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Table 2. Diffusion coefficients, D, of epoxy-RCF composites.
Sample NPF (wt%) CBF (wt%) M∞ (%) Slope D (mm²/sec)

Epoxy (E) 0 0 1.93 0.07 4.13 x 10-6
E/NPF5 5 3.46 0.15 5.24 x 10-6
E/NPF10 10 5.26 0.24 5.88 x 10-6
E/NPF15 15 7.73 0.41 7.54 x 10-6
E/NPF20 20 11.9 0.71 9.55 x 10-6
E/CBF5 5 3.7 0.17 5.63 x 10-6
E/CBF10 10 5.5 0.27 6.8 x 10-6
E/CBF15 15 7.94 0.42 7.7 x 10-6
E/CBF20 20 12.32 0.73 9.5 x 10-6
Table 3. Diffusion coefficients of Vinyl ester resin-RCF composites.
Samples M∞ (%) Slope D (mm²/sec)

Vinyl-Ester (VE) 0.74 0.0301 3.25 x 10-6
VE/NPF5 2.23 0.0678 1.81 x 10-6
VE/NPF10 3 0.0964 2.03 x 10-6
VE/NPF15 5.76 0.2127 2.68 x 10-6
VE/NPF20 7.81 0.2996 2.89 x 10-6
VE/CBF5 1.71 0.0725 3.5 x 10-6
VE/CBF10 2.9 0.1309 3.99 x 10-6
VE/CBF15 5.1 0.2371 4.2 x 10-6
VE/CBF20 6.99 0.3263 4.8 x 10-6
Table 4. Mechanical and fracture properties of the various samples.
Sample σF (MPa) EF (GPa) KIC (MPa·m1/2) σI (kJ·m-2) GIC (kJ·m-2)

Pure Epoxy 171 ± 9 4.1 ± 0.1 1.2 ± 0.2 0.4 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.1
Epoxy/RCF 179 ± 5 6.4 ± 0.3 2.4 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.4 6.3 ± 3.0
Table 5. Effect of soaking in seawater for two weeks on the flexural strength
(σF), flexural modulus (EF), impact strength (σI) and impact toughness (GIC)
U.S. or applicable copyright law.
of the composite samples.
σF (MPa) EF (GPa) σI (kJ·m-2) GIC (kJ·m-2)

Sample
Before After Before After Before After Before After
Epoxy 171 ± 9 - 4.1 ± - 0.4 ± - 1.3 ± -
0.1 0.1 0.1
Epoxy/RCF 179 ± 5 92 ± 6.4 ± 2.3 ± 1.2 ± 1.5 ± 6.3 ± 25.4 ±
7 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 3.0 3.6
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Effect of Nano-Clay on Moisture Absorption
As can be seen in Figures 12 & 13, the water uptake of samples with nanoclay-coating is
significantly decreased. The addition of the nanoclay has been shown to impart significant
improvements in water absorption resistance. This is because nanoclay platelets have an
extremely high aspect ratio, where the water molecules path is disturbed [43]. The water
molecules path is changed from the direct fast diffusion into the polymer matrix to a maze
like path or tortuous zigzag pathway with the presence of the nanoclay platelets [44, 45] and
that leads to water molecules having to take a long way around the nanoclay layers.
Consequently, this leads to a reduction in water uptake.
Figure 12. Effect of coating with different nanoclay loading on the maximum water uptake of
epoxy/CBF composites.
Figure 13. Effect of coating with different nanoclay loading on the maximum water uptake of vinyl-
ester/CBF composites.
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Mechanical Properties
The mechanical and fracture properties of the pure epoxy and RCF-reinforced epoxy
composites are summarized in Table 4. When compared to the pure epoxy, several interesting
features are worth noting for the composites. Firstly, the presence of RCF significantly
improved the fracture toughness (KIC) and impact toughness (GIC). As will be shown later, the
enhanced fracture resistance can be attributed to energy dissipation due to crack-deflection at
the fibre-matrix interface, fibre-debonding, fibre-bridging, fibre pull-out, and fibre-fracture.
Secondly, moderate gains were observed for flexural strength and flexural modulus but the
gain for impact strength was quite significant. As previously reported [25, 26], the gains in
these properties are dependent on the volume fraction or number of RCF sheets in accordance
with the rule-of-mixture equations. Thirdly, samples tested with the RCF sheets parallel to the
applied load achieved a higher KIC when compared to samples with the RCF sheets parallel to
the applied load. The higher fracture toughness in the former case can be attributed to the
pronounced display of interfacial crack-deflection, leading to a very tortuous crack-path.
Lastly, whilst the epoxy sample underwent catastrophic failure (Figure. 14a), the composite
samples failed in a more graceful manner with: (i) discontinuous or multiple ―stick-slip‖
fracture when the RCF sheets are normal to the applied load (Figure. 14b), and (ii) slow and
continuous crack growth when the RCF sheets are parallel to the applied load (Figure. 14c).
The phenomenon of multiple ―stick-slip‖ fracture can be attributed to the repeating
occurrence of crack initiation, arrests and de-bonding at the CRF/epoxy interfaces
Fracture Processes
The processes of fracture in composite samples during three-point bending showed

distinct differences depending on the orientation of RCF sheets to the applied load.
Micrographs in Figure 15 show the typical tortuous crack paths for samples with the RCF
sheets aligned normal to the applied load. The RCF sheets provided a gross crack deflection
of the growing crack at the fibre-epoxy interface as the principal mode of crack-tip failure.
This resulted in desirable energy dissipation processes such as crack-tip blunting and
interfacial de-bonding. Microcracks were also initiated within the RCF sheet in the high stress
region in the vicinity of the propagating crack.
A different mode of principal crack-tip failure was displayed for samples with RCF
sheets aligned parallel to the applied force. Here the crack-path is more continuous and less
tortuous due to the absence of gross crack deflection (Figure. 16). The crack advances
through the formation of a heavily damaged zone ahead of the crack-tip [26]. The damage
zone is initiated at fibres in the high stress region in the vicinity of a propagating crack. The
crack propagation follows a local trajectory through resin and deflected around the cellulose
fibres. This formation of localised damage ahead of the growing crack shields the crack by
activating multiple crack tips and by reducing the local stress intensity through crack
deflection and leads to the formation of crack bridges from ―uncracked ligaments‖ due to the
incomplete coalescence of these microcracks with the main crack tip [26].
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Figure 14. Load versus deflection plots during three-point bending for (a) pure epoxy sample; (b)
Epoxy/RCF sample with RCF sheets normal to the applied load, and (c) Epoxy/RCF sample RCF
sheets parallel to the applied load.
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a b
c
(a) crack-tip deflection during initial fracture; (b) multiple crack-deflections during final fracture, and
(c) formation of microcracks within the RCF sheets.
Figure 15. Optical and scanning electron micrographs of Epoxy/RCF with RCF sheets normal to the
applied load.
Figure 16. Scanning electron micrograph showing the crack path during the initial fracture of
Epoxy/RCF with RCF sheets parallel to the applied load.
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CONCLUSIONS
Epoxy and vinyl-ester composites reinforced with cellulose fibres have been fabricated
and characterised. The moisture absorption behaviour of the composites in water was
analysed and the kinetics of sorption-diffusion process was investigated. The diffusion
coefficient (D) of the composites increased in proportion with an increase in the cellulose
fibre loading. The use of nanoclay in the composites was effective in imparting a substantial
reduction in water permeability due to the tortuous path presented by high aspect ratio clay.
Significant improvements in fracture properties, together with moderate increases in flexural
properties, were achieved through the reinforcement of cellulose fibres. However, the long-
term exposure of these materials to seawater had a detrimental effect on the flexural
properties, although their impact properties were significantly improved. The crack-tip failure
micromechanisms in theses composites were strongly dependent on the orientation of CRF
sheets with respect to the applied load.
The avoidance of fibres by the advancing crack-tip is accomplished by the initial tilting
and subsequent twisting of the crack front between the fibres, thus resulting in a non-planar
crack-path and extensive fibre pull-outs on the fracture surface (Figure. 17).
(a)
(b)
Figure 17. Scanning electron micrographs showing the fracture surface of sample (a) Epoxy/RCF and
(b) Epoxy/NPF.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work forms part of the doctoral theses of H. Alamri and A. Alhuthali. Both are
particularly grateful to the Saudi government for providing the PhD scholarships. The authors
wish to thank Amcor Pty. Ltd in Canning Vale, W.A. for providing the recycled cellulose
fibres for this study. We are also very grateful to H.S. Kho for kindly providing Figs. 14-16
and to Dr. I.J. Davies for useful discussion. Ms. E. Miller and Dr. B.A. Latella kindly assisted
with the experimental work on SEM and flexural testing respectively.
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In: Green Composites: Properties, Design and Life… ISBN: 978-1-60741-301-1
Editors: F. Willems, P. Moens, pp. 199-206 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
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Chapter 10
DENSIFIED WOOD FOR GREEN COMPOSITES
Andreja Kutnara* and Frederick A. Kamkeb

a
University of Primorska, Primorska Institute for Natural Sciences and Technology,
Muzejski trg 2, 6000 Koper, Slovenia; Oregon State University, Department of Wood
Science and Engineering, 119 Richardson Hall, Corvallis, Oregon, USA.
b
Oregon State University, Department of Wood Science and Engineering,
119 Richardson Hall, Corvallis, Oregon, USA.
ABSTRACT
Densified wood can be effectively utilized as raw material in the production of
wood-base green composites. The viscoelastic thermal compression (VTC) process
enabled the development of a high performance structural wood-based composite with
low-density (undensified) wood in the core, and high-density VTC wood for the faces of
the composite. Increased density of the face layers in these 3-layer VTC composites is
advantageous for their mechanical performance. The aim of this chapter was to present
the VTC process, the VTC wood and the 3-layer VTC composites. Additionally, the
viscoelastic nature of wood and the stress-strain relationship in regard to glass transition
temperature and moisture environment relevant for the density gradient formation in
VTC wood are discussed. Namely, the density gradient of the VTC layer, which is
obtained due to the viscoelastic nature of wood, local environment of moisture content
and temperature during the densification process, affects the bending properties of the
VTC composites.
1. INTRODUCTION
Most mechanical properties of wood are correlated to its density. Although other
anatomical factors are important, such as microfibril angle, high density wood is typically
preferred for structural applications and where wear resistance is important. Since increasing
*
Corresponding author : E-mail address: andreja.kutnar@siol.net, Tel.: +386 31240 121.
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the density of wood enhances its mechanical properties and improves the hardness of wood,
many attempts have been made to develop a suitable process for the densification of wood
(Blomberg and Persson 2004). Densification makes it possible for low-density and
commercially uninteresting wood species to be modified into high performance and high
value products. A recently developed method for wood densification using the viscoelastic
thermal compression (VTC) process enabled the processing of thin materials (less than 10
mm) in the production of wood-base green composites (Kamke and Sizemore 2008; Kutnar et
al. 2008a). A simple application is a 3-layer laminated composite, with VTC wood in the two
outer layers, and a layer of untreated low-density wood in the core.
The VTC process may be applied to any wood species, although it is intended for low-
density species. Laboratory tests have been conducted with eastern cottonwood (Populus
deltoides), aspen (Populus tremuloides), yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), sweetgum
(Liquidamber styraciflua), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), radiata pine (Pinus radiata), and
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Recent application has focused on rapidly-grown hybrid
poplar clones (ie. Populus deltoides x Populus trichocarpa). Intensive silviculture can yield
harvest rotation at 10 years or less – dramatically increasing forest productivity. However,
rapid growth of softwood species typically results in low density wood. Hardwood species
that are amenable to rapid growth, also have low density, and consequently are not suitable
for structural applications. Densification processes, and subsequent composite manufacture,
improves the value of these timber resources and reduces the demand on mature forests.
2. VISCOELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF WOOD

Wood is termed viscoelastic because it can exhibit a range of properties from viscous
fluids to linear elastic solids. Owing to the viscoelastic nature, mechanical properties of wood
depend on time, temperature and moisture. In relative terms, at short times, low temperatures
and low moisture contents, wood exhibits glassy behaviour that can be characterized as stiff
and brittle. At long times, high temperatures and high moisture contents, wood exhibits
rubbery behaviour that can be characterized as compliant. The transition phase occurs
between these two distinct regions; the temperature associated with the phase change being
typically called the glass transition temperature Tg (Wolcott et al. 1994). The Tg, also known
as the softening temperature, characterizes the softening behaviour of amorphous polymers.
When the temperature of the polymer approaches Tg, the stiffness of the material decreases
rapidly, corresponding to a marked increase in molecular motion (Wolcott 1989). Many
properties of amorphous polymers, such as the elastic modulus, change dramatically when the
material passes this softening point (Figure 1).
The viscoelastic nature of wood plays an important role in compression and densification.
Structure changes during the compression strongly depends on the moisture content and
temperature of the wood. Brittle fractures in wood occur when the hemicelluloses and lignin
are in the glassy phase, and the polymers are brittle. Temperatures higher than Tg promote
polymer mobility and permit rearrangement of the molecules. When the wood temperature is
above the Tg of both amorphous polymers, large deformation can occur without fractures or
with ductile fractures (Wolcott et al. 1990).
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Figure 1. Variation of the relaxation modulus with temperature for an amorphous polymer (Lenth
1999).
Figure 2. The glass-transition temperature of lignin as a function of moisture content (Morsing 2000).
The softening temperature of wood is strongly influenced by its water content (Morsing
2000). Increasing moisture content decreases the Tg of the amorphous components of wood,
and vice versa (Figure 2). Water molecules plasticize wood polymers. Moisture forms
secondary bonds with the polar groups in the polymer molecules, and swells the polymer
network, thus reducing the secondary bonding between the polymer chains and increasing
mobility for the polymer molecules. Moisture thus increases the free volume of the system.
The wood becomes more easily deformed and the transition temperature is lowered.
Viscoelastic behaviour results in densification due to the transverse compression of the
constituent wood elements and associated buckling of the cell wall in the radial or tangential
directions. The strain-time curve of wood under a compressive load can be divided into four
parts: initial elastic deformation, viscoelastic deformation, final elastic springback and time-
dependent springback or creep recovery (Tang and Simpson 1990). Wood densification can
have both permanent and recoverable components, which together have a significant
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influence on the physical and mechanical properties of the composite product (Lenth and
Kamke 2001a). Because of its viscoelastic nature, wood also exhibits rheological properties
such as creep and relaxation.
3. PROCESS OF VISCOELASTIC THERMAL COMPRESSION

(VTC) OF WOOD
The VTC process increases the density of wood by compression perpendicular to the grain.
Pre-conditioning the wood components, by heat and steam, to exceed Tg softens the cell wall. A
rapid moisture loss just prior to mechanical compression promotes a mechano-sorptive affect
that further softens the wood components. A subsequent heat treatment reduces the potential for
water sorption and stabilizes the material. The degree of densification is controllable, with a
maximum density of approximately 1.4 g/cm3.
Densification of wood by VTC involves five steps (Kamke and Sizemore 2008). First, the
wood is heated and conditioned to an elevated temperature and moisture content, such that the
wood substance reaches or exceeds its glass transition temperature. The desired temperature
range is about 160°C to 175°C. Pronounced softening of the wood follows, which is caused by
inducing rapid vapor decompression and removal of the bond water in the cell wall. The
purpose of the rapid vapor decompression is to induce transient moisture content in the
specimen and promote mechano-sorption behavior in the second phase compression. This
softening dramatically reduces the compression modulus of the wood. This movement of
moisture retards the cell‘s ability to transfer stress and resist strain. In effect, the polymer
molecules are able, to a great extent, to deform under the applied load without cleaving. While
the wood is in a softened state, it is compressed perpendicular to the grain. The mechanical
compression is within the range of 650 and about 2000 kPa depending on the degree of
densification desired.
In the next step annealing the wood to allow relaxation of the remaining stresses is
performed. The temperature is increased, which increases molecular motion, and assists stress
relaxation. High temperature exposure also induces some thermal degradation - primarily of the
hemicellulose component, which is believed to reduce the hydrophilic nature of wood. Thermal
degradation products may also result in additional polymer crosslinking reactions. The
temperature is set within the range about 175°C and about 225°C, and compressed wood is held
under a mechanical pressure of between approximately 650 and about 2000 kPa.
The VTC process is completed with cooling the wood, while still under mechanical
compression, to below Tg.. When the VTC wood is conditioned to the ambient temperature and
humidity the equilibrium moisture content is significantly lower than the virgin wood.
The degree of densification depends upon the initial basic wood density (Currier 1963;
Kamke and Sizemore 2008; Lenth and Kamke 2001a, 2001b) and also on the species and type
(adult, juvenile) of wood (Kultikova 1999). Other factors to consider include the thickness of
the product, form of the wood in the product (i.e. on the size and shape of the wood elements),
on previous treatments of the wood product, such as pressure and/or heat treatment, infusion
with resin, and on the desired final density. Depending on these factors, the increase in density
may be in the range of about 25% to 500%, though preferably in the range of about 100% to
200%.
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Transient heat and mass transfer in the wood results in temperature, gas pressure, and
moisture content gradients in the wood during the VTC process, which causes a variation in
compression modulus with respect to the thickness direction. Consequently, some regions are
compressed more than others and a density profile is created. Generally the formation of a
density profile can be attributed to the combined action of time, temperature, moisture,
compression force, and stress relaxation of wood during the densification process (Kamke and
Casey 1988; Wolcott et al. 1990; Kutnar et al. 2009).
4. VTC WOOD CHARACTERISTICS

VTC processing of wood has a dramatic affect on many properties. The morphology of
VTC wood changes significantly and depends strongly upon the degree of densification
(Figure 3). Densification is achieved by a reduction of the void space, which is largely cell
lumen volume. The high strain which occurs in the VTC process drastically reduces the void
volume and causes cell wall buckling without fracturing (Kutnar et al. 2009). The strength
and stiffness of the VTC wood material are increased approximately in proportion to the
increase in density (Kutnar et al. 2008a). Unbroken cell walls are a major factor for improved
properties of VTC wood, while the type and amount of cell collapse has a very important
effect on the mechanical and physical properties of the densified material (Wolcott 1989;
Kultikova 1999; Navi and Girardet 2000; Kamke and Sizemore 2008).
Due to temperature and moisture gradients, and their relationship to Tg at the time the
compression stress is applied, a density profile is formed, which varies with the degree of
densification (Kutnar et al. 2009). An examination of the cross-section of VTC specimens
reveals that low and high density layers can be distinguished by the varying amount of void
space across the thickness (Figure 3).
Major chemical changes induced by the VTC process are the polymerization reactions of
lignin and partial degradation of hemicellulose (Kutnar et al. 2008b). The VTC process
reduces the hydrophilic nature of the wood (Jennings et al. 2006). Surface free energy
decreases significantly. Although this seems to be driven by thermal affects, since the level of
densification has limited influence on the surface properties of VTC wood (Kutnar et al.
2008b).
Figure 3. Photomicrographs of VTC wood specimens in transverse view having different degrees of
densification. The specimen blocks were polished after embedding in oil. Compression was applied in
the vertical direction, as indicated by the arrows.
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VTC
wood
Untreated wood
VTC
wood
Figure 4. The 3-layer VTC composite. The other laminas are 2.5 mm thick VTC wood laminas,
whereas the core is 6 mm thick untreated wood.
VTC processing affects adhesive flow and penetration (Kutnar et al. 2008c). The
effective penetration (EP) of phenol-formaldehyde (PF) adhesive differs upon the level of
densification; the EP decreases with the increasing densification. Although the surface
properties of VTC wood and adhesive penetration properties are changed significantly, the
bonding performance of VTC wood with PF adhesives is comparable with or better than in
the case of the virgin wood (Kutnar et al. 2008a; Kutnar et al. 2008c; Jennings et al. 2005).
Additionally, bonding of the VTC wood to untreated wood is not problematic, although the
penetration of the adhesive is mainly into the untreated wood (Kutnar et al. 2008a).
Good bonding characteristics has made it possible to develop a new wood-based
composite with low-density undensified wood in the core and high-density VTC wood in the
face layers (Figure 4) (Kamke and Sizemore 2008; Kutnar et al. 2008a; Jennings et al. 2005).
The high density VTC wood surface layers resist in-plane and bending loads, whereas the low
density core determines the product thickness, moment of inertia, and carries the shear loads.
Kutnar et al. (2008a) and Kamke (2006) determined that the modulus of rupture (MOR) and
modulus of elasticity (MOE) of the 3-layer VTC composites are significantly improved due to
the increased density of the VTC wood in the face layers of the 3-layer composites. In
addition, the MOE values of 3-layer VTC composites are comparable to commercially
existing structural composite lumber (SCL) (Kutnar et al. 2008a). This means the VTC
process offers the possibility of manufacturing structural wood composites from non-
structural timber species, like low density hybrid poplar.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Knowledge of the viscoelastic behavior of wood, utilized in the VTC densification
process, greatly benefits the forest products industry, since it results in the manufacture of
high performance, high value composite products from rapidly grown raw material. The VTC
process increases the density of wood without cell wall fracture, thus the strength and
stiffness of the wood material is increased. The improved mechanical properties, and the
ability to control them, provide a variety of potential uses for VTC wood. Low-density and
juvenile wood with lower mechanical properties can be used in new high-performance wood-
based composite products for structural components in buildings, transportation systems, and
casework.
Account: ns063387
6. REFERENCES
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(Pinus sylvestris) during densification with the CaLignum process. Journal of Wood
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Currier, R. A. (1963). Compressibility and bond quality of western softwood veneers. Forest
Products Journal, 13, 71-80.
Jennings, J. E., Zink-Sharp, A., Kamke, F. A. & Frazier, C. E. (2005). Properties of
compression densified wood. Part 1: Bond performance. Journal of Adhesion Science and
Technology, 19(13-14), 1249-1261.
Jennings, J. D., Zink-Sharp, A., Frazier, C. E. & Kamke, C. E. (2006). Properties of
compression densified wood. Part 2: Surface energy. Journal of Adhesion Science and
Technology, 20(4), 335-344.
Kamke, F. A. (2006). Densified radiata pine for structural composites. Maderas. Ciencia y
technologia, 8, 2, 83-92.
Kamke, F. A. & Casey, L. J. (1988). Fundamentals of flakeboard manufacture: internal-mat
conditions. Forest Products Journal, 38, 6, 38-44.
Kamke, F. A. & Sizemore, H. (2008). Viscoelastic thermal compression of wood. U.S. Patent
No. 7, 404, 422.
Kultikova, E. V. (1999). Structure and Properties Relationships of Densified Wood. Master
Thesis. Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, 136.
Kutnar, A., Kamke, F. A. & Sernek, M. (2008a). The mechanical properties of densified VTC
wood relevant for structural composites. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff, 66, 6, 439-446.
Kutnar, A., Kamke, F. A., Petrič, M. & Sernek, M. (2008b). The influence of viscoelastic
thermal compression on the chemistry and surface energetics of wood. Colloids and
Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 329, 82-86.
Kutnar, A., Kamke, F. A., Nairn, J. A. & Sernek, M. (2008c). Mode II fracture behavior of
bonded viscoelastic thermal compressed wood. Wood and Fiber Science, 40, 3, 362-373.
Kutnar, A., Kamke, F. A. & Sernek, M. (2009). Density profile and morphology of
viscoelastic thermal compressed wood. Wood Science and Technology 43, 1, 57-68.
Lenth, C. A. (1999). Wood material behavior in severe environments. Ph.D. Dissertation.
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, 122.
Lenth, C. A. & Kamke, F. A. (2001a). Moisture dependent softening behaviour of wood.
Wood and Fiber Science, 33, 3, 492-507.
Lenth, C. A. & Kamke, F. A. (2001b). Equilibrium moisture content of wood in high
temperature pressurized environments. Wood and Fiber Science, 33, 1, 104-118.
Morsing, N. (2000). Densification of wood - The influence of hygrothermal treatment on
compression of beech perpendicular to the grain. Department of structural engineering

and materials technical university of Denmark, Series R, 79, 138.
Navi, P. & Girardet, F. (2000). Effects of thermo-hydro-mechanical treatment on the structure
and properties of wood. Holzforschung 54, 3, 287-293.
Tang, Y. & Simpson, W. T. (1990). Perpendicular-to-grain Rheological Behavior of Loblolly
pine in press drying. Wood and Fiber Science 22, 3, 326-342.
Wolcott, M. P. (1989). Modelling viscoelastic cellular materials for the pressing of wood
composites. PhD Dissertation. Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, 182.
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Wolcott, M. P., Kamke, F. A. & Dillard, D. A. (1990). Fundamentals of flakeboard

manufacture: viscoelastic behavior of the wood component. Wood and Fiber Science 22,
4, 345-361.
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deformation pertaining to manufacture of wood-base composites. Wood and Fiber
Science 26, 4, 496-511.
Account: ns063387
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under
INDEX
agents, 11, 23, 31, 39, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65,
A
67, 76, 79, 81, 84, 86, 87, 88, 92, 94, 95, 142
aggregates, 4, 32, 53, 59
absorption, 1, 4, 17, 18, 21, 22, 44, 47, 48, 54, 61,
aggregation, 2, 10, 13, 16, 22
82, 84, 85, 88, 92, 94, 104, 105, 134, 135, 137,
aging, 114, 117
141, 143, 144, 146, 147, 149, 154, 155, 175, 176,
agricultural, 1, 14, 36, 81, 119, 155
177, 178, 180, 181, 185, 186, 187, 194
aid, 91
acceptor, 62
air, 20, 114, 143, 176, 180, 183
acetate, 3, 27, 61, 65, 73, 75
alcohol, 28, 30, 63, 64, 88
acetic acid, 67
alcoholysis, 100, 102, 103, 105, 112
acetone, 41, 64, 65
aldehydes, 11, 26
acetylation, 31, 39, 47, 60, 74, 75, 77
alkali, 39, 41, 46, 56, 57, 61, 63, 67, 74, 142, 155
achievement, 171
alkaline, 61, 63, 97, 155, 156
acid, 3, 19, 23, 25, 29, 35, 42, 45, 48, 56, 59, 61, 62,
alternative, 32, 93, 99, 100, 112, 116
67, 68, 78, 79, 84, 86, 87, 88, 93, 94, 97, 101, 102,
aluminum, 60, 128
103, 104, 114, 119, 120, 121, 138, 144, 158
Aluminum, 78
acidity, 65
amine, 10, 95, 115
acoustic, 114
amino, 18, 23, 29, 88, 94, 120
activated carbon, 96
amino groups, 18, 23, 94
activation, 9, 19, 38, 63
ammonia, 27
activation energy, 9, 19
ammonium, 7, 10, 68
additives, 59, 61, 75, 86, 88, 91, 99, 100, 110, 115
amorphous, 47, 55, 56, 57, 68, 80, 198, 199
adhesion, 5, 14, 15, 18, 24, 29, 31, 33, 39, 40, 41, 44,
amorphous polymers, 198
45, 47, 48, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 71, 74, 83, 87,
amphiphilic compounds, 23, 24
88, 94, 107, 122, 127, 137, 144, 155
amplitude, 124
adhesion properties, 48
anaerobic, 36
adhesion strength, 24, 88
anaerobic bacteria, 36
adhesive properties, 92
analysis of variance, 162

adhesives, 60, 88, 89, 97, 202
animals, 32, 54, 120
adjustment, 23
annealing, 200
adsorption, 44, 61, 78
anomalous, 177
adult, 200
antagonistic, 65
aerobic, 21, 36
aqueous solution, 40
Africa, 80, 101
Argentina, 99, 101, 104, 117
ageing, 154
argon, 129
agent, 33, 41, 47, 56, 60, 61, 63, 65, 67, 75, 79, 81,
aromatic hydrocarbons, 92
84, 85, 89, 91, 92, 94, 112, 115, 155
Account: ns063387
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under 206 Index
asbestos, 41 biopolymer, 21, 28, 45

ash, 19 biopolymers, 2, 25, 30, 74, 138
Asia, 32, 80, 101 biotic, 159
Asian, 80 bleaching, 60, 63, 68
aspect ratio, 11, 39, 45, 57, 61, 63, 120, 161, 175, blend films, 3
176, 179, 190, 194 blends, 1, 4, 10, 14, 15, 18, 19, 21, 28, 29, 30, 75
assessment, 73, 81, 82, 88, 161 blocks, 42, 201
ASTM, 122, 144, 145, 161, 182, 196 boiling, 42
atmosphere, 20, 124, 128 bonding, 8, 10, 13, 38, 41, 43, 47, 53, 54, 59, 60, 61,
Australia, 80, 175, 182 64, 65, 84, 88, 91, 95, 148, 186, 191, 199, 202
automobiles, 81 bonds, 11, 14, 35, 36, 39, 43, 44, 62, 94, 142, 199
availability, 31, 32, 54, 85 Boston, 138
avoidance, 194 branching, 56
awareness, 120, 176 Brazil, 53, 65, 74
Brazilian, 27, 74, 78
bubbles, 113, 176, 180, 183, 187
B
buffer, 21, 132
buildings, 202
bacteria, 36, 168
burning, 147
bacterial, 159, 168, 169, 171
banks, 80
barley, 92 C
barrier, 2, 30, 78, 130
barriers, 74 calcium, 3, 6, 13, 14, 22, 28, 60, 63, 86
Bax, 138 calcium carbonate, 3, 6, 13, 14, 22, 28, 60
behavior, 4, 8, 11, 13, 18, 25, 27, 29, 39, 47, 58, 67, calibration, 106
68, 74, 77, 78, 84, 85, 87, 107, 111, 114, 116, 119, Canada, 32, 141
120, 121, 123, 126, 128, 130, 132, 142, 160, 163, cannabis, 40
177, 187, 200, 202, 203, 204 capillary, 177, 186
Beijing, 95 carbohydrates, 2
bending, 47, 80, 88, 91, 114, 119, 124, 191, 192, carbon, 2, 48, 56, 80, 96, 100, 120, 179
197, 202 carbon dioxide, 2
benefits, 80, 202 carbonates, 96
benzene, 63 carboxyl groups, 57, 94
benzoyl peroxide, 40, 43 cardboard, 97
bicarbonate, 86 carpets, 32, 48
biochemistry, 95 casein, 44
biocompatibility, 120 cast, 25, 26
biodegradability, 2, 25, 26, 31, 48, 54, 87, 88, 94, casting, 2, 23, 27, 30, 180
120, 157, 158, 159, 170, 171 castor oil, 23, 100, 101, 102, 103, 112, 114, 115, 116
biodegradable, 1, 2, 3, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 34, catalyst, 106, 112, 115
49, 53, 74, 79, 84, 88, 93, 94, 96, 97, 119, 120, cavities, 168
121, 137, 157, 158, 167, 171 cell, 34, 35, 36, 38, 44, 55, 56, 58, 64, 114, 115, 116,
biodegradable materials, 25 117, 142, 155, 187, 199, 200, 201, 202
biodegradation, 21, 24, 27, 157, 159, 161, 166, 167, cell growth, 55
168, 169, 170, 171 Cellulose, 35, 42, 49, 55, 56, 59, 68, 74, 80, 143, 148,
bioethanol, 155 175, 183
biofilms, 27 cellulose fibre, 76, 175, 176, 179, 180, 183, 184,
biomass, 54, 80, 95 185, 188, 191, 194, 195
biomaterials, 30, 85 cellulosic, 30, 32, 34, 39, 40, 42, 43, 47, 59, 60, 78,
biomimetic, 29 81, 154, 167
Account: ns063387
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under Index 207
cement, 32, 42, 48, 79, 86, 96 consumers, 24

chain branching, 56 consumption, 155, 176
chain mobility, 2, 8, 107, 151 control, 24, 36, 41, 115, 143, 202
charcoal, 96 convection, 47
chelators, 41, 44 conversion, 96, 102
chemical agents, 87 cooling, 10, 129, 200
chemical interaction, 44 copolymer, 23, 57
chemical properties, 35, 47, 79, 81, 104, 143 corn, 1, 2, 24, 27, 79, 92, 93, 120, 141, 142, 143,
chemical structures, 106, 138 144, 146, 147, 150, 152, 153, 154
chemicals, 48, 59, 155 corona, 38, 63, 78
chicken, 119, 120, 121 correlation coefficient, 11
China, 1, 79, 80, 81, 83, 95, 96, 101, 119, 121 corrosive, 32, 33, 48
chitin, 2, 22, 27 costs, 95
chitosan, 3, 27 cotton, 1, 32, 54, 78, 100
chloride, 40, 42, 57, 68, 78, 79, 84, 86, 87, 91, 155 coupling, 23, 31, 33, 39, 41, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64,
chromatograms, 105, 106 65, 67, 75, 76, 79, 81, 84, 85, 86, 91, 94, 95, 96,
chromatography, 105 142, 155
civil engineering, 54 covalent, 2, 111, 115
classical, 48 covalent bond, 111
clay, 7, 15, 60, 175, 176, 179, 194 covalent bonding, 111
cleaning, 67 crack, 45, 111, 122, 175, 176, 183, 191, 193, 194
clusters, 4, 148 cracking, 40, 184
CO2, 34 CRC, 74, 138, 139
coatings, 101 creep, 57, 199
coconut, 14 crops, 1, 142, 154
cohesiveness, 17 crosslinking, 2, 4, 11, 16, 26, 30, 60, 88, 114, 200
combustion, 33 cross-sectional, 146
commodity, 42, 158 crystalline, 36, 56, 68, 87, 120, 129
communities, 142 crystallinity, 10, 58, 61, 67, 68, 75, 129
community, 142 crystallization, 10, 33, 58, 65, 67, 75, 77, 78, 119,
compaction, 180 124, 129, 137
compatibility, 18, 19, 53, 60, 76, 91, 107, 110, 116 crystals, 58, 129
components, 1, 3, 9, 10, 14, 15, 19, 22, 24, 47, 56, culm, 80, 81, 86
57, 59, 61, 79, 81, 90, 106, 109, 147, 152, 155, curing, 23, 40, 44, 47, 57, 96
158, 176, 199, 200, 202 cuticle, 35
composition, 15, 24, 25, 31, 34, 35, 37, 41, 47, 48, cutin, 35
56, 57, 63, 64, 75, 80, 82, 84, 93, 97, 101, 102, cycling, 10
106, 157, 161 cysteine, 2, 14, 27, 29
composting, 159 cystine, 120
compounds, 2, 23, 36, 60, 92
compressive strength, 24, 92, 153
D
concentration, 39, 59, 61, 63, 64, 65, 67, 102, 105,
108, 112, 115, 116, 144, 147, 148, 163, 166, 177
dairy, 88
condensation, 39, 120
damping, 123, 125
conditioning, 200
data analysis, 35
conductivity, 114, 115, 117, 148, 178
dating, 32
confidence, 158, 160
decay, 4
configuration, 182
decomposition, 16, 19, 20, 40, 46, 109
conservation, 80
decompression, 200
construction, 42, 44, 54, 79, 80, 81, 113, 176
defects, 56, 132
Account: ns063387
definition, 84, 160 durability, 79

deformability, 4, 13, 14, 125 duration, 122, 132, 144, 161
deformation, 2, 11, 45, 47, 110, 111, 114, 116, 117, dust, 155
198, 199, 203, 204 dyes, 101
degradation, 2, 19, 20, 21, 43, 46, 57, 58, 61, 65, 67, dynamic mechanical analysis, 119, 121, 139
74, 75, 82, 94, 109, 110, 119, 121, 130, 131, 132, dynamic-mechanical properties, 76, 107, 113
133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 147, 148, 159, 200, 201
degradation process, 61, 132
E
degradation rate, 94
degrading, 36
Eastern Europe, 32
degrees of freedom, 160, 162
ecological, 80
degumming, 33
ecosystems, 96
Delaware, 100
Egypt, 32
Denmark, 203
elastic deformation, 11, 199
density, 4, 11, 16, 31, 32, 37, 41, 42, 54, 61, 63, 67,
elasticity, 80, 81, 82, 93, 202
73, 76, 77, 80, 82, 86, 88, 97, 100, 107, 112, 113,
elastomers, 60
114, 120, 155, 176, 180, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202
electrical characterization, 75
deposition, 44
electrolytes, 28
depression, 17
electron, 5, 6, 7, 19, 36, 46, 68, 71, 84, 91, 107, 115,
derivatives, 57, 101, 158
119, 121, 122, 132, 180, 193, 194
desorption, 20, 44, 155
electron microscopy, 7, 19, 36, 46, 68, 84, 119, 122
developing countries, 141, 142, 146, 154, 155
elongation, 14, 47, 87, 111, 122
dew, 36, 37
email, 79
dextrose, 120
emulsifier, 88
DGEBA, 46
encapsulated, 147, 148
Diamond, 124, 143
encapsulation, 148
dielectric constant, 127
energy, 3, 4, 9, 19, 38, 40, 44, 45, 64, 79, 81, 82, 85,
differential scanning, 46, 61, 119, 121
86, 88, 94, 111, 125, 151, 191, 203
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), 58
England, 182
diffraction, 7, 35, 68
environment, 1, 3, 19, 25, 34, 142, 171, 176, 197
diffusion, 148, 150, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181,
environmental advantage, 48
182, 183, 185, 188, 190, 194
environmental conditions, 120, 159, 171
diffusion process, 175, 176, 188, 194
environmental impact, 99, 100
diffusivity, 177, 178, 179
environmental issues, 158
diglycidyl ether of bisphenol, 46
environmental regulations, 176
disentanglement, 59
enzymatic, 21, 119, 121, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137
disorder, 68
enzymes, 36, 37, 41, 44, 169
dispersion, 4, 22, 58, 59, 91, 104, 106, 107, 135, 180
epoxy, 2, 23, 41, 44, 46, 100, 175, 176, 179, 180,
displacement, 46, 65, 66, 183
183, 184, 185, 186, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192
distilled water, 67, 68, 132, 144, 161
epoxy groups, 23
distribution, 6, 8, 15, 29, 57, 59, 67, 83, 84, 115, 116,
epoxy resins, 179
160, 179
equilibrium, 14, 22, 112, 141, 144, 148, 150, 154,
disulfide, 2, 11, 14, 19
177, 185, 200
disulfide bonds, 14
ester, 15, 24, 29, 88, 104, 130, 175, 179, 180, 182,
donor, 62
183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 194
double bonds, 100, 101, 102, 104
ester bonds, 130
drying, 24, 36, 63, 101, 112, 114, 144, 203
esterification, 19, 76
DSC, 46, 58, 67, 119, 121, 128, 129
esters, 92
DTA curve, 20
ethanol, 61, 78, 121
ductility, 15, 18, 122
ethylcellulose, 25
Account: ns063387
ethylene, 23, 30, 59, 61, 65, 76, 79 flow, 3, 58, 82, 94, 103, 129, 147, 151, 154, 161, 202
ethylene oxide, 23, 30 flow rate, 58
evaporation, 20, 106 fluctuant, 5
evolution, 5 foams, 41, 99, 104, 106, 114, 115, 116, 117
exclusion, 105, 106 food, 2, 25, 26, 27, 88
execution, 162, 166 food industry, 88
exfoliation, 7, 15 Forestry, 95, 96
experimental condition, 160, 162, 163, 164 forests, 80, 95, 198
exploitation, 53 formaldehyde, 42, 43, 155, 202
exposure, 175, 176, 177, 184, 185, 194, 200 fracture, 5, 15, 23, 29, 58, 63, 73, 107, 111, 116,
extraction, 36, 37, 83, 155 122, 123, 132, 152, 153, 154, 175, 176, 180, 182,
extrusion, 2, 3, 4, 15, 43, 57, 59, 75, 83, 122, 142, 189, 191, 193, 194, 202, 203
144, 146, 147, 148, 161 fractures, 198
free energy, 201
free radicals, 38, 40, 63
F
free volume, 134, 199
freedom, 160, 162
fabric, 32, 44, 88
friction, 125
fabricate, 89, 180
FTIR, 104, 105
fabrication, 24, 67, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 91, 94, 95,
fuel, 176
131, 176, 180
functionalization, 78
factorial, 89, 158, 159, 162, 163, 171
fungal, 36
failure, 14, 45, 64, 82, 94, 111, 116, 175, 191, 194
fungus, 41
family, 157, 158, 171
furniture, 43, 49, 79, 80
FAO, 96
fusion, 129
farmers, 143
farmland, 21
fat, 34 G
fatty acids, 30, 92, 106, 112
fermentation, 21, 36, 120 Gamma, 41
fiber bundles, 35, 41, 44, 84 gas, 99, 124, 201
fiber content, 4, 16, 45, 63, 64, 67 gases, 2, 38, 63
fibrillar, 37, 47 gasification, 96
fibrillation, 61 gauge, 146
fibrils, 31, 34, 35, 55, 56, 71 gel, 4, 6, 25, 28, 121
Fick’s law, 181 gel permeation chromatography, 121
fillers, 4, 26, 42, 61, 99, 100, 107, 112, 143, 145, gelatin, 41
148, 151, 153, 157, 158, 179 Gelatine, 28
film, 2, 23, 25, 27, 30, 43, 45, 92, 144, 154, 158 gels, 6, 28
films, 1, 2, 23, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 75, 92, 161 generation, 34, 68, 81, 176
filtration, 25 Georgia, 138
financial support, 117 Germany, 67, 122, 155, 161
fire, 46, 74 glass, 1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 29, 32, 33,
fishing, 32 37, 42, 45, 46, 48, 54, 57, 60, 73, 87, 107, 119,
fitness, 39 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 154, 155, 176, 179, 197,
flax fiber, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 198, 199, 200
42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 75 glass transition, 1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24,
flexibility, 17, 19, 57 57, 87, 107, 121, 124, 125, 126, 197, 198, 200
flexural strength, 41, 146, 153, 175, 182, 189, 191 glass transition temperature, 1, 2, 8, 10, 24, 87, 121,
flight, 121 125, 197, 198, 200
flooring, 43, 81 glass-fiber, 33, 48, 155
Account: ns063387
glassy state, 3 hemp fiber, 4, 5, 16, 27, 44, 100, 112, 113, 114
glucose, 35, 64 heterogeneity, 14, 16
glutaraldehyde, 88 heterogeneous, 58, 107, 115
glycerin, 25, 100 high density polyethylene, 53, 61, 74, 75, 76, 78, 141
glycerol, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, high pressure, 168
17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 93 high tech, 176
glycine, 120 high temperature, 2, 8, 10, 20, 41, 58, 198, 203
glycol, 92 Hm, 69
gold, 122, 132, 147 homogenous, 55
GPC, 121 Hong Kong, 81, 119, 121
GPO, 175 hot pressing, 85, 86, 88
grades, 88 hot water, 71
gradient formation, 197 House, 95
grafting, 23, 30, 31, 40, 43, 59, 60 housing, 44
grain, 200, 203 humidity, 21, 22, 23, 44, 45, 47, 75, 112, 158, 200
grains, 92 Hungarian, 51
granules, 18, 84, 91, 161 hybrid, 44, 63, 198, 202
graph, 84 hydration, 86
grass, 2, 26, 54, 96 hydro, 23, 31, 35, 48, 56, 59, 60, 61, 67, 85, 92, 109,
gravimetric analysis, 46 142, 147, 148, 186, 188, 200, 201, 203
gravity, 54, 82 hydrocarbon, 57
groups, 2, 13, 18, 23, 24, 34, 38, 39, 40, 48, 56, 57, hydrochloric acid, 68
59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 85, 88, 92, 94, 100, hydrodynamic, 13, 125
101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 112, 115, hydrogen, 2, 8, 10, 13, 35, 53, 56, 59, 63, 84, 95,
116, 117, 142, 147, 148, 186, 199 102, 103, 120, 148, 186
growth, 4, 34, 55, 67, 159, 170, 171, 191, 198 hydrogen bonds, 2, 35, 103, 120
guidance, 49 hydrogen peroxide, 63, 102
hydrolysis, 39, 77
hydrolyzed, 56, 57, 90
H
hydrophilic, 23, 31, 35, 48, 56, 59, 60, 61, 67, 85,
109, 142, 147, 148, 186, 188, 200, 201
hardener, 32
hydrophilic groups, 61, 67
hardening, 14
hydrophobic, 18, 22, 24, 30, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 120
hardness, 182, 184, 185, 198
Hydrophobic, 23, 142
harvest, 198
hydrophobic polymer matrix, 53, 59
hazards, 158
hydrophobicity, 23, 24, 122, 136
H-bonding, 106
hydrothermal, 83, 155
HDPE, 42, 53, 58, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73,
hydroxide, 24, 68, 88, 92, 141, 143
74, 77, 78, 143, 144, 147, 155
hydroxyl, 15, 24, 29, 34, 39, 42, 48, 56, 57, 64, 85,
healing, 148
92, 94, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109, 116,
health, 31, 32, 33, 34, 48, 157, 158
142, 147, 186
heart, 80
hydroxyl groups, 34, 39, 48, 56, 64, 85, 94, 101, 102,
heat, 2, 10, 19, 23, 58, 91, 125, 129, 147, 200, 201
103, 105, 107, 109, 142, 147, 186
heat capacity, 10
hydroxylation, 100, 102, 104
heating, 10, 46, 81, 124, 144
hydroxypropyl, 26
heating rate, 46, 124
height, 113
hemicellulose, 14, 34, 35, 55, 56, 58, 63, 80, 82, 92, I
200, 201
hemp, 2, 3, 4, 5, 16, 27, 32, 37, 44, 46, 47, 75, 100, ice, 8
112, 113, 114, 155, 158
Account: ns063387
images, 6, 7, 19, 71, 91, 107, 121, 123, 132, 133, interfacial adhesion, 14, 18, 24, 41, 59, 71, 74, 94,
134, 152 107, 155
imitation, 88 interfacial bonding, 64, 137, 184
immersion, 144, 145, 161, 167, 169, 177, 182 interfacial properties, 65, 75
immobilization, 28 intermolecular, 2, 9, 14, 17, 35, 47, 103, 148
impact energy, 183 intermolecular interactions, 14, 17, 103
impact strength, 45, 64, 151, 158, 162, 163, 166, intrinsic, 34, 115
171, 182, 183, 189, 191 ions, 40, 61, 68, 78
implementation, 161, 171 isotherms, 44
impurities, 14, 39, 61 isotropic, 45
in situ, 6, 102 Italy, 157, 161, 171
inclusion, 24
incompatibility, 53, 54
J
independent variable, 89
India, 80
Japan, 80, 86, 96
Indian, 80, 88, 96
JI, 171
indication, 107
joints, 43
indigenous, 36, 80
Jung, 30
induction, 61
induction time, 61
industrial, 2, 27, 32, 36, 53, 58, 76, 81, 88, 99, 101, K
120, 155
industrial application, 53, 155 keratin, 14, 120
industrial fibers, 36 ketones, 92
industry, 24, 32, 37, 54, 73, 80, 88, 95, 96, 99, 100, kinetic parameters, 175, 176
176, 202 kinetics, 29, 48, 161, 175, 176, 178, 194
inertia, 202 knots, 71
infrared, 10, 29, 48 KOH, 65, 103, 104
inhalation, 158
inhibitor, 41 L
initiation, 111, 191
injection, 2, 4, 10, 15, 21, 43, 57, 59, 75, 86, 96, 122, lactic acid, 29, 79, 86, 87, 94, 97, 119, 120, 121
124, 128, 132, 161, 169, 171 lakes, 36
innovation, 73 lamella, 56
inorganic, 1, 2, 3, 24, 32, 41, 54 lamellae, 37, 45
inorganic filler, 2 laminated, 198
inorganic fillers, 2 land, 80
insertion, 71 landfill, 33, 100, 159
Instron, 145, 161, 182 Langmuir, 29, 177
insulation, 32, 114 latex, 39
insulators, 42 Latin America, 80
integrity, 115 lattice, 68, 142

