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Geological Applications of Wireline Logs: A Synopsis of Developments and Trends
Geological Applications of Wireline Logs: A Synopsis of Developments and Trends
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Figure 2: Example of high-resolution electrical borehole images, which show eolian cross-bedding features in the Permian
Rotliegende Sandstone of the North Sea as compared with core (adapted from Luthi and Banavar, 1988, figure 4).
is recovered, images and core can be matched to establish with its primary targets of fractured formations, has stim-
core orientation. ulated additional interest in this area. Laubach et al. (I 988)
The images represent conductivity measurements of compared fractures detected by electrical imaging with
the borehole wall and register fractures (both open and those obtained from the acoustic borehole televiewer, and
healed), thin beds, sedimentary structures and other fea- their validation by core. Hornby et al. (1 990) related frac-
tures. The techniques of interpretation are described by ture aperture widths computed from both electrical scans
Harker et al. (1990); useful reference material for images and reflected Stoneley waves. A number of useful articles
of clastic rocks is provided by Luthi (1990) and of car- are also reprinted in the SPWLA Borehole Imaging vol-
bonate rocks by Nurmi et al. (1990). Image processing is ume (Paillet et al., 1990).
now performed routinely on workstations, either as an
unaided interactive task or with assistance from an A1 RESERVOIR MINERALOGY AND
procedure (Startzman and Kuo, 1989). LITHOFACIES ANALYSIS
A major application of electrical imaging is in the de- Multiple “porosity” logs (density, neutron, and sonic)
tection and evaluation of fractures (Casarta et al., 1989; have been used for several decades to arrive at true ef-
Standen, 199l), a goal that has always been elusive using fective porosities independent of matrix mineralogy. Al-
traditional logs. The recent boom in horizontal drilling, though manual crossplots are still used for this purpose,
der the direction of Robert Elphick, and the burgeoning statistics! Basic explanations of statistical methods in a
membership of the computer-oriented geological societ- logging context such as the paper by Mitchell and Nelson
ies. (1988) are useful for a wide readership. However, a certain
Explanations of multivariate statistical techniques and degree of caution is appropriate, because of the potential
their application to well logs for pattern recognition and snares of misinterpretation and blind faith in “numbers.”
classification tasks can be found in a number of dispersed The problems caused by differing sampling volumes
sources. Doveton (1986) devoted a chapter of his book associated with core and various logging devices have
to mathematical analysis of log trends and patterns, been recognized for many years. The most common and
whereas Hayes (1989) provided a useful overview of sta- practical means to bring the measurements to a common
tistical well-log pattern-recognition methods in his Ph.D. vertical resolution is through the statistical smoothing of
dissertation. Elek (1988) showed how principal-compo- core data to the coarser scale of the wireline logs. This
nent analysis could be applied to zonation and well-log loss of detail has prompted efforts over the years to reverse
correlation. Both Busch et al. (1985) and Anderson et al. the process, by enhancement of the vertical resolution of
(1988) described the application of discriminant function logging measurements.
analysis to lithological classification from well logs. Other Research in this area has been further stimulated by
techniques and case studies included cluster analysis the great interest in thinly bedded reservoirs in recent
(Robinson and Reeves, 1989), fuzzy-set theory (Griffiths, years (see e.g., Gundeso and Gronvold, 1990; Chaudhary
1989), and Kruskal multidimensional scaling (Matyas, and Vashist, 1991). Applications of log-analysis tech-
1990). niques to thin beds were described by Ruhovets (1989),
their integration with core data by Sinha et al. (1989),
Statistical Prediction of Physical Properties and potential pitfalls in thin-bed enhancement resolution
The primary mission of the statistical methods de- by Minette (1990).
scribed in the previous section is to serve as automated Some progress in finer vertical resolution has been made
pattern-recognition devices that link log responses with through the introduction of improved tool designs (Titt-
associations of rock properties. In more traditional ap- man, 199l), particularly with respect to induction logging
plications, statistical line- and curve-fit methods have (Silva and Spooner, 1991) and electrical borehole imaging
been used for many years for both calibration and pre- (discussed earlier). The alternative approach is to create
diction. Because core analysis data are commonly ac- a more finely resolved log through computer processing
cepted as the reference standard for reservoir evaluation, of data recorded by logging tools with coarser resolution.
porosity logs are generally calibrated against core data. The actual vertical variation of the logged property can
The differing vertical resolution of the two measurements be considered to be averaged or “convolved” by a filter,
requires smoothing of the core data to give common ver- which is determined by the tool’s measurement charac-
tical resolution. teristics. The goal of “deconvolution” is equated with the
The choice of line-fit and estimation procedure by one design of an inverse filter or procedure that essentially
of several statistical models is still debatable. Only a few reverses the averaging process.
