Culture and Psychology

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Culture, Gender, and Relationship

Module 006 Culture, Gender, and Relationship

At the end of this module you are expected to:

1. Determine the relation between culture and gender
2. Distinguish the difference of sex and gender
3. Understand interpersonal attraction
4. Familiarize on the theory about love and updated research about it

As with so many other aspects of our lives, culture influences the behaviors associated with
any gender. In the past years, we have witnesses many changes in society role connected
with gender. Some lead to advancement like work role in Philippines becoming more divert
yet it still produce conflict and issues that we still need to resolve in the future. In this
module we will discuss the importance of Gender and relationship and its effect to our
culture.

https://i.imgur.com/LIJWRSD.png?1 The Complex of Human.

Retrieved date September 7, 2020

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The Relationship of Gender and Culture
To further discuss the connection of sex, gender to culture, we first need to clearly define
each word:
Sex - generally refers to the biological and physiological differences between men and
women, the most common differences in between their reproduction system
including anatomical, hormonal and biochemical differences.
Sex roles - behaviors and patterns of activities men and women may engage in that are
directly related to their biological differences and the process of reproduction.
Example is that the breastfeeding through the female or the mother.
Sexual identity - is used to describe the degree of awareness and recognition of sex and sex
roles an individual may have. One example is the awareness of male that he can
impregnate woman, then a woman can conceive a child.

https://i.imgur.com/duNCmTv.png?1 Gender Identity. Retrieve date – September 7, 2020

Gender - refers to the behaviors or patterns of activities that a society or culture deems
appropriate for men and women.
Gender role refers to the degree to which a person adopts the gender-specific behaviors
ascribed by his or her culture. Common example that we heard in the Philippines is
that the male of the father as the head of the family should be though and unemotional.
While the female or the mother should be caring and commonly do the house choirs
and takes care of the children than go to work.
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Culture, Gender, and Relationship

How is gender related to culture?

Expectations about attributes and behaviours appropriate to women or men and
about the relations between women and men – in other words, gender – are shaped
by culture.
Gender identities and gender relations are critical aspects of culture because they
shape the way daily life is lived in the family, but also in the wider community and
the workplace.
Gender (like race or ethnicity) functions as an organizing principle for society
because of the cultural meanings given to being male or female. This is evident in
the division of labour according to gender. In most societies there are clear patterns
of “women’s work” and “men’s work,” both in the household and in the wider
community – and cultural explanations of why this should be so. The patterns and
the explanations differ among societies and change over time.

While the specific nature of gender relations varies among societies, the general
pattern is that women have less personal autonomy, fewer resources at their
disposal, and limited influence over the decision-making processes that shape their
societies and their own lives. This pattern of disparity based on gender is both a
human right and a development issue.

Psychological Gender Differences across Cultures

Different culture adoptive a certain type of gender differences in a way that the
psychological products of gender differentiation also become a crucial aspect of the
culture– behavior–psychology linkage that exists among a people and their rituals, traditions,
and behaviors.

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Screenshot from the website https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/content/two-spirits_map-html/
Retrieved: September 7, 2020. Visit website to explore the Map to view a gender-diverse cultures.

https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcTK4F33CiBcpjygUaTXkQDy-
UHy6W5SZ78qpw&usqp=CAU Machismo, retrieve September 7, 2020

Gender roles are different for males and females in all cultures. Some stereotypic notions
about gender differences seem to be universal across cultures, such as
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Culture, Gender, and Relationship

aggressiveness, strength, and lack of emotionality for males, which also in the
Philippines we called it “machismo” as same as other country. While female are
tend to be, weakness, submissiveness, and emotionality for females. Other
research, however, has shown that the degree, and in some case the
direction, of these differences varies across cultures. That is, not every culture
will necessarily harbor the same gender differences in the same way as other
cultures.

How Does Culture Influence Gender?

As what we define earlier a child was born and label the sex but soon after his or her
awareness dictates what’s his or her gender. So how the culture does influences
gender. In Philippines culture, we tend to start building the gender by assigning color
coding such as blue for male and pink for female. We also gender categorize toys like
for boys are for masculine toys like guns or cars while dolls or teddy bears for girls.

https://thewifechoice.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Gender-Stereotypes.jpg
Gender – Stereotypes. Retrieved – September 7, 2020

Gender role socialization continues throughout life span, such as; different school activities,
expectation behavior, or even career path. Gender is a construct that develops in children
as they are socialized in their environments. As children grow older, they learn specific
behaviors and patterns of activities appropriate and inappropriate for their sex, and they
either adopt or reject those gender roles. Sandra Bem (1981), a prominent theorist on
gender, argues that gender is one of the fundamental ways we organize information and
understand experiences about the world.

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Isn’t cultural sensitivity important?
It is of course important to be culturally sensitive. But respect for other cultures is not
merely uncritical acceptance when culture, tradition or religion are invoked. We would
not accept culture or tradition as a rationale for discrimination against an ethnic group –
rather we would look for opportunities to counteract prejudice and its consequences.
In relation to issues of women’s position and gender equality, cultural sensitivity and
respect would be better demonstrated by:

 Adherence to the values of equality and women’s rights espoused by the

international community. These are important human rights commitments made
by both Canada and partner countries that are undermined by the assumption that
cultural values take precedence when they do not coincide with human rights
norms.

 Recognition that any society includes different views and interests on gender
relations. The assumption that cultural values are static ignores the process of
conflict and change under way in any culture. It also disregards the efforts of
women (and men) in that society who are questioning cultural values and working
toward equality.

 Recognition that decisions about what aspects of culture and tradition to protect
are not for outsiders to make. Assuming a role in protecting cultures from changes
in gender relations is an outside imposition, as much as the imposition of change
based on our own cultural values. A more respectful approach is to consult with
women and equality advocates to learn how they are defining issues and what they
see as potential ways forward.

Culture and Interpersonal Attraction: Love, Intimacy, and Intercultural Marriages

With the increase of social media, different dating apps, instant chat or messaging portal
connection or building relationship towards anyone or anywhere around the globe is
becoming easier as ever that is why diversity among relationship towards other is
becoming bigger and complex. Psychologists use the term interpersonal attraction to
encompass a variety of experiences, including liking, friendship, admiration, lust, and love.

In the Philippines, Medina (2001) claims that the Filipino culture primarily sets the criteria
for a suitable love object. More often, a smart attractive lady and an intelligent good-looking
gentleman are both considered in the Philippine society as very “eligible” especially if they
come from respectable and well-to-do families.
A recently published articles in Philstar global stated that:
“Filipinos are more attracted to an individual’s brains than body, a new Social Weather
Stations survey suggests. The poll released on Valentine’s Day said 81% of the 1,200
Filipino adults would rather have a partner with smarts than looks. Eighteen percent said
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Culture, Gender, and Relationship

they are more attracted to a person’s brains than body. ” This is similar to December 2002,
when 81% said they prefer brains over body and 18% said they prefer body over brains,”
SWS noted. The survey also found that more women prefer brains over body than men.
Eighty-three percent of women tend to view intelligence more attractive than body, slightly
higher than the 78% among their male counterparts.

Theory of Love
Hatfield and Berscheid’s (Berscheid, 1988; Hatfield, 1988) theory of love and attachment
proposes that romantic relationships are characterized by two kinds of love.
 One is passionate love, involving absorption of another that includes sexual
feelings and intense emotion.  A desire, a lust, an uncontrollable feeling you have.
An attraction for someone so great you may feel aroused; temporary
love. Passionate love usually present at the beginning of a relationship.

 The second is companionate love, involving warm, trusting, and tolerant affection
for another whose life is deeply intertwined with one’s own. It is based more on a
friendship, having common interests, having trust in each other; lasting love.
1) One key ingredient of companionate love is equity-both partners receive in
proportion to what they give. When equity exists both partners freely give and
receive, and share decision-making.
2) Another key ingredient of loving relationships is self-disclosure-the
revealing of intimate details about ourselves (our dreams and worries, our
proud and shameful moments, etc)
Also, according to Hatfield, passionate love, in longer-term relationships, can develop into
companionate love.
Another theory of love is by Sternberg’s (1988) theory, it is similar to Hatfield and
Berscheid’s but divides companionate love into two separate components: intimacy and
commitment.
 Intimacy refers to warmth, closeness, and sharing in a relationship.
 Commitment refers to an intention to maintain a relationship in spite of the
difficulties that arise.
In Sternberg’s theory, seven different forms of love can exist, depending on the presence
or absence of each of the three factors: passionate love, intimacy, and commitment. For
instance, infatuation is passion alone, without intimacy or commitment; romantic love is a
combination of passion and intimacy, but without commitment. When all three factors are
present, Sternberg calls that relationship consummate love.