interaction, 9, 10, 13, 20, 24, 41, 42, 45, 53, 58, 59, laundering, 78
61, 65, 67, 107, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, law, 177, 181
166, 167 leaching, 148, 177
interactions, 4, 14, 15, 17, 22, 24, 28, 44, 59, 94, LEAF, 35
103, 109, 110, 111, 122, 155, 159, 160, 163, 165 legislation, 73
interface, 20, 24, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 57, 59, LHC, 28, 29
60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 74, 75, 86, 88, 91, 132, 133, life cycle,
142, 151, 152, 153, 155, 191 life-cycle, 33, 34, 157, 158
Account: ns063387
ligament, 183 melt, 14, 38, 59, 63, 67, 82, 122, 129, 147, 161
lignin, 2, 14, 26, 34, 35, 36, 44, 46, 48, 55, 56, 57, 58, melt flow index, 147, 161
63, 80, 83, 120, 142, 148, 198, 199, 201 melting, 8, 10, 19, 23, 46, 57, 58, 87, 119, 120, 121,
likelihood, 183 128, 129
limitations, 86 melting temperature, 10, 19, 57, 121, 129
linear, 4, 42, 56, 64, 77, 85, 106, 146, 150, 181, 198 metabolism, 169
linear dependence, 64 methacrylic acid, 88
linen, 32, 36 methanol, 88
links, 94, 109 methyl methacrylate, 40, 88
lipids, 2, 120 methylcellulose, 27
liquids, 23, 30 methylene, 26, 93
lithium, 88, 103 mica, 176
loading, 9, 11, 18, 20, 44, 57, 75, 76, 91, 96, 97, 125, microbial, 21, 170
179, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 190, 194 microcrystalline cellulose, 76
localised, 191 microscope, 5, 6, 7, 121, 132
London, 75, 96, 117, 154, 155 microscopy, 7, 19, 47, 107
long period, 46 microstructure, 24, 26, 77, 80, 155, 180
losses, 63, 159, 167, 168 microwave, 47, 75
Louisiana State University, 95 migration, 9
Low cost, 33, 141 minerals, 2, 32, 54
low tech, 141, 142 Ministry of Education, 1
low temperatures, 198 misleading, 160
low-density, 42, 76, 77, 97, 100, 155, 197, 198, 202 missions, 99
low-tech, 146 mixing, 3, 4, 5, 6, 14, 16, 67, 79, 84, 95, 104, 106,
low-temperature, 8 122, 141, 142, 144, 148, 153, 154, 161, 162, 163,
lubricants, 101 165, 166, 171, 176, 183
lumen, 34, 201 MMA, 87, 88
lysine, 94 mobility, 2, 8, 15, 17, 107, 125, 151, 178, 198, 199
models, 89, 158, 175, 176, 177, 178
modules, 71
M
MOE, 87, 89, 90, 202
moieties, 186
macromolecules, 8, 9, 11, 17, 19, 23
moisture, 1, 2, 8, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27,
magnesium, 86
31, 36, 41, 43, 47, 48, 53, 57, 59, 64, 65, 79, 85,
maize, 92, 158
88, 89, 90, 91, 109, 110, 112, 141, 142, 145, 146,
management, 81, 95
148, 154, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 183, 185,
man-made, 37
186, 188, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203
manufacturing, 2, 43, 73, 79, 86, 95, 141, 143, 202
moisture content, 24, 25, 48, 85, 88, 89, 90, 91, 112,
marine environment, 176, 181
148, 154, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203
market, 120
mold, 85, 106, 115, 122, 169
markets, 32
moldings, 42
mass transfer, 201
mole, 19
mastication, 154
molecular mobility, 17
MDH, 97
molecular structure, 94, 101, 104, 106
MDI, 106
molecular weight, 2, 6, 8, 23, 57, 105, 120, 121
measurement, 4, 19, 68, 103, 181
molecules, 8, 13, 18, 23, 34, 55, 64, 87, 88, 92, 94,
measures, 80, 168
100, 102, 104, 105, 106, 112, 142, 147, 148, 177,
mechanical behavior, 8, 11, 13, 17, 39, 74, 77, 78,
178, 186, 187, 188, 190, 198, 199, 200
87, 107
monomer, 40, 88
mechanical energy, 3, 4
monomers, 59, 60, 87, 100
media, 159
Account: ns063387
monosaccharide, 35
O
montmorillonite, 3, 30
morphological, 68, 75, 157, 168
oil, 23, 32, 44, 59, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106,
morphology, 4, 5, 6, 18, 22, 24, 47, 71, 74, 75, 116,
108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 155,
122, 142, 158, 168, 170, 201, 203
158, 201
motion, 8, 9, 14, 24, 119, 146, 198, 200
oils, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 114, 116
moulding, 44, 142, 144
oleic acid, 93
movement, 126, 142, 147, 148, 200
oligomeric, 106
MTS, 122
olives, 158
Oregon, 197
N organ, 7, 8, 15, 60
organic, 1, 24, 88, 92, 157, 158, 169
nanocomposites, 7, 10, 15, 28, 77 organic compounds, 92
nanocrystals, 116, 117 organoclay, 7, 8, 15
nanoparticles, 8, 10, 15, 24, 28, 78 organometallic, 60
National Research Council, 117 orientation, 38, 43, 56, 57, 63, 115, 179, 191, 194
native species, 80 oscillation, 124
natural, 2, 3, 14, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, oxidants, 65
35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 46, 47, 48, 53, 54, oxidation, 20, 38, 61, 63
56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 63, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 85, 88, oxidative, 63
92, 100, 104, 115, 120, 141, 142, 154, 156, 157, oxide, 23, 30, 61, 62, 68, 78
158, 176, 186 oxygen, 2, 62, 114
natural environment, 34
natural polymers, 30
P
natural resources, 54
neck, 15
packaging, 2, 30, 54, 158
Netherlands, 162
paints, 101
network, 2, 3, 4, 13, 16, 23, 26, 56, 57, 107, 110,
Paraguay, 101
111, 114, 142, 199
parameter, 55, 57, 84, 85, 94, 124, 131, 136, 168
New Jersey, 139
parenchyma, 153
New York, 51, 74, 75, 97, 138
parenchymal, 147
newspapers, 179
Parkinson, 138
niobium, 78
particles, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, 14, 22, 81, 82, 83, 84,
nitrate, 68, 88
85, 86, 90, 91, 93, 95, 107, 110, 113, 115, 142,
nitrogen, 19, 124, 128
147, 148, 150, 152, 153, 154, 158
NMR, 139
pathways, 188
noise, 112, 158, 171
pectin, 34, 35, 36, 55
non-crystalline, 36
pectins, 35, 56
non-renewable, 42, 157
peptides, 29
non-uniform, 116
percolation, 13, 147
normal, 146, 178, 182, 183, 191, 192, 193
periodic, 123
not-for-profit, 142
permeability, 3, 23, 130, 175, 176, 179, 194
nucleating agent, 58, 129, 137
permeation, 38, 121
nucleation, 58
permit, 144, 198
nutrition, 79
peroxide, 31, 39, 40, 43, 61, 65, 102
nylon, 41
Perth, 175, 180
petrochemical, 79, 99, 100
petroleum, 2, 24, 88, 99, 100, 176
pH, 2, 68, 132, 144
Account: ns063387
pharmaceutical, 101 polymerization, 4, 6, 31, 33, 36, 40, 56, 100, 120,
phase transitions, 58 201
phenol, 43, 57, 155, 202 polymers, 1, 3, 10, 18, 23, 24, 30, 34, 38, 42, 48, 53,
phosphate, 61 57, 58, 74, 76, 79, 86, 87, 88, 94, 99, 100, 106,
physical and mechanical properties, 43, 48, 85, 88, 107, 114, 119, 131, 139, 142, 153, 158, 177, 186,
91, 200 198, 199
physical properties, 2, 19, 31, 56, 77, 201 polypeptides, 2
pinus, 32 polypropylene, 30, 38, 42, 44, 57, 60, 63, 73, 74, 75,
pith, 143, 147, 148, 152, 153, 154 77, 154, 155, 158
planar, 180, 194 polysaccharides, 25, 56
plants, 32, 36, 54, 57, 80, 100 polystyrene, 38, 40, 42, 57, 63, 106, 154, 158
plasma, 38, 63 polystyrene melt, 154
plastic, 1, 2, 24, 26, 32, 45, 48, 65, 67, 76, 87, 88, 91, polyurethane, 41, 99, 100, 106, 107, 109, 110, 112,
92, 96, 132, 141, 142, 143, 146, 148, 150, 156 114, 116, 117
plastic deformation, 45 polyurethane foam, 41, 100
plasticization, 4, 9, 10, 23, 24, 30, 125 polyurethanes, 99, 100, 102, 103, 106, 108, 115, 116
plasticizer, 1, 2, 9, 14, 17, 18, 22, 24, 93 polyvinyl alcohol, 3, 28, 158
plastics, 1, 2, 15, 21, 25, 26, 28, 29, 32, 33, 34, 49, polyvinyl chloride, 42, 155
53, 73, 97, 99, 138, 142, 145, 147 polyvinylchloride, 96
platelets, 179, 190 poor, 5, 18, 36, 53, 59, 141, 151, 154, 155
play, 35, 56, 59 pores, 84, 182, 183
PLLA, 45 porosity, 80, 85, 182, 183, 184
polar groups, 85, 88, 199 porous, 59, 142, 147
polarity, 142 potassium, 89
polarization, 127 poultry, 120, 138
pollution, 3, 36, 176 poverty, 142
poly(methyl methacrylate), 29, 88 powder, 3, 4, 88, 96
poly(vinyl chloride), 57, 84 precipitation, 80
polydispersity, 121 prediction, 13, 110, 177
polyester, 18, 21, 30, 35, 45, 46, 48, 75, 76, 79, 96, predictive models, 158
97, 158, 175 preservative, 89
polyesters, 3, 15, 26, 158 press, 41, 89, 90, 91, 106, 142, 144, 161, 172, 203
polyethylene, 38, 40, 42, 53, 57, 61, 63, 65, 67, 73, pressure, 3, 4, 41, 53, 87, 88, 143, 144, 168, 169,
74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 93, 141, 155, 158 171, 200, 201
polyhydroxyalcanoates, 158 prices, 33, 96
polymer blends, 18 probability, 148, 177
polymer chains, 36, 125, 177, 199 processing variables, 157, 158, 159, 171
polymer composites, 6, 34, 36, 42, 57, 58, 73, 83, producers, 81
84, 85, 96, 155, 157, 158, 162, 175, 176, 177, 180, production, 2, 24, 32, 33, 34, 41, 43, 57, 63, 74, 76,
181, 186 79, 81, 88, 95, 96, 100, 104, 112, 114, 115, 116,
polymer electrolytes, 28 144, 155, 157, 158, 171, 197, 198
polymer matrix, 8, 40, 41, 53, 54, 59, 61, 64, 67, 79, productivity, 80, 96, 198
82, 83, 87, 88, 92, 94, 113, 127, 131, 134, 180, profit, 142
183, 184, 190 projectiles, 44
polymer molecule, 87, 94, 199, 200 promoter, 41
polymer networks, 30 propagation, 15, 111, 122, 191
polymer systems, 40, 43 propylene, 79, 87, 92, 94
polymeric chains, 58 protection, 80
polymeric composites, 123, 176
polymeric materials, 51, 58, 100, 133
Account: ns063387
protein, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 14, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 24, relaxation, 1, 107, 108, 111, 113, 126, 127, 178, 199,
25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 79, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 200, 201
91, 92, 97, 120 relaxation processes, 107
protein films, 2, 26 renewable resource, 37, 87, 99, 120
proteinase, 21, 132 reparation, 78
proteins, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, residues, 14, 20, 61, 76, 81, 93, 95
19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 54, 79, 92, 120 resin, 43, 48, 57, 65, 88, 91, 96, 155, 175, 180, 183,
publishers, 154 184, 186, 189, 191, 200
pulp, 32, 44, 54 resins, 25, 34, 42, 45, 79, 100, 102, 176, 179
PVA, 3, 7, 8, 14, 15, 19, 24, 88 resistance, 2, 23, 41, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 53, 59, 79,
PVC, 74, 84, 85, 86, 87, 91, 92, 94, 96 82, 85, 88, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97, 103, 111, 116,
PVC matrix, 91, 94 125, 145, 151, 168, 171, 183, 186, 190, 191, 197
pyrolysis, 58 resistivity, 37
resolution, 28
resources, 1, 37, 54, 80, 81, 87, 88, 99, 100, 120,
Q
158, 198
retention, 61, 106, 147
quaternary ammonium, 7, 10
retention volume, 106
rheological properties, 154, 200
R rheology, 26, 28
rice, 158
radiation, 40, 41 rigidity, 45, 57, 108, 111, 113
random, 57, 96, 116, 135, 168, 179 risk, 31, 32, 34
range, 2, 4, 8, 15, 17, 19, 24, 44, 46, 48, 81, 91, 95, rivers, 36
103, 109, 111, 114, 115, 126, 131, 148, 150, 158, room temperature, 5, 23, 44, 63, 89, 92, 108, 110,
163, 198, 200 111, 113, 115, 132, 144, 180, 181
ratio analysis, 134 roughness, 61, 71, 161, 167, 168, 169, 170
raw material, 33, 87, 99, 100, 114, 142, 197, 202 roughness measurements, 161
raw materials, 87, 99, 100, 142 rubber, 8, 48, 195
reactants, 102, 103, 106, 117 rubbery state, 113
reaction rate, 106, 112, 115 Russia, 32
reaction time, 16 rye, 92
reactive groups, 59, 101
reactivity, 26, 29
reagent, 62, 63 S
reasoning, 108
safety, 33
recovery, 39, 73, 199
sample, 19, 68, 83, 91, 115, 122, 126, 130, 131, 135,
recycling, 43, 143
143, 148, 171, 177, 180, 181, 182, 183, 191, 192,
reflection, 68, 153
194
refractory, 42
saturated fat, 23
regular, 114
saturated fatty acids, 23
rehabilitation, 80
saturation, 135
reinforcement, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 29, 31, 32, 34, 38,
savings, 37
41, 42, 44, 45, 48, 53, 57, 59, 63, 70, 71, 76, 81,
sawdust, 79
83, 87, 106, 107, 109, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120,
scaffolding, 81
121, 155, 179, 194
scaling, 4
reinforcing fibers, 45, 88, 131
scanning calorimetry, 128
relationship, 4, 12, 85, 92, 136, 181, 197, 201
Scanning electron, 6, 7, 47, 91, 107, 116, 193, 194
relationships, 89, 158, 159, 171
scanning electron microscopy, 46, 68, 71, 84, 119,
122, 169
Account: ns063387
scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), 107 sodium, 16, 24, 29, 41, 48, 63, 68, 86, 88, 91, 92, 96,
scarcity, 120 132, 141, 143
scattering, 35, 68, 162 sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 91
scholarships, 195 sodium hydroxide, 24, 68, 88, 92, 141, 143
sclerenchyma, 54 soil, 21, 27, 80, 84, 159
Scots pine, 203 sol-gel, 6, 28
SDS, 91 solid-state, 28
search, 42 solubility, 16, 23, 26
seawater, 175, 176, 181, 189, 194 solvent, 57, 62, 64, 65, 92, 106
seed, 37, 54 solvents, 47, 57
SEED, 35 sorbitol, 2, 25, 28
seeding, 36 sorption, 48, 155, 175, 176, 194, 200
seeds, 25, 32 sorption kinetics, 48
selecting, 159, 160 South America, 101
SEM, 5, 6, 7, 46, 48, 66, 68, 71, 73, 84, 91, 92, 111, soy, 1, 2, 22, 25, 26, 27, 29, 88, 89, 90, 91, 97
119, 121, 122, 123, 132, 133, 134, 147, 150, 152, soybean, 24, 79, 86, 88
153, 154, 162, 170, 195 SPA, 87, 88, 90
SEM micrographs, 71, 162, 170 species, 55, 80, 88, 102, 105, 106, 198, 200, 202
semi-natural, 80 specific gravity, 54
sensitivity, 9, 22, 23, 96 spectroscopy, 48
separation, 6, 10, 11, 31, 36, 41, 44, 57, 107 spectrum, 68, 104, 105
series, 55, 114, 177 speed, 3, 4, 5, 7, 67, 94, 122, 144, 158, 161, 162,
serine, 120 163, 164, 165, 166, 182
sewage, 159, 161, 167, 171 spherulite, 5, 6
shape, 84, 114, 121, 122, 124, 127, 131, 200 stability, 19, 43, 46, 58, 61, 91, 94, 95, 109, 119, 120,
shaping, 59 129, 130, 131, 132, 137, 159
shear, 125, 178, 202 stabilization, 91
shores, 80 stages, 130, 144, 145, 171
shortage, 100 standard deviation, 147
shoulder, 16 standard error, 162, 163
sign, 147, 160 Standards, 196
signaling, 153 starch, 2, 14, 28, 29, 75, 93, 158, 159
signs, 160 statistical analysis, 157
silane, 23, 31, 39, 43, 60, 61, 64, 65, 77, 94, 97, 141, steel, 44, 144, 182
142, 146, 153, 155 steel plate, 44
silanol groups, 13, 94 steric, 115
silica, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17, 18, 22, 27, 28, 29, 87 stiffness, 2, 39, 56, 58, 91, 115, 123, 124, 178, 198,
silicate, 7, 28, 29, 32, 86, 92 201, 202
silicon, 60, storage, 4, 8, 11, 108, 110, 113, 119, 124, 125, 137
silk, 54, 120 strain, 2, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 45, 82, 114, 115,
silver, 68 124, 146, 175, 197, 199, 200, 201
sites, 32, 40, 58, 67, 84, 111 strains, 11, 114
skeleton, 114 streams, 32, 36
Slovenia, 197 stress, 11, 12, 14, 15, 43, 45, 59, 60, 61, 63, 67, 116,
sludge, 159, 161, 167, 169, 171 122, 125, 142, 146, 151, 152, 191, 197, 200, 201
SME, 3, 4 stretching, 11, 63
smoke, 46 strong interaction, 99, 100, 112
smoothness, 167 styrene, 44
social context, 142 sub-Saharan Africa, 80
substances, 34, 79, 88, 94, 95, 142, 148
Account: ns063387
substitution, 33, 87 Thailand, 96