papers have been written in this area, but they are gen- The desirability of this is easy to understand, but dif-
erally thoughtful studies that provide useful insights into ficult to implement in a practical and convincing manner.
systematic data analysis for the working log analyst . Et- The nonlinear responses of the resistivity tools are math-
nyre (1982, 1990) wrote a two-part series on weighted ematically difficult to deconvolve, even for the service
least-squares methods applied to formation evaluation, companies who are privy to their design characteristics.
followed by an explanation of the petrophysical uses of The measurements of the nuclear tools are stochastic (sta-
the robust-Marquardt statistical procedure (Etnyre, 1990). tistical, rather than deterministic) and so are confounded
Rodriguez et al. (1989) described the determination of with counting error. Attempts to amplify the signal in
confidence intervals for petrophysical parameters. these statistical data must therefore not allow the “noise”
Many log analysts are unfamiliar with the finepoints to be amplified beyond tolerable limits. Looyestijn (1982)
underlying the concepts and interpretation of statistical provided a useful and sobering review article that explains
methods as applied to petrophysical data. However, the these problems. Nevertheless, the great value of even
increasing role of digital databases as a component in modest improvements continues to stimulate research in
routine log analysis is a major stimulus for their increased this area, such as that reported by Galford et al. (1986),
understanding of statistical processing. Basic statistical Elkington et al. (1990), and Nelson and Mitchell (1990).
procedures have been great sources of argument and dis- Some limited progress continues to be made on the
cussion during the major field-unit operating disputes of prediction of permeability from logs by the use of mul-
the 1980s. It is interesting to speculate that the amount tiple-regression methods. Log predictions of permeability
of money that hung on the choice of regression method are still most commonly based on porosity estimatesalone.
in these equity battles is the greatest in the history of These predictions are often very poor, unless the rock
shows little change in pore-size characteristics, because experience from older log analysts. Recent examples of
of the failureto take into account the variationsin internal some expert-system prototypes for general log analysis
surface area. Internal surface area is often related to rock are described by Peveraro and Lee (1988) and Einstein
framework textural, mineralogical, and geochemical and Sutherland (1989). Einstein and Edwards (1988) also
properties that influence many logs. Although no log mea- discuss a comparison between the performance of human
sures internal surface area directly, some logs can function experts and expert systems in log analysis and interpre-
as surrogate variables for surface area and be incorporated tation.
with porosity in multiple-regression models for perme- By far the most well-known log analysis expert system
ability prediction and error analysis. A very useful review has been the Dipmeter Advisor, developed by Schlum-
paper of these methods is given by Wendt et al. (1986), berger (see Smith and Baker, 1983). Dipmeter interpre-
who also describe in detail, and critically, the successes tation is an obvious application because it has always
and limitations of their own experiences with Prudhoe been a particularly tricky mixture of systematic analysis,
Bay data. pattern recognition, and experienced judgments. A gen-
In studies that draw on older logs, the choices of ad- eral theory of the rule-based approach to dipmeter pro-
ditional variables are generally restricted to gamma-ray cessing is also described by Kerzner (1988). The Dipmeter
transforms and multiple porosity log indicators of shale Advisor is probably more famous in the A1 research com-
content and changes in matrix minerals. However, the munity than among log analysts because it is considered
geochemical logs (reviewed in detail later) have a great one of the few expert systems that is used on a routine,
potential for this type of application, as they record a daily basis for real-world applications rather than as an
suite of elemental measures. These elements reflect tex- interesting curiosity.
tural properties through their sensitivity to matrix min- Automated log correlation is also an appropriate task
eralogy, which is, in turn, the product of depositional and for a rule-based approach, because certain solutions can
diagenetic processes. Herron (1987) introduced this con- usually be discarded as geometrically impossible or geo-
cept of using geochemical logs as surrogate variables for logically improbable (see Olea and Davis, 1986; Lineman
the internal surface area in a multiple regression model et al., 1987). It is now widely recognized that expert sys-
based on the classic Kozeny-Carman relationship. tems generally perform well in applications where the
Both simple and multiple regression models have also problem has clearly defined constraints and goals, but can
been applied to the prediction of organic content in the “fail” in more complex and subtle situations, most par-
evaluation of source-rock potentials. Logging tools are ticularly where the human “experts” disagree among
now available to estimate organic carbon directly from themselves!
the carbon/oxygen ratio (Herron, S.L., 1986). However,
organic content has a distinctive effect on gamma-ray, Neural Networks
sonic, resistivity, neutron, and density logs (e.g., Schmok- Neural networks are drawn from models of the brain
er, 1981; Mendelson and Toksoz, 1986), and these rela- that see the processing of information as the result of
tionships can be used as the basis for statistical prediction excitation of simple neurons, which are richly intercon-
(Krystinik and Charpentier, 1987) when calibrated with nected on a massive scale. Although today’s neural net-
core data. works cannot attempt to approach the complexity of the
human brain, some powerful applications can be devel-
ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE APPLICATIONS oped using the basic design features of simple “neuronyy
A few years ago, the field of artificial intelligence (AI) units interconnected as a network in a parallel-processing
was dominated by “expert ~ y s t e r n s but
, ~ ~ “neural net- operation. The easiest task for a neural network to attempt
works” have recently emerged as a serious competitor. is a supervised problem, where the network “learns” the
The two approacheshave radically different philosophies, pattern of input responses (log readings) that correspond
but both have found legitimate and interesting applica- with a desired output (matrix or fluid characteristics). The
tions in log analysis. current procedures are often timeconsuming since the
learning is an iterative process. However, there are several
Expert Systems advantages over the classical statistical pattern-recogni-
Expert systems attempt to emulate simple reasoning, tion methods, including a focus on all sample patterns,
drawing inferences from data as dictated by a knowledge- rather than just summary parameters, and a lack of as-
base of rules. The rules are a codified mix of objective sumptionsconcerninglinearity or normality. On the debit
constraints and more subjective material, which distill side, it is often difficult to establish how a successful so-
the experience and judgment of acknowledged experts in lution was arrived at based on input patterns. This con-
the problem area. Log analysis is widely recognized as a trasts with expert systems, where an “audit trail” can
blend of art and science, so that expert systems provide quickly establish which rules were invoked in any system
a useful methodology to attempt to capture a lifetime’s decision.
May-June, 1992 The Log Analyet 291
Doveton and Prensky
ThRT ratio
content. As a result, values in photoelectric absorption K FixaQU -Leached4
are ordered from a low in kaolinite to successively higher
KEY
values, through smectite, illite, to chlorite, basically as a Lithology
function of increasing iron content. However, in the final limestone
analysis, systematic volumetric estimates are made dif- shale
ficult by the presence of other accessory minerals, as well silly shale
as the variation in composition of clay minerals, so that siltstone
these wireline measures provide generalized indications silly sandstone
of the compositional aspects of shales. Q mom
Based on their analyses of numerous rock samples,
Accessory
Adams and Weaver (1958), in a classic paper, demon- v bentonite
strated the utility of the thorium-to-uranium ratio as an 6 glauconite
I , . /
Doveton and Prensky
upward transition from grainstones to packstones and member responses and resolved by standard matrix-in-
faunal changes that collectively mark a progressive deep- version procedures. This result is normative and generic
ening of water. The reef limestone is contrasted starkly in the sense that it is based on a sample drawn from a
with the volcanic basalt, by low iron, aluminum, and universal mineral reference set and applied to a specific
silicon contents, but high calcium content. The sulfur sequence where local mineral compositions may deviate
curve is of particular interest as it shows zones, possibly from the global average. The result is hypothetical but
cyclic, of high sulfur concentration within the reef. The has the particular advantage that comparisons can be
sulfur has been interpreted to reflect sulfate content as- made among a variety of locations and do not require
sociated with evaporite zones. Although no evaporites expensive ancillary core measurements. In a second ap-
have been observed in the limited core available (5% proach, the solution is calibrated to core data, where lab-
recovery), the log may be a depth record of eustatic changes oratory determinations of mineralogy and elemental geo-
in sea level, with low stands marked by sulfur anomalies. chemistry are analyzed by multiple regression techniques
Amplitude spectra from the sulfur trace show distinctive to determine local mineral compositions. This result is
peaks at wavelengths of 25 and 50 ft, suggesting a cyclic linked to petrography and so is philosophically closer to
pattern that may be related to the Eocene low stands of an estimated modal solution, rather than the more hy-
36, 40, 42, 49, and 54 Ma of the Vail eustatic curve. As pothetical normative model.
this example shows, great insights can be made into the Several detailed studies have been made to assess the
geological history of a sequence from the raw elements strengths and limitations of geochemical logging through
recorded by the geochemical logs. exhaustive comparisons of borehole data and core ele-
The major thrust of research connected with these logs mental and mineralogical analyses. Examples include
has been aimed at the production of realistic mineral comparisons in the Conoco Research well, Ponca City,
transforms. “Normative” minerals calculated from oxide Oklahoma (Hertzog et al., 1987); discussion of the results
analyses have been widely used in igneous petrology since from an Exxon research well that penetrated Upper Cre-
the CIPW (Cross Iddings Pirsson Washington) norm was taceous siliciclastic rocks in Utah (Wendlandt and Bhuy-
introduced by Cross et al. (1 902). These normative min- an, 1990); and an assessment of data from three Shell
erals are contrasted with modal compositions, which are wells in the Netherlands, Oman, and the U.S. (van den
those mineral phases actually observed in the rock. The Oord, 1990). Figure 7 shows a typical comparative ex-
normative concept can be extended to sedimentary se- ample of mineralogy for core and geochemical-log esti-
quences in attempts to compute mineral assemblages, mates (from van den Oord, 1990).
