Module 2: Elements of

Protection Systems

Presented by: S. Azad

ECE Department
Agenda
 Part A
 Relay types and operating principles

 Part B
 Circuit breaker types and operating principles

 Part C
 Current transformers (CTs)

 CT equivalent diagram

 CT classes

 CT saturation

 Voltage transformers (VTs)

 Coupling capacitor voltage transformers (CCVTs)

 Non-conventional instrument transformers

Module 2: Elements of Protection Systems 2

 PART A
Relays

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Substation Control Room

Relays are located in the

control rooms

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Introduction

 The field of relaying is almost 100

years old.
VT CT CB
 Function: Detect faults or abnormal
conditions.
 Inputs: Voltages and currents at the
terminals of the protected apparatus
or at the appropriate zone
boundaries as well as open or closed
states of some contacts or switches.
 Output: Trip signal to breakers.

Module 2: Elements of Protection Systems PAGE 5

Fault detection

 During faults

 AC current increase

 AC voltage decreases

 Change in voltage and current phase angles

 Harmonic components

 Changes in active and reactive power

 Frequency change

⇒ All these indicators can be used to detect the fault

Module 2: Elements of Protection Systems PAGE 6

Protective Relay Classification

 Based on  Performance characteristic

 Input  Distance

 Current  Directional overcurrent

 Voltage  Inverse time

 Power  Phase

 Frequency  Ground

 Temperature  Definite-time

 etc.  Phase comparison

 Overcurrent
 Operating principle
 Undervoltage
 Electromechanical
 Overvoltage
 Solid-state
 etc.
 Digital

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History of Protection Technology

 Electromechanical relays

 Solid-state

 Numerical relays

 The hardware technology used in building the relays has gone through several
major changes.
 Relays began as electromechanical devices, then progressed to solid-state
hardware in the late 1950s, and later they have been implemented on
microcomputers.
 The main operating principles remain the same.

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Electromechanical Relays

 1900-1965

 Constructed from electromechanical elements such as solenoids, hinged

armatures and induction discs.
 Actuating forces were created by a combination of the input signals, stored
energy in springs, and dashpots.
 Short tripping times when sufficient torque is provided.

 High reliability when adequate maintenance is provided.

 Provide all types of protection.

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Electromechanical Relays

 Types

 Plunger-type (attractive forces)

 Activated by a single input

 Example: Hinged-armature relay

 Induction-type (rotational torque)

 Activated by single or multiple inputs

 Example: Induction disc and Induction cup relays

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Plunger-Type Relays Hinged-Armature
(Clapper) Type

 Example: Plunger-type and clapper-

type instantaneous overcurrent relays
 Current or voltage applied to the coil
produces flux, which attracts the
armature or plunger.
 Moving Contacts are operated.

 Works with both AC and DC currents

Plunger
Type

Module 2: Elements of Protection Systems PAGE 11

Induction Disc Relay
 Two sources of alternating magnetic flux (two current
coils)
 The two fluxes must have a phase difference between
them to generate torque.
 𝜏 𝐾𝐼 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
 𝑖 𝑡 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖 𝑡 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝜃
 The direction of the torque is from the coil with the
leading current to the one with the lagging current.
 A spring keeps the disc from turning.

 When the torque produced by the currents exceeds

the spring torque, the disc begins to turn.
 After turning an angle ϕ (relay design constant), the
relay closes its contacts.

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Induction Disc Relay
 With the proper choice of the two coil
currents, various relay characteristics can
be obtained:
 Level detector (overcurrent or voltage relay)

 Directional relay, etc.

 Pickup (tap) setting: Current value at which

the disk just begins to rotate.
 Dropout current: Energizing current must
drop below this setting so that the disk can
return to its original position.
 Time dial setting: Associated with the
adjustable spacing for the contact travel,
which provides different operating times at Inverse time characteristic of an induction
the same operating current level. disc overcurrent relay

Module 2: Elements of Protection Systems PAGE 13

Induction Cup or Cylinder Relay

 Two coils wound on the four poles of

the electromagnet
 Magnetic core in center.

 When the fluxes of coils one and two

are in phase, no rotational torque
exists.
 A phase shift is designed in one coil
circuit, such that an operating torque
is produced when the current is
higher than the pickup value.

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Solid-State Relay

 1965-1980

 Constructed from filters and solid-state elements such as

diodes, transistors, comparators and operational amplifiers.
 Consists of two types of circuits

 Analog circuits for fault-sensing or measuring

 Digital logic circuits for operation on logical variables

 No moving parts

 Compared to electromechanical relays, more relaying

algorithms can be implemented in solid-state relays ⇒ more
flexibility.
 Limited capability to tolerate hostile substation environments.

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Solid-State Relay

 Example: Solid-State Overