Mariano Marcos State University

College of Health Sciences

Pharmacy Department
City of Batac 2906 Ilocos Norte

PHARM 111: Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy

1st Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

Title
Chapter 3: The Cell
Introduction

A cell is a structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It is microscopic

and capable of independent existence. All living things are made up of cells. The
outward differences among the various biological forms may bewilder us. But
underlying these differences is a powerful uniformity. That is all biological systems
are composed of same types of molecules and they all employ similar principles of
organization at the cellular level.

Learning Outcomes

After going through the module, the student must have:

• Executed methods of studying cells;
• explained the complexity of plant cell structure and function;
• described the differences of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; and
• outlined the processes that are important to cells.

Warm-up Activity
Question…

What do all living things have in common?

Central Activities

Learning Input 1 (Lecture)

The Cell

Cells are the units of structure of plants and animals. It is the smallest unit of a living
thing.

Early studies on cells

• Zacharias Jansen- invented the microscope in 1590

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 • Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)- perfected the art of grinding lenses (
pieces of glass with curved surfaces) and used them in microscopes of his own
design to produce clear, magnified images. He made many microscopes and
peered through them to discover a world of organisms that were previously
unknown.
• Robert Hooke (1635-1703)- made significant discoveries with the compound
microscope (a microscope with two lenses, the eyepiece and the objective). He
used a microscope to examine a cork (dead plant) and saw that cork was
composed of tiny boxes or compartments, which he named cells. He published a
book titled Micrographia which illustrated his findings using the instrument.
• Marcelo Malpighi, Nehemia Grew and Leeuwenhoek reported on the form and
structure of a single-celled organisms which they referred to as animalcules.
• Robert Brown (1831)- discovered the presence of nucleus in the cells of orchid
roots.
• Purkinje- coined the term protoplasm for the slimy substance that is found inside
the cells.
• Matthias Schleiden (1838)- stated that all plants are composed of cells; a
cofounder of the cell theory.
• Theodor Schwann (1839)- stated that all animals are also composed of cells and
claimed that all living things are composed of cells. He is also a cofounder of the
cell theory.
• Rudolf Virchow (1858)- he stated that cell came from pre-existing cells by cell
division. Also a cofounder of the cell theory.

Cell Theory
• It states that all living organisms are composed of cells and that cells form a
unifying structural basis of organization; or simply recognizes the cells as the basic
unit of life.
• It further states that all organisms are composed of cells and all cells arise from
pre-existing cells.

Cell Structure

Parts of a Cell

1. Cell Wall
A. Structure (Fig 1)
• Primary cell walls are made up of cellulose microfibrils surrounded by a
matrix of polysaccharides including hemicelluloses and pectins.
• Secondary cell walls contain cellulose microfibrils surrounded by
polysaccharides and lignin (strengthens the wall and is evident in wood;
it protects against digestion of the wall by fungal enzymes and against
mechanical penetration by fungal hyphae and other pathogens).

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B. Synthesis-cellulose microfibrils are synthesized from uridine diphosphoglucose
(UDP glucose) by cellulose synthase, an enzyme complex forming rosettes in the
plasma membrane.
• Matrix materials are synthesized in the Golgi apparatus and deposited
into the wall by secretory vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane.

C. Function- cell walls are essential for adhesion and the growth and formation of
the plant body.
• Primary cell walls have high tensile strength and oppose turgor.

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 • Lignified secondary walls give greater strength.
• Cell walls act as a barrier to pathogens and deter herbivory.
• Primary cell walls are generally permeable to water and small molecules.
• The dynamic nature of primary cell walls permits cell expansion and plant
growth.

2. Plasma membrane/Cell membrane

• a membrane found in all cells that separates the interior of the cell from the
outside environment.
• In plant cells, a cell wall is attached to the plasma membrane on its outside
surface.
• It consists of a lipid bilayer that is semipermeable
• Regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.

***Membrane lipids have hydrophilic (water-hating) head groups and

hydrophobic (water-loving_ tails that are buried within the membrane, making a
hydrophobic domain not readily crossed by charged hydrophilic (polar) substances.

***Fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane describes the plasma membrane
as a fluid combination of phospholipids, cholesterol and proteins. Carbohydrates
attached to lipids (glycolipids) and to proteins (glycoproteins) extend from the outward-
facing surface of the membrane.

3. Plasmodesmata (Plasmodesma, singular)

• Structures in which membranes from adjacent cells connect through a pore in the
cell wall.
• They link adjacent plasma membranes and cytoplasm.

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• The desmotubule is a tube of endoplasmic reticulum in the center of the pore
surrounded by globular proteins.
• The structure permits regulated transport between the cells.

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4. Cytoplasm- is a liquid, gel-like substance and contains several types of organelles;
smooth or rough endoplasmic reticulum, rough referring to attached ribosomes on the
ER (endoplasmic reticulum) and free ribosomes.

5. Vacuole- in mature plant cell, one large vacuole usually occupies most of the space
within the cell.
• it is surrounded by a single-layered membrane, the tonoplast.
• It contains cell sap composed of water, sugars, and various organic and inorganic
solutes.
• The vacuole functions in regulation of osmotic balance and turgidity of the cell
and it stores secondary metabolites.

6. Tonoplast- a single membrane surrounding the vacuole.

• It maintains ionic homeostasis of the cytoplasm and transports nutrients and
other products by maintaining an electrochemical gradient driven by proton
pumping.

7. Nucleus and genome

• Structure- the nucleus is bounded by a double membrane, the nuclear envelope,
which is perforated by nuclear pores that permit the movement of materials from
the interior of the nucleus (nucleoplasm) to the cytoplasm. The genetic material
(DNA) is present as a DNA-protein complex known as chromatin. The nucleolus is
the site of synthesis of the ribosome subunits.
• Function:
o Controls all the metabolic activities of the cell by controlling the synthesis
of enzymes required.
o Controls the inheritance of characters from parents to offspring.
o Controls cell division.

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8. Cell Organelles
A. Plastids- classified by the primary pigment they contain.
• They are a family of organelles bounded by two external membranes
• Family members include:
o Photosynthetic chloroplasts- found in the mesophyll cells of leaves,
cortex of herbaceous stems and in small numbers elsewhere in the plant
o Chromoplasts containing pigments are associated with brightly colored
structures like ripe fruit.
o Chlorophyll- responsible for the green coloration of plant
o Leucoplasts- colorless and it is involved in lipid biosynthesis
o Amyloplasts- store starch
o Etioplasts- synthesize lipid and an intermediate stage in production of
photosynthetic chloroplasts in tissue exposed to light for the first time.

B. Mitochondria- site of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) using lipids, carbohydrates

and other high energy compounds as fuel. They are said to be “power houses” of
the cell.
• Structure: mitochondria are surrounded by double membranes. The inner of
these membranes is folded for form cristae which project into the inner
space, the stroma or matrix. This inner mitochondrial membrane therefore
separates two compartments: the intermembrane space and the matrix
space. It is selectively permeable and contains the transport proteins involved
in ATP production.

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C. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• A system of flattened sacs or tubes of membrane.
• Smooth ER is the site of lipid synthesis and rough ER (it appears rough due to
the presence of ribosomes) of protein synthesis.
• Smooth ER has no ribosomes and may also be involved in the production of
carbohydrate. The ER, particularly the smooth form, may be associated with
plasmodesmata, strands of cytoplasm that run through cell walls, creating the
appearance of communicating linkages between cells.

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 D. Golgi Apparatus- a system of stacked membrane of cisternae
• Site of protein modification and polysaccharide biosynthesis
• Appear to be prominent in cells that produce secretions; and are always found
in association with basal bodies of flagella and cilia, and with centrioles.
• Contains enzymes, and in addition to their role of delivery, they may be
involved in manufacturing.
• They are also believed to play a part in cell plate formation, making
microtubules, and synthesizing enzymes.
• In plant cells, golgi bodies are commonly called dictyosomes.

E. Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis

Plant Chromosomes
• Chromosomes are made up of tightly packed chromatin. Chromosomes in dividing
cells have two chromatids joined at a centromere. Endoreduplication results in
many copies of each chromosome, while gene amplification results in multiple
copies of a few highly used genes. Polyploid cells have more than the usual
number of chromosomes; normally only polyploids with an even number of
chromosome copies are fertile as they can undergo chromosome pairing in
meiosis.

• Structure and function of chromatin

o The DNA double helix is entwined around histone proteins in units called
nucleosomes, packed together to give a 30-nm fiber of chromatin.
o Genetic information is contained within the DNA as codons.
o Genes are made up of a structural region encoding the protein to be
synthesized and promoter regions that control gene activity.

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 o In transcription, the DNA untwines and RNA polymerase II copies it as an RNA
strand. Non- transcribed introns are removed giving messenger RNA (mRNA)
which is translated into protein on ribosomes.

Basic Cell Types: Eukaryotes and prokaryotes

a. Eukaryotic cell- possesses a nucleus and other organelles surrounded by
membranes
b. Prokaryotic cell- it lacks nuclei and other membrane-bounded organelles; the
archaea and bacteria.

Processes important to the cell

a. Diffusion- the net movement of a substance along the concentration gradient from
an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
b. Osmosis- the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
c. Facilitated diffusion- a carrier protein helps move a material across a membrane
in the direction of the concentration gradient, from high to low concentration.
d. Active transport- energy is expended to move a material against the concentration
gradient, from low to high concentration.