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https://www.macmillanhighered.com/BrainHoney/Resource/22292/digital_first_content/trunk/test/greenberg1e/asset
/img_ch15/ch15_fig_5.jpg

Robert Sternberg’s Triangular Model of Love Relationship, retrieved September 7, 2020

Triangular Model of Love Relationship

Robert Sternberg proposes that we can break love down into three main facets, which
when combined with one another yield seven different types of love. Think about where
some of the most important close relationships in your life fit within this triangle.

Interpersonal Attraction, Love, and Intimacy across Cultures

Simmons, vom Kolke, and Shimizu (1986) examined attitudes toward love and romance
among American, German, and Japanese students. The results indicated that romantic love
was valued more in the United States and Germany than in Japan. These researchers
explained this cultural difference by suggesting that romantic love is more highly valued in
less traditional cultures with few strong, extended family ties, and less valued in cultures
where kinship networks influence and reinforce the relationship between marriage
partners.

Many other studies document cultural differences in attitudes about love and romance.
Furnham (1984), for instance, administered the Rokeach Value Survey to groups of South
Africans, Indians, and Europeans. The Europeans valued love more than did the South
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Culture, Gender, and Relationship

Africans and the Indians. The South Africans, however, placed a higher value on equality
and peace. Murstein, Merighi, and Vyse (1991) compared American and French college
students’ attitudes about love. They found that Americans tended to prefer friendships that
slowly evolve into love, as well as relationships in which the lovers are caught up in an
excited, panicky state; the French rated higher on love as characterized by altruistic
generosity. Wang (1994) found that contrary to popular stereotypes, Italian males report
less passionate love feelings in their relationships than American males.

Anthropological Perspectives on Love

https://cdn3.vectorstock.com/i/1000x1000/28/97/couples-in-traditional-clothes-
present-countries-vector-18302897.jpg
Couples from different country. Retrieve September 7, 2020
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One question is whether romantic love is only a western cultural construct, or, given its
remote origins in ancient Greece, India and the Islamic world, whether it is a universal in
human societies. The basic conclusion was that love is a universal emotion experienced by a
majority of people, in various historical eras, and in all the world’s cultures, but manifests
itself in different ways because culture has been found to have an impact on people’s
conceptions of love and the way they feel, think, and behave in romantic relationships.

Some scholars view romantic love as a Western invention not found in other cultures.
Western societies are preoccupied with romantic love as the idealization of love. The hero
of the American movie is always a romantic lover. The idealization of love is a peculiarly
Western phenomenon. In particular, Stone (1989) suggests that romantic love does not
exist in non-Western countries, except possibly for the elite of those countries who have the
time to cultivate romantic love. Some scholars contend (Doi, 1973; Hsu, 1985) that
romantic love is almost unknown in some cultures such as China and Japan.

Recent studies, however, indicate a different perspective. Anthropologists now believe that
romantic love, or at least passionate love, is a universal phenomenon and they found
evidence of its occurrences in many cultures. Passionate love is a universal emotion,
experienced by many people in the world’s cultures (Fischer, Shaver, & Carnochan, 1990;
Shaver, Morgan, & Wu, 1996). Evolutionary psychologists contend that passionate love is
innate in human nature and is based on biological processes that are universal, applying to
people of all cultures.