substrates, 38, 63 thermal analysis, 46, 123
sucrose, 2, 25 thermal decomposition, 16
sugar, 56 thermal degradation, 2, 20, 46, 57, 58, 75, 130, 147,
sugarcane, 63, 68, 70, 74, 77, 78 148, 200
sulfate, 24, 91 thermal energy, 4
sulfonamides, 92 thermal expansion, 131
sulfuric acid, 68 thermal properties, 25, 30, 58, 64, 74, , 81, 94, 121
sulphate, 16, 61, 78 thermal resistance, 46
summer, 159, 161, 168, 169, 170, 171 thermal stability, 19, 46, 58, 61, 91, 94, 109, 119,
Sun, 28, 30, 74, 97 130, 131, 132, 137
sunflower, 100 thermal treatment, 16, 29, 30, 83
surface area, 61, 80, 132, 152 thermograms, 129
surface chemistry, 47, 48 thermogravimetric, 20, 61, 109, 119, 121
surface energy, 38, 41, 63 thermogravimetry, 109
surface layer, 202 thermo-mechanical, 137
surface modification, 31, 38, 39, 41, 53, 63 thermoplastic, 1, 11, 15, 23, 25, 26, 29, 31, 38, 42,
surface properties, 25, 38, 63, 201, 202 43, 57, 58, 59, 64, 71, 75, 77, 87, 120, 176
surface roughness, 61, 161, 167, 168, 169, 170 thermoplastic composites, 38, 43, 57, 58, 59, 64
surface tension, 48 thermoplastics, 27, 38, 57, 58, 59, 76, 142
surface treatment, 26, 31, 47, 48, 60, 64, 66, 75, 76, thermoset polymers, 57
77, 81, 86, 91, 92, 96, 97 thermosets, 57
surfactant, 112, 115 thermosetting, 29, 31, 38, 43, 44, 176
surfactants, 33 thermosetting polymer, 38, 43
sustainability, 73 three-dimensional, 2, 57
swelling, 23, 47, 48, 80, 82, 84, 89, 90, 91, 142, 184 threshold, 46
switching, 43 timber, 198, 202
Switzerland, 32 time frame, 170
symbols, 5, 22, 160, 163, 167 tissue, 147
synthesis, 49, 99, 100, 103 titanium, 60, 78
synthetic fiber, 36, 38, 42, 176 Titanium, 77
synthetic polymers, 3, 158 titanium dioxide, 78
TMA, 119, 121, 131
toluene, 39, 67
T
torque, 4
total energy, 45, 111
talc, 60, 176
total product, 42, 81
tannins, 34
toughness, 1, 14, 19, 23, 24, 111, 114, 117, 120, 175,
teflon, 167
176, 181, 182, 183, 189, 191
Teflon, 143, 144, 167, 168
toxic, 21
TEM, 7, 19
toxic products, 21
tensile, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 24, 29, 30,
toxicity, 176
37, 38, 39, 41, 44, 47, 54, 56, 61, 63, 70, 71, 74,
trajectory, 191
80, 81, 84, 85, 88, 89, 91, 93, 94, 97, 110, 111,
transesterification, 102
116, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 137, 141, 142, 143,
transfer, 43, 45, 59, 60, 61, 63, 142, 200
146, 147, 152, 153, 154, 161, 163, 164
transformations, 158
tension, 45, 48
transglutaminase, 10, 29
tetrahydrofurane, 106
transition, 1, 2, 8, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24,
textile, 32, 36
26, 28, 29, 57, 82, 87, 107, 121, 124, 125, 126,
textiles, 36, 53
197, 198, 199, 200
TGA, 19, 20, 46, 119, 121, 129, 130, 131
Account: ns063387
transition temperature, 1, 2, 8, 10, 24, 82, 87, 121,