Cell Division
1. The cell cycle
• Cell division in plants occurs in meristems and involves two parts: mitosis in which
chromosomes are replicated and sorted into two nuclei, and cytokines in which
the cell wall, cytoplasm and organelles divide.

***karyokinesis- division of the nucleus

***cytokinesis- division of the cell

• Cell division occurs in stages: interphase G1(cell enlarges, nucleus migrates to center,
protein synthesis); interphase S (DNA replication occurs); interphase G2
(preprophase band and structures of mitosis form, chromosomes condense). In M-

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 phase mitosis, chromosomes replicate and divide to form two daughter nuclei. In M-
phase cytokinesis, the cytoplasm divides and a cell plate and new cell walls form.

2. Cell cycle control

Mitosis
• Represented by DNA duplication followed by nuclear division (Karyokinesis)
which in turn is followed by cytokinesis.
• In plants, active mitotic cell division takes place in shoot and root apices. In
higher animals, mitotic cell division is said to be diffused, distributed all over the
body.
• Mitotic cell cycle consists of:
o long interphase (which is sub divided into G1, S and G2 phases)
o a short M stage (or mitotic stage, subdivided into prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase)
o cytokinesis

Events in mitosis

Stage Events
Early prophase Chromosomes visible in nucleus

Mid prophase Chromosomes shorten and thicken; the two parts

(chromatids) making up each chromosome become
visible with a join (centromere)

Late prophase Kinetochores (specialized structures attached to

microtubules) attach at the centromeres. Nuclear
envelop breaks down

Metaphase Chromosomes align at the center of the cell;

chromosomes aligned by microtubules which run from
the centromeres to the pole ends of the cell.

Anaphase Begins with coordinated movement of chromatids,

drawn by the kinetochore microtubules. The two sets of
chromatids (now called daughter chromosomes) are
now separated to opposite ends of the cell

Telophase Daughter chromosomes now visible at ends of cell;

nuclear envelops develop around chromosomes and a
cell plate forms which will develop into the cell wall

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Meiosis
• Meiosis occurs to produce haploid cells.
• It involves an extra round of cell division.
• The first phase, prophase to anaphase I, results in exchange of DNA between the
pairs of chromosomes followed by their separation with both chromatids present.
• The second phase (metaphase II to telophase II) is a mitosis resulting in separation of
the chromatids and the formation of four haploid cells.

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Activity 1
• You are requested to download the video related to the topic posted in the mVLE
course page on September 8, 2020, 1:00 PM.

Activity 2
• Study the different phases of mitosis and meiosis and compare the outcomes of
each phase. You are requested to view a video on cell division. The link will be
uploaded in the course page of mVLE.

Learning Input 2 (Laboratory)

Overview
• "Micro" refers to tiny, "scope" refers to view or look at. Microscopes are tools
used to enlarge images of small objects so as they can be studied. The compound
light microscope is an instrument containing two lenses, which magnifies, and a
variety of knobs to resolve (focus) the picture. Because it uses more than one
lens, it is sometimes called the compound microscope in addition to being
referred to as being a light microscope.

Activity 3
• Watch a video regarding microscope. Upon watching, you should be able to
identify the different parts of the microscope and explain why it was invented and
how it helped develop the cell theory. The link will be uploaded in the course page
of mVLE.

Wrap-up Activity

Discussion Forum 3
• You are expected to participate in the discussion forum scheduled on September
14, 2020 (unless otherwise rescheduled), Monday via the mVLE
BIGBlueButtonBN or ZOOM.
• An invitation link will be available in the mVLE course site.
• Open-ended questions will be asked randomly among students during the
discussion proper.
• In addition, students are also given opportunity to ask/raise any question or
make clarifications during the discussion.

Assessment (Post-assessment)

Problem-based Learning Task 3

Assignment (Cell Division)
• A detailed instruction will be available in the mVLE course guide page Assignment
portal on September 8, 2020, 1:00 PM.
• Submit your output on or before 11:59 pm, September 13 (Sunday) via the same
portal in mVLE.

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Laboratory-based Learning Task 3
Laboratory Activity 3: Microscope
• Instructions for the laboratory activity will be available in the mVLE course page
Assignment portal on September 8, 2020, 1:00 PM.
• Submit your laboratory report using the Assignment portal in the mVLE on or
before 11:59, September 13, 2020 (Sunday).

Online Exam 3
• You are required to take the Post-Test after the discussion forum on September
14, 2020.
• The link will be posted on September 14, 2020 (Monday) 5:00 PM in the mVLE
Quiz Portal.

Course Facilitator

Kristian Gay D. Beltran

Assistant Professor II
Pharmacy Department
09175700665
kdbeltran@mmsu.edu.ph

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