389, 402, 403, 416, 433,
Kuan Yin (Kuan Im, Chao Mae) 337, 547, 582, 585
338 Mūlasarvāstivāda 144, 170, 218, 223;
kula 11 Mūlasarvāstivādin 2, 250
Kuṣāṇa Dynasty 417 ñāṇavāda 5, 6
Lokottaravāda 139, 140 pakaraṇa 247
Mahā Bodhi Society 499, 503 Paṃsukūlika 56
Mahānāga 254 Paṇṇattivāda 44
Mahānikāya 286, 287, 426 paribbājaka 73
mahānikāya 50, 52, 53, 54 parisā xv, 255, 260, 261
Mahāsāṃghika 4, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, Phra Buddhadeva-paṭimākara 317
23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 38, 39, 41, Phra Kaew Morakot (Emerald Buddha)
42, 43, 44, 46, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 300, 305, 307, 316
55, 57, 59, 110, 120, 121, 122, 139, Phra Pāḷī 301, 329, 336, 342, 345, 346
140, 142, 143, 145, 146, 154, 250 Prajñaptika 140
Mahāvihāravāsin xiv, 15, 19, 47, 52, Prajñaptiśāstrika 139
55, 68, 71, 72, 77, 89 Pubbaseliya 43, 44
Mahāyāna x, xxi, xxvii, 1, 2, 56, 70, pucchā-visajjanā 434, 435
71, 93, 94, 98, 116, 119, 120, 123, puññakiriyavatthu 88, 111, 112
124, 132, 147, 148, 150, 152, 153, Pyu 116, 174, 175
154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 161, 181, Rājagirika 43, 44
192, 193, 194, 234, 415, 416, 417, Rāmañña Nikāya 56, 287, 289, 290
418, 419, 420, 422, 423, 424, 425, Ratanakosin (see also Bangkok) xxv,
426, 429, 430, 434, 435, 438, 440, 297, 299, 300, 303, 304, 325, 329,
449, 450, 451, 454, 456, 457, 476,
616 Indexes
330, 345, 347, 349, 357, 359, 575, 262, 264, 271, 272, 282, 284, 292,
591 386, 392, 533, 576, 588
Sabbatthivāda 44, 53 sīmāsammuti 241, 242, 244, 245, 253,
saddhā 173 254, 256, 261, 263
Sāgalika 48, 52, 68, 70, 85 Sīvali 254
Sakka (Era) 314, 348 Siyam Nikāya 276, 277, 278, 279, 280,
samaṇa 73 281, 282, 283, 284, 286, 287, 289,
Saṃmatīya 12, 44, 52, 53, 54, 141, 154 290
Sāṃmitīya 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, śramaṇa xv, 133, 147, 148, 155
154 Sthavira ix, xxiii, 12, 50, 52, 54, 70, 93,
Saṅgha xiii, xiv, xv, xvi, xvii, xx, xxi, 116, 129, 130, 131, 133, 135, 138,
xxii, xxiii, xxviii, 4, 10, 11, 15, 17, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 147,
18, 19, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156,
32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 157, 508, 509
45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52, 56, 57, 84, *Sthaviravāda (or *Stāviravāda) ix, 6,
115, 136, 137, 139, 142, 145, 147, 12, 129, 138, 146, 157, 457
150, 151, 152, 154, 157, 177, 249, stūpa xv, xxviii, 34, 40, 71, 72, 74, 75,
259, 275, 276, 278, 280, 281, 282, 76, 489, 579, 580, 582, 583, 584,
283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 291, 588
292, 299, 300, 301, 312, 313, 332, Suttavāda 44
346, 361, 416, 417, 422, 423, 426, Tā tok inscription xxvi, 378, 381, 387,
434, 588 397, 398, 399
Saṅkantika 44 Taishō 6, 33, 130, 160
Sarvāstivāda 12, 28, 125, 143, 144, Tambapaṇṇika 44
146, 154; Sarvāstivādin 44, 52, 54, Tāmraparṇīya-nikāya 50, 69
120, 122, 154, 250 Tang period xxiv, 130, 132, 136, 145,
Sāsana x, xiv, xvi, xxvii, xxiii, xxxv, 150
20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 42, 46, 167, Theosophical Society 491, 492, 493,
176, 183, 241, 242, 244, 245, 246, 495, 510, 515, 539, 567
248, 249, 252, 253, 254, 255, 259, thera xxiii, 6, 7, 11, 12, 18, 19, 129,
264, 265, 266, 267, 275, 276, 277, 130, 206, 207, 277, 285, 286
278, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 287, Theravaṃsa xiii, xiv, xvi, xxx, 330,
291, 297, 299, 301, 303, 304, 306, 331
310, 329, 330, 347, 377, 448, 539, Theriya xiii, xxxv, 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12,
546, 547, 553, 573, 575, 576, 577, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 23, 27, 28,
578 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 41, 42,
Sāsanasuddhi ix, 241, 245, 281 43, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 60,
Sāvakayāna (Śrāvakayāna) 214, 236, 67, 68, 71, 115, 116, 120, 125, 330,
433, 456 464, 578, 582
shangzuo 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, ṭīkā 7, 17, 54, 67, 68, 69, 78, 80, 81, 89,
136, 137, 138, 140, 143, 144, 149, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101,
150, 152, 154, 157 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112,
Siddhatthika 43, 44 114, 118, 247, 383, 420
sīmā xv, xvi, xxiv, xxv, 97, 169, 242, Tipiṭaka 3, 8, 24, 28, 29, 173, 177, 197,
243, 244, 245, 247, 249, 250, 252, 204, 210, 227, 336, 401, 410, 411,
253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 260, 261, 430, 431, 433, 434, 440, 466
Indexes
617
Tipiṭaka-Cūḷābhaya-tthera 8 Vājiriya 43, 44

Tipiṭaka-Cūḷanāga-tthera 8 Vajjiputtaka 11, 23, 42, 44
titthiya 23, 24, 27, 28, 42 vaṃsa xx, 7, 15, 18, 19, 71, 94, 121,
upāsaka xv, 180, 219 153, 276, 281, 348
upasampadā xxv, 49, 245, 252, 253, Vātsīputrīya 140, 141, 143, 147
255, 259, 261, 262, 277, 278, 279, Vetullavāda 84, 119
282, 283, 285, 289, 533, 534, 535, Vibhajjavāda (Vibhajyavāda) 15, 19,
537, 544 28, 29, 32, 33, 44, 55, 71, 251, 464;
upāsikā xv, 180, 219 Vibhajjavādin (Vibhajyavādin) 15,
uposatha 24, 25, 75, 76, 177, 207, 219, 25, 29, 33, 36, 38, 40, 41, 46, 54,
302, 306, 307, 312, 316, 317, 319, 60, 71, 120, 125, 251, 266, 464
321, 335, 341, 409, 410, 576, 581, vihāra 24, 38, 47, 48, 49, 53, 152, 153,
613 308, 310, 313, 314, 318, 319, 321,
Uppalavaṇṇā 364 322, 364, 365, 577, 583, 593
Ut(t)aranikāya 430 Vitaṇḍavāda 76, 119; Vitaṇḍavādin 77,
Uttarāpathaka 44 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123
Uttaravihāravāsika 94, 95 World’s Parliament of Religions xxviii,
Uttaravihāravāsin 68, 89, 90, 91, 94, 458, 498, 499, 500, 501, 503, 505,
95, 100, 107 506, 513, 516, 519, 521, 526, 528,
Uttaravihārin 68, 94, 95 543, 565, 567, 568, 569, 570
Vaibhāṣika 122, 125 Yona 73
Vajirañāṇa (Journal) 310
Titles and sections of works

Abhidhammasaṅgaha 382, 383 Āṭānāṭiya-sutta 196, 200, 214, 228
Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha 319, 382, Atthasālinī 43, 574
383, 600 Bhūridatta-jātaka 375, 381
Abhidhammâvatāra 77, 106, 109, 112 Bodhirājakumāra 5
Abhidhammāvatāra 107 Brahmajāla-sutta 25
Abhidharmakośa 98 Brahma-nārada-jātaka 381
Aggañña-sutta 185, 186, 213, 215 Buddhacarita 583, 584
Aliyexitabiluo-nijiaye 143 Buddhaghosuppatti 390, 581, 590
Anāgatavaṃsa xxvi, 172, 195, 235, Buddhapādamaṅgala 355, 359, 579,
388 600
Andhakaṭṭhakathā 263 Buddhavaṃsa 93, 127, 153, 161, 195,
Ānisaṃsapabbajā 357 196, 224, 254, 265
Ānisong sao hong 341 Bu-zhiyi-lun (部執異論) (*Samaya-
Anuṭīkā 113 bhedoparacanacakra) 132, 142
Apadāna 223, 360 Candakumāra-jātaka 377, 381
Apaṇṇaka-jātaka 213, 215 Chang-ahan-jing (長阿含經) (Dīrgha-
Apaṇṇaka-sutta 215 āgama) 130
Apidamo-dapiposha-lun (阿毘達磨大 Chi-xiu-baizhang-qinggui (勅修百丈
毘婆沙論) (*Abhidharmamahā- 清規) 137
vibhāṣāśāstra) 134 Chu-sanzang-jiji (出三藏集記) 147
618 Indexes
Cularājaparitta 403 Kathāvatthu-aṭṭhakathā 10, 11, 20, 30,

Cūlavaṃsa 56, 70, 121, 277, 293 42
Cūḷavaṃsa 7, 12, 13, 14, 49, 53, 95 Khandhaka 80, 96, 97, 98
Culayuddhakāravaṅśa 303 Khuddaka-nikāya 3, 99
Cullavagga 96, 97, 99, 313, 360 Khuddakapāṭha 13
Dasong-sengshi-lüe (大宋僧史略) Khuddasikkhā 89, 90
136, 137 Khuddasikkhāporāṇaṭīkā 90
Dhammapada 214, 339, 360, 380, 406, Kumārapañha 13
536, 574 Kurundī 22
Dhammasaṃgaha 123 Lokaneyya xxvi, 387
Dhammasaṅgaha 104, 108 Madhyama-āgama 6
Dhammasaṅgaṇi 105, 122, 123 Mahā-aṭṭhakathā 22
Dhātukathā 386 Mahādibbamanta 341
Dīghāgama 16, 52 Mahājaya 340, 341
Dīgha-nikāya 54, 178, 189, 200, 223 Mahānipata 172
Dīpaṃkara-jātaka 226 Mahānipāta 272, 380, 586
Dîpavaṃsa 462, 464, 567 Mahāpaccarī 22
Dīpavaṃsa xiv, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, Mahāparinibbāna-sutta 182
19, 20, 21, 23, 28, 30, 42, 43, 44, Mahārājaparitta 403
45, 46, 47, 55, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, Mahāsamaya-sutta 172, 203, 222, 226,
78, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 96, 97, 98, 227
99, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 465, Mahāsudassana-jātaka 223
475, 489, 557 Mahāsudassana-sutta 223, 224
Dvādasasahassabuddhavaṃsa 93 Mahāṭīkā 95, 100, 101, 105, 110
Fanyi-mingyi-ji (翻譯名義集) 136 Mahāvagga 97, 99, 247, 360, 552
Foguo-ji (佛國記) 149 Mahāvaṃsa xiv, xxv, 5, 11, 12, 14, 19,
Gahapati-vagga 200, 201 20, 21, 28, 45, 47, 48, 49, 55, 61,
Gaoseng-Faxian-zhuan (高僧法顯傳) 68, 73, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,
149, 158, 600 85, 90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 98, 118, 122,
Hatthipāla-jātaka 187 123, 167, 169, 191, 200, 222, 234,
Jambupati-sūtra 334 251, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 284,
Jambūpati-sūtra xxvi, 317, 355, 601 291, 293, 332, 463, 465, 466, 562,
Janaka-jātaka 375, 381 575, 576, 577, 580
Jātaka-atthavaṇṇanā 313 Mahāvaṃsa-ṭīkā 95, 99
Jinakālamālī 415, 421, 435; Jinakāla- Mahāvastu 360
mālinī 332 Mahāyuddhakāravaṅśa 303
Kaiyuan-xinding-shijiao-mulu (貞元新 Majjhima-nikāya xxix, 5, 7, 176, 178,
定釋教目錄) 132 187, 200, 201, 235, 539
Kammavācā 244 Maṅgala-sutta 199, 214, 225, 380
Kaṅkhāvitaraṇī 247, 256, 259, 272 Maṅgalatthadīpanī Aṭṭhakathāmaṅgala-
Karmaśataka 133 sūtra 380
Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa 50 Metta-sutta 217
Kathāvatthu 5, 10, 11, 19, 20, 23, 25, Milindapañha 122, 159
28, 30, 33, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 55, Mūlaṭīkā 84, 94, 95, 99, 107, 113
77, 82, 92, 115, 121, 122, 386 Nanhai-jigui-neifa-zhuan (南海寄歸內
法傳) 133, 143, 162
Indexes
619
Nārada-jātaka 204, 205, 377 Samyutta-nikāya 188, 190, 357, 423,