A landmark study by Jankowiak and Fischer (1992) explored romantic love in 166 cultures
around the world. They examined the following indicators of love: young lovers talk about
passionate love, recount tales of love, sing love songs, and speak of the longings and
anguish of infatuation. The researchers found that romantic love was present in 147 out of
166 cultures (88.5%). For the remaining 19 cultures, there were no signs indicating that
people experience romantic love. The results showed that romantic love is nearly universal
in the world, yet we cannot draw the conclusion that every person falls in love. Jankowiak
and Fischer (1992) suggested that romantic love can be controlled by some cultural
variables. It is possible that people fall in love more or less often depending on their
culture’s social organization and ideology. For instance, they may fall in love less often
when their society disapproves the romantic love. The historical analysis presented earlier
in this text demonstrates some supporting evidence.

Anthropologists have explored folk conceptions of love in diverse cultures such as the
People’s Republic of China, Indonesia, Turkey, Nigeria, Trinidad, Morocco, the Fulbe of
North Cameroun, the Mangrove (an aboriginal Australian community), the Mangaia in the
Cook Islands, Palau in Micronesia, and the Taita of Kenya (see Jankowiak, 1995, for a review
of this research). In all these studies, people’s conceptions of passionate love appear to be
surprisingly similar. Yet, there is evidence that culture has a profound impact on people’s
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definitions of romantic love and on the way they think, feel, and behave in romantic settings
(Hatfield, Rapson, & Martel, 2007).

Perhaps culture is a main factor that transforms passionate love into romantic love. Passion
is universal and based on biological principles of sexual selection, while romance is culture-
specific and based on historical and cultural traditions. Universal features primarily relate
to evolutionary basics of mate selection important for people’s survival. Buss (1994) found
that men and women in all societies preferred someone who possessed a dependable
character, emotional stability and maturity, and a pleasing disposition. Wallen (1989)
revealed that for some traits—such as good looks and financial prospects—gender had a
great influence on mate preferences: gender accounted for 40%- 45% of the variance, while
geographical origin accounted for only 8%-17% of the variance. Men valued the physical
appearance and youth of their partners more than did women; women wanted that their
mates possess high status and the resources necessary to protect themselves and their
children than did men (Buss, 1994).

Cultural values and traditional behaviors influence the expressions and experiences of love
and transfer passionate love as primarily based on a sexual attraction into romantic love as
an idealized and culturally affected way of loving. Culturally influenced features are ones
that pertain to cultural rituals of love and mating. For example, Buss (1994) discovered the
powerful impact that culture had on mate preferences. For such traits—as chastity,
ambition, and preferred age—culture mattered most: gender accounted for only 5%-16%
of the variance, whereas geographical origin accounted for 38%-59% of the variance
(Wallen, 1989). In China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel (the Palestinian Arabs), and Taiwan,
young people were insistent that their mate should be “chaste,” while in Finland, France,
Norway, the Netherlands, Sweden, and West Germany, most judged chastity to be relatively
unimportant. Wallen concluded that the cultural perspective may be more powerful than
evolutionary heritage in understanding mate selection.

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 References and Supplementary Materials:

Books and Journals

Matsumoto, D. & Juang, L. (2016) Culture and Psychology (6th Edition). Cengage
Learning;
ISBN-10: 978130564895, ISBN-13: 978-1305648951

A MAP OF GENDER-DIVERSE CULTURES

https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/content/two-spirits_map-html/

Citation

Beckwith, J. B. (1994). Terminology and social relevance in psychological research on

gender. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 22(4), 329–336.

Bornstein, M. H. (2013). Parenting × gender × culture × time. In W. B. Wilcox & K. Kovner

Kline (Eds.), Gender and parenthood: Biological and social scientific perspectives. (pp. 91–
119). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Brody, L. R., & Hall, J. A. (2010). Gender, emotion, and socialization. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R.
McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology, Vol 1: Gender research in
general and experimental psychology. (pp. 429–454). New York, NY: Springer Science +
Business Media.
Medina, B. (2001). The Filipino Family, 2nd ed. Quezon City: University of the Philippines
Press.
Differences Between Compassionate and Passionate Love:
https://www.verywellmind.com/compassionate-and-passionate-love-2795338

Online Instructional Videos

 Biological Sex: part 1 Sex Differentiation https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=qYS0wLE0OjM&vl=en
 Sternberg's Theory of Love: Intimacy, Commitment, Passion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Cxq7ZmnFLU