based on the 10 elements currently measured on the geo- In general, the prognosis for this infant technology is
chemical logging tool string (Herron, M.M., 1986). In quite good, particularly with regard to the relatively good
calculating classical igneous norms, oxides are assigned match between in-situ borehole measurements and lab-
to minerals in an allocation scheme that attempts to con- oratory measurements from core. Teething problems are
form with their crystallization history. By contrast, ele- related primarily to the determination of the appropriate
ments from geochemical logs are transformed to nor- mineral-transform strategies to obtain useful results. Most
mative or “chem” minerals by the inversion procedures authors working on the problem agree that local core
discussed earlier. Herron (1 988) studied terrigenous sands calibration is a necessary step, rather than resorting to a
and shales in terms both of core and geochemical-logdata generic normative solution. At the same time, it is rec-
and suggests that new methods of classification may be ognized that the precise resolution of sedimentarymineral
necessary. Strictly speaking, there will almost always be assemblages is inherently a complex problem and that in
more minerals than elements to solve for them, so that some respects, the technology is ahead of-ourunderstand-
the problem is always underdetermined. However, as ing of the distribution of elements in sedimentary se-
Herron et al. (in press) notes, the overwhelming majority quences. So, for example, Wendlandt and Bhuyan (1 990)
of sedimentary minerals can be numbered as 10: quartz, point out that some knowledge concerning the controls
4 clays, 3 feldspars, and 2 carbonates. In practice, rea- on distribution patterns of gadolinium and titanium would
sonable compositional solutions can be generated using prove to be a very useful aid in future work.
relatively small mineral subsets, provided that they have In addition to the immediate display of lithofaciestypes,
been identified correctly and that the compositions used there are numerous potential applications of successful
are both fairly accurate and constant. In common with mineral transforms of geochemical logging data including:
all new technologies, the approach is both exciting and quantitative estimates of grain-size, cation-exchange ca-
controversial, but even modest successes should be of pacity, and permeability, and using the minerals as sur-
enormous benefit to a variety of geological studies. rogates for other petrophysical properties (Chapman et
Mineral solutions may be calculated by two alternative al., 1987). Although there may be some differences of
strategies. In the first, the average chemical compositions opinion on how far these goals have been met, they cer-
of minerals drawn from a large database are used as end- tainly set forth a worthwhile agenda of research targets.
ml
FELDSPAR
drawbacks of a variety of mineral transform models for
this purpose are discussed by Harvey et al. (1 990).
, :I/
Doveton and Prensky
manner, there will be important and exciting applications. puter emulation of human mental processes; application of
A fundamental limitation of correlations based on con- neural network simulators to problems in well log interpre-
ventional wireline logs is that they are lithostratigraphic tation, in Artificial Intelligence in Petroleum Exploration and
whereas magnetostratigraphy logs would be keyed di- Production, proceedings: Texas A&M University, College
rectly to time. Where most correlation ties cross time- Station, p. 145-175. Also published in 1989 as SPE-19619,
in SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition Pro-
lines, because sedimentary layers are diachronous prod-
ceedings, v. omega, Formation Evaluation and Reservoir Ge-
ucts of transgression and regression, absolute time se- ology: Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 48 1-493.
quences established from logs of magnetostratigraphy Borehole Research Group, 1990, Wirelinelogging manual, Ocean
could give revolutionary insights into development of Drilling Program: Columbia University, Lamont-Doherty
sedimentary basins and characterizations of reservoir Geological Observatory, 417 p.
structure. Borer, J.M., and Harris, P.M., 1991, Lithofacies and cyclicity
of the Yates Formation, Permian Basin; implications for res-
SUMMARY ervoir heterogeneity: AAPG Bulletin, v. 75, no. 24, p. 726-
779.
We have attempted to summarize the recent major Busch, J.M., Fortney, W.G., and Berry, L.N., 1985, Determi-
trends and developments in the field of geological appli- nation of lithology from well logs by statistical analysis, SPE-
cations of wireline logs. The field is expanding rapidly 14301: Society of Petroleum Engineers, presented at 60th
and comprehensive coverage is difficult to achieve. This Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, preprint, 11 p.
growth is an excellent sign that exciting future develop- Later published in 1987, SPE Formation Evaluation, v. 2,
ments can be expected and that wireline-log analysis will no. 4, p. 412-418.
make increasingly significant contributions to a wide va- Casarta, L.J., McNaughton, D.A., Bornemann, E., and Bettis,
riety of geological studies. F.E., 1989, Fracture identification and matrix characteriza-
tion using a new borehole imaging device in the Lisburne
carbonate, Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, paper XX, in 30th Annual
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