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Early philosophy of Matter

• Democritus and
Chapter 2 Leucippus believed:
– matter had an
ultimate, tiny,
“Atoms and indivisible particle
Elements”
• Plato and Aristotle
believed:
– matter was infinitely
divisible

Revolution Revolution: New Laws

• In the late 16th century, the scientific • Law of Conservation
approach to understanding was of Mass:
established – Lavoisier
– In a chemical
• Over the next 150+ years Aristotle’s reaction matter is
view of matter could not easily explain neither created nor
destroyed.
the observations being made

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Revolution: New Laws Revolution: New Laws

• Law of Definite • Law of Multiple
Proportions:
– Proust
– All samples of a
given compound,
regardless of their
source or how they
were prepared, have
the same proportions
of their constituent
elements
Proportions:
– Dalton
– When two elements
combine to form two
different compounds
the masses that
combine can be
expressed in small
whole number ratios

Who received the credit for the Who received the credit for the
conservation of mass? law of multiple proportions?
A. Newton A. Newton
B. Lavoisier B. Lavoisier
C. Dalton C. Dalton
D. Thomson D. Thomson

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory Notes on Charges

• 1. Each element is composed of tiny,
indestructible particles called atoms
• 2. All atoms of a given element have the
same mass and other properties that
distinguish them from other elements
• 3. Atoms combine in small whole number
ratios to form molecules or compounds
• 4. In a chemical reaction, an atom of one
element cannot change into an atom of
another element

The Discovery of Electrons The Discovery of Electrons

• A cathode ray tube is a
glass tube containing • J.J. Thomson
metal rods from which believed that the
almost all the air has cathode ray was
been evacuated. composed of tiny
• When connected to a particles with an
high voltage power electrical charge
supply, a glowing area
is seen emanating
from the cathode.

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The Discovery of Electrons The Discovery of Electrons

• Thomson’s conclusions: • Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: determined
– The cathode rays are made of tiny the charge of an electron
negatively charged particles
– Every material tested contained these same
particles
– Thomson believed that these particles were
the ultimate building blocks of matter
– These particles became known as electrons

The Structure of the Atom The Structure of the Atom

• Thomson: • The Plum Pudding model:
– The structure of – The mass of the atom is due to the mass of
the atom is like the electrons within
plum pudding – The atom is mostly empty space because
– Negatively negative particles repel
charged particle
is a sphere of
positive charge

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JJ Thomson is given the credit

for the discovery of the electron. Radioactivity
A. True
B. False • Curie and Becquerel discovered that
certain elements would constantly emit
small, energetic particles and rays
• These energetic particles could
penetrate matter

Radioactivity Rutherford’s Experiment

• Rutherford discovered there were three • Shoot alpha particles at a very thin sheet of
matter and show that they all pass through
type of radioactive emissions
– Alpha:
• mass of 4x a hydrogen atom and + charge
– Beta:
• mass of 1/2000th of a H atom and - charge
– Gamma
• Energy rays not particles

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Rutherford’s Experiment Rutherford’s Experiment

• Results:
– 98% of the particles went straight through
– About 2% of the particles went through but
were deflected by large angles
– About 0.01% of the particles bounced off
the gold foil. He said it was “as if you had
fired a 15” cannon shell at a piece of tissue
paper and it came back and hit you.”

Rutherford concluded that the

Rutherford’s Experiment atom was mostly empty space.
A. True
• Conclusions:
– The atom contains a tiny dense center called a B. False
nucleus.
– The nucleus is small in volume but large in mass.
– The atom is mostly empty space.
– The electrons are dispersed in the empty space
around the nucleus.
– The nucleus is positively charged.
– The nucleus of the atom must have a particle of
the same amount of charge but opposite in sign.

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Fundamental Subatomic
Particles
ELEMENTS
• 14 Elements only have one letter in their
symbol.
• If you discover an element you are not
permitted to name it after yourself.
• Madame Curie discovered element 84
Polonium and named it after her home
country of Poland.
• Uranium was named after the Greek
god of the sky Uranus.
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Elements
• Each element has a unique
number of protons in its
nucleus.
• The number of protons is
called the atomic number.
• Each element has a unique
name and symbol.
• The symbol has either one or
two letters. The first letter is
always a capital.
UNIQUE ELEMENT SYMBOLS
• Why do some elements have interesting
symbols? Na, K, Ag, Au, Hg.
• If it was 500 years ago I would be lecturing to
you in Latin.
• Silver – Argentum
• Gold - Aurum
• Mercury – Hydrargyrum
• Theophrastus Philippus Aureolus Bombastus
Von Hohenheim Paracelsus started lecturing
in German in 1526
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Elements
PERIODIC TABLE
Horizontal rows are called Periods
Vertical columns are called Groups
Elements in the 8 tallest groups are called
Main-Group Elements
Elements in the 10 shortest groups are
called Transition Elements or Transition
Metals
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The Periodic Table of the Elements
RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS
• All elements atomic number 84 and
higher are radioactive.
• That means that their nucleus is too big
and therefore is unstable.
• The nucleus will spontaneously emit an
alpha particle (which consists of 2
neutrons and 2 protons) and change
into a different element.
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SYNTHETIC ELEMENTS
• Elements #84 to #92 are found in nature.
• All elements #93 and higher are synthetic (man
made).
• All synthetic elements are radioactive.
• To make element #118 scientists bombarded a Pb
target with Kr atoms. After 1,000,000,000 collisions
they made 3 atoms of element #118.
• These atoms existed for 0.00012 seconds before
they emitted an alpha particle to become element
#116.
• These atoms emitted an alpha particle in 0.00060
seconds to become element #112. Etc.
Protons, Electrons and Neutrons
• Ions: have a different number of electrons than
a neutral atom
– Cations: have a positive charge, less
electrons than neutral
– Anions: have a negative charge, more
electrons than neutral
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Protons, Electrons and Neutrons
• Protons: determine the element
– Number of protons = atomic number
• Electrons: determine the reactivity
– If neutral: # of electrons = # of protons
– If charged: the sum of the charged particles must
equal the charge
• Neutrons: determines the nuclear stability
– The atomic mass (whole number) = the # of
protons + the # of neutrons
Protons, Electrons and Neutrons
• Isotopes: have a different number of neutrons
– Can be stable or radioactive
– Have different atomic mass
– The mass on the periodic table is usually that
which is calculated from the sum of all the
weighted masses of the naturally occurring
isotopes
– The elemental mass on the periodic table for
radioactive elements is usually put in braces
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ISOTOPES ISOTOPES
• Isotopes are always designated by the Z=P+N
symbol of the element and the atomic
Z = the atomic mass (also called the mass
mass. They may or may not include the
number)
atomic number.
P = # of protons
• Na-23
N = # of neutrons
• 23Na
• 23Na
For every element except Hydrogen N ≥ P
• The atomic number isn’t needed since
we know it from the element symbol.