Navaka-nipāta 344 438
Nemirāja-jātaka 375, 381 Saṅgani 386
Netti-ṭīkā 91, 92 Sārasamāsa 68, 69, 100, 126
Nidānakathā 192, 212, 313 Sāratthadīpanī 247
Pakṣīpakaraṇam 342 Sāsanavaṃsa 13
Pāḷimuttakavinayavinicchayasaṅgaha Sattaparitta 403
256 Shanjian-lü-piposha (善見律毘婆沙)
Pañcatantra 342 (*Sudarśanavinaya-vibhāṣā) 148
Paññāsa-jātaka 334, 339, 356 Shengshangzuo-bu (聖上座部) 143
Paramatthamaṅgala x, xxv, xxvi, 342, Shishi-yaolan (釋氏要覽) 133, 136,
355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 592 137
Pariccāgadānajātaka 356 Sigālovāda-sutta 200
Parinirvāṇa-sūtra 131, 132 Sīla-jātaka 356
Parivāra 80, 86, 96, 360 Simālaṅkārapakaraṇa 247
Pāsādika-sutta 200 Sīmālaṅkārasaṅgaha 247, 257, 272
Paṭhamasambodhi 334, 382 Sīmāvicāraṇa xxiv, xxvii, 595
Pāṭimokkha 380 Siṅgālovāda-sutta 362
Paṭisambhidāmagga 10, 17, 87, 101, Siridhara-jātaka 356
107, 117 Sivijaya-jātaka xxvi, 387
Paṭisaṅkharaṇa-ānisaṃsakathā 310 Sotatthakī-mahānidāna 196
Paṭṭhāna 50, 60, 92, 105, 386 Subodhālaṅkāra Porāṇa-Ṭīkā 420, 438
prātimokṣa 479 Sumaṅglavilāsinī 16, 52
Pratītyasamutpādavyākhyā 50 Suttavibhaṅga 90, 96
Puggalapaññatti 386 Suvaṇṇasāma-jātaka 375, 381
Rasavāhinī 95 Tarkajvālā 153
Ratana-sutta 214 Temiya-jātaka 375, 380
Rationarium temporum 468 Theragāthā 9
Ratnāvalī 428, 429, 430, 439 Traibhūmi 336, 373, 378, 379, 383,
Saddhamm’opāyana 88, 100 384, 593
Sallekkha-sut 178 Trailokavinicchaya 332, 334
Sāmaññaphala-sutta 99 Uṇhissavijaya xxv, xxvi, 342, 357, 388
Samantapāsādikā 4, 8, 10, 20, 26, 28, Uṇhissavijaya-jātaka 356
29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 39, 43, 46, 55, Upāliparipṛcchā-sūtra 86, 127
124, 158, 160, 204, 256, 257, 259, Upāsakajanâlaṃkāra 111
262, 263 Uppātasanti 342
Sāmāntapāsādikā 148 Uttaravihāra-aṭṭhakathā 49, 90
Samantappāsādikā 87, 91, 123 Vajirabuddhi-ṭīkā 91, 94, 95
Samayabhedoparacanacakra 46, 131, Vaṃsadīpanī xx, xxiv, 553, 554, 570
132, 138, 146, 157 Vaṃsaṭṭhapakāsinī 32
Sambuddhe-gāthā 424, 426 Vessantara-jātaka xxvi, 179, 322, 328,
Saṃgītiyavaṃsa (Saṅgītiya-vaṅśa) 329, 380, 396, 593
301, 303, 304, 305, 306, 332, 432, Vibhaṅga 102, 105, 107, 122, 386
433, 440 Vidaddhamukhamaṇḍana 342
Samuddaghoṣa 322 Vidhura-jātaka 377, 381, 586, 588
Vijjādhara- jātaka 389
620 Indexes
Vimānavatthu 173, 177, 202, 208, 209 110, 112, 114, 124, 127, 226, 319,
Vimativinodanī 29, 30, 247, 257, 262 465, 504, 581
Vimativinodanī-ṭīkā 263, 272 Visuddhimagga-nidānakathā 7, 14
Vimuttimagga 67, 86, 100, 101, 104, Xianshi-lun (顯識論) 132
105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, Xiyu-ji (西域記) 147, 150, 154
113, 114, 124, 125, 127, 158 Yamaka 111, 386
Vinayālaṅkāra-ṭīkā 263 Za-ahan-jing (雜阿含經) (Kṣudraka-
Vinayamātṛka 133, 136 āgama) 130, 131
Vinayasaṅgaha 256 Zengyi-ahan-jing (增壹阿含經)
Vinayasaṅgahapakaraṇa 247 (Ekottarika-āgama) 130
Vinayaṭṭhakathā 32, 247 Zhong-ahan-jing (中阿含經)
Vinayavinicchaya 13, 254 (Madhyama-āgama) 131
Vinayavinicchayapakaraṇa 247 Zuting-shiyuan (祖庭事苑) 137
Visuddhimagga 3, 7, 14, 15, 17, 19, 71,
86, 87, 92, 95, 100, 101, 105, 106,