W
125, 197, 198, 199, 200
transitions, 8, 9, 10, 139
wastes, 79, 81, 83, 95
transmission, 36
water absorption, 14, 47, 48, 59, 78, 80, 84, 85, 86,
transmission electron microscopy, 36
92, 134, 135, 137, 142, 144, 146, 147, 148, 154,
transparent, 87
155, 159, 176, 182, 185, 190
transport, 177
water diffusion, 176
transportation, 176, 202
water permeability, 3, 175, 176, 194
transverse section, 147
water resources, 80
treatment methods, 31
water sorption, 200
triglyceride, 100, 101, 102, 104, 106, 112, 114
water vapor, 3, 23, 30, 48
triglycerides, 104
water-soluble, 32, 56
waxes, 34, 35, 56, 101
U weak interaction, 163
weakness, 91
uniform, 59, 67, 115, 116, 179 wear, 197
United States, 80, 101, 120, 180 weight loss, 2, 19, 20, 21, 63, 65, 66, 109, 132, 134,
urea, 24, 43, 88 136, 137, 159, 161, 167, 168, 169, 170
urethane, 109 weight ratio, 67, 86, 122
weight reduction, 54
western countries, 36
V
wetting, 61, 63, 64, 107, 112
wheat, 1, 2, 15, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 92,
vacuum, 3, 44, 67, 68, 132, 144, 180
141, 142, 143, 144, 147, 148, 150, 155
validation, 161
winter, 159, 161, 167, 168, 169, 170
validity, 158, 160
wood, 3, 27, 38, 41, 43, 54, 60, 63, 76, 77, 79, 87,
values, 4, 9, 10, 21, 33, 46, 54, 68, 75, 89, 91, 93,
91, 93, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 106, 107, 108, 109,
103, 104, 106, 112, 115, 116, 125, 126, 130, 132,
110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 154, 155, 157,
148, 150, 157, 159, 160, 162, 166, 168, 169, 171,
158, 159, 161, 162, 170, 171, 197, 198, 199, 200,
183, 184, 202
201, 202, 203, 204
Van der Waals, 95, 120
wood density, 200
vapor, 3, 23, 30, 77, 200
wood products, 96
variables, 25, 43, 56, 89, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162,
wood species, 198
163, 165, 171, 177
woods, 80, 81
variance, 160, 162
wool, 54, 120
variation, 8, 13, 17, 71, 89, 126, 131, 137, 201
workers, 157, 158
vegetable oil, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 114, 116, 117
vehicles, 176
velocity, 188 X
versatility, 53
vinyl chloride, 79, 87, 91 X-ray diffraction, 68
vinyl monomers, 59
viscoelastic properties, 125
Y
viscosity, 4, 38, 63, 82, 103, 104, 106, 107, 115, 147,
177, 183
yarn, 3, 16, 88
visible, 7
yield, 1, 14, 36, 37, 115, 198
voids, 14, 107, 142, 170, 186, 188
vulcanizates, 96
Z
zirconium, 60, 63, 68, 70
Account: ns063387

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Table 2. Diffusion coefficients, D, of epoxy-RCF composites.

Sample NPF (wt%) CBF (wt%) M∞ (%) Slope D (mm²/sec)

Table 3. Diffusion coefficients of Vinyl ester resin-RCF composites.

Samples M∞ (%) Slope D (mm²/sec)

Table 4. Mechanical and fracture properties of the various samples.

Sample σF (MPa) EF (GPa) KIC (MPa·m1/2) σI (kJ·m-2) GIC (kJ·m-2)

of the composite samples.

σF (MPa) EF (GPa) σI (kJ·m-2) GIC (kJ·m-2)

Effect of Nano-Clay on Moisture Absorption

The processes of fracture in composite samples during three-point bending showed

DENSIFIED WOOD FOR GREEN COMPOSITES

Andreja Kutnara* and Frederick A. Kamkeb

2. VISCOELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF WOOD

3. PROCESS OF VISCOELASTIC THERMAL COMPRESSION

4. VTC WOOD CHARACTERISTICS

compression of beech perpendicular to the grain. Department of structural engineering

Wolcott, M. P., Kamke, F. A. & Dillard, D. A. (1990). Fundamentals of flakeboard

analysis of variance, 162

asbestos, 41 biopolymer, 21, 28, 45

cement, 32, 42, 48, 79, 86, 96 consumers, 24

definition, 84, 160 durability, 79

integrity, 115 lattice, 68, 142

substitution, 33, 87 Thailand, 96

transition temperature, 1, 2, 8, 10, 24, 82, 87, 121,

zirconium, 60, 63, 68, 70

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