PROBLEM PROBLEM
• An atom of element X contains 47
How many neutrons are in the isotope Cu-63?
protons and 62 neutrons. Identify the
element and write the symbol for the
For Cu-63 P = atomic number = 29 isotope.
Z=P+N • # of protons = atomic number so the
Z = 63 element is Ag.
N=Z-P • Z = P + N = 47 + 62 = 107 so the
N = 63 – 29 = 34 isotope is
107Ag

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How many protons are found in

ATOMIC MASS UNIT
S-2?
• In 1961 the IUPAP and the IUPAC agreed
A. 16 upon the definition of Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
B. 32 • 1 amu = (mass of one 12C atom)/12
C. 18
D. 14 • Al, Na and F are a few of the twenty elements
that naturally occur as a single isotope. The
rest of the elements occur as a mixture of two
or more isotopes. To find the average mass
of 1 atom of an element you must calculate it
from the relative abundance of the isotopes
and their masses.

Example: calculation of atomic mass

Patterns
• If copper is 69.17% Cu-63 with a mass of 62.9396amu and
the rest Cu-65 with a mass of 64.9278amu, what is
copper’s atomic mass?

(69.17/100)(62.9396amu) +[(100.00-69.17)/100](64.9278amu)
=43.5353 + 20.0172 = 63.5525amu = 63.55amu

Smallest number of sig figs is 4.

Don’t round off in the middle of the calculation.
Many students in the past have rounded off in the middle of a
calculation and arrived at an incorrect answer.

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Patterns
Some Important Families
• Metals (beige): shiny, ductile, malleable,
conduct heat, conduct electricity. Metals • Noble gases:
form cations. – Group 8A
• Nonmetals (green): dull, brittle, poor – Non-reactive
– He, Ne, Ar do not
conductor of heat and electricity.
form any known
Nonmetals form anions. compounds.
• Metalloids (lavendar): semimetals, – Kr forms a few
known compounds.
semiconductors, show properties of
– Xe forms many
both metals and nonmetals known compounds

Which type of ions do metals form?

Some Important Families
A. anions
• Alkali metals:
B. cations – Group 1A
– Very reactive metals
– They are never found
as elements in nature.
– They are always found
in compounds.
– They are solid.
– They form +1 cations.

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Some Important Families Some Important Families

• Alkaline Earth metals: • Halogens:
– Group 2A – Group 7A
– Reactive metals – Reactive nonmetals.
– They are never found – They are not found as
as elements in nature. elements in nature.
– They are always found – F - gas
in compounds. – Cl – gas
– They are solid. – Br – liquid
– They form +2 cations. – I – solid
– They form -1 anions.

Patterns and Ions Counting Atoms by the Mole

• A mole is defined as
a unit having
6.022x1023particles
• A mole can be used
to determine the
number of atoms or
molecules in a
sample.

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A MOLE
A mole is like a dozen in that it is an easy way of expressing
a larger number of items.
A mole of Cu atoms is 6.022X1023 Cu atoms
A mole of H2O molecules is 6.022X1023 H2O molecules
A mole of marbles is 6.022X1023 marbles
6.022X1023 is called Avogadro’s number.
A MOLE
• The numerical value of the mole is defined
as being equal to the number of atoms in
exactly 12 g of pure 12C (Carbon-12)
• Recall from the definition of atomic mass
unit that the mass of 1 12C (Carbon-12)
atom is 12 amu.
• Therefore the mass of a mole of 12C
(Carbon-12) atoms is 12 g.

MOLAR MASS Counting Atoms by the Mole

• The mass of 1 mole of atoms of an • To find the number of
moles in a sample
element is called the molar mass. divide the number of
• The value of an element’s molar mass grams by the molar
mass
in grams/mol is numerically equal to the
• To find the number of
elements atomic mass in amu. particles in that sample
• When you express the molar mass multiply the number of
moles by Avogadro’s
make sure you include the units which number
are g/mol.

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Example: Counting Atom

• Determine the number of copper atoms in a
penny weighing 3.10g.

• From the Periodic Table the molar mass of

Cu is 63.55 g/mol

• 3.10g/63.55 g/mol = 0.04878mol

• (0.04878mol)6.022X1023 atoms/mol =
= 2.93753x1022 = 2.94x1022 atoms

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