Sthavira Thera and Sthaviravadin in Chin

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Sthavira Thera and Sthaviravadin in Chin

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How Theravāda is Theravāda?

Exploring Buddhist Identities

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First published in June, 2012 by

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May the paraṃpara

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Map of South and Southeast Asia xxxviii-xxxix

1 Was Buddhaghosa a Theravādin?

2 The Teachings of the Abhayagiri School 67

3 Sthavira, Thera and ‘*Sthaviravāda’

4 The King and his Bhagavā:

6 Lineage, Inheritance, and Belonging:

8 The Benefits of Ordination according to

9 Circulation of Texts in Mid-Nineteenth Century Cambodia:

10 King Mongkut’s Invention of a Universal Pali Script 401

11 Thai Ideas about Hīnayāna-Mahāyāna:

Description of plates 573

Contributors and editors 599

MAP BY PIERRE PICHARD MARCH 2012

Sthavira, Thera and ‘*Sthaviravāda’

T his paper will investigate the use of the standard

from a historical viewpoint. We are used to identifying the term

Plate III 129

Chinese equivalents of sthavira and thera

sense, denoting the Mahāvihāra tradition, and (3) a denominational sense,

in combination with biqiu 比丘, bhikṣu,7 or alone.8 We can refrain from

transliteration of a Prakritic from *thavira,14 but the term clearly would

term in Chinese texts is found in Yijing’s (635–713) Nanhai-jigui-

Chinese explanations of the term shangzuo

In other Chinese Buddhist collections and dictionaries the term

Shangzuo. In the Vinaya of Five Sections it is said that this is generally

is also called the section of the Xidoupotuo (Hetuvāda(pūrva)), and another

In the slightly later dictionary Fanyi-mingyi-ji 翻譯名義集 by

The passage indicates an ‘institutionalization’ of the title. It combines

The vinaya-superintendent (vinayadhāra): he may be supervising the

biheluoshami/vihārasvāmin); the third is gangwei (in Sanskrit called

Without being able to identify the Sanskrit term that is transcribed by

The references seem to imply that, at least in the Chinese context,

Sthavira as an institution (nikāya/bu 部) in Chinese sources

To assist the analysis, further attention can be given to a term noted

羅 (?),41 the third Uttaraśaila (Yuduoluoshiluo 欝多羅施羅). Thus the

Furthermore, (as regards) the assemblies of the arhats spreading the

([Yijing’s running note:] (1) The Āryamahāsāṃghika-nikāya,57

is predominant, (though) occasionally the Sāṃmitīya (Zhengliang 正

Xuanzang’s work and his influence. It is, of course, also found in

In the Vinaya-school of Nanshan the Vinaya (pini) flourishes widely.

of Extrication’ (Jietuo-lü), 4. the Mahīśāsaka, that is the ‘Vinaya in

According to this report – which is, as far as I see, only repeated in

(Dasheng) had translated [this work and the before-mentioned Wubai-

Dazhou-kanding-zhongjing-mulu 大周刊定眾經目錄, T. 2153.434a.10;

even quoted in Chinese Buddhist literature73 is the vinaya underlying

智顗 (538–598), and Renwang-jing-shu 仁王經疏, T. 1708.379a.3f., by

High-seated and great: The case of the Mahāyānasthavira

Finally I would like to reassess the somewhat mysterious term

Xuanzang reports the existence of this group in the following places

to solve the problem of the mysterious term dasheng-shangzuo(-bu)

The kingdom of Siṃhala in ancient times only worshiped false gods,

There are striking statements in this passage: Xuanzang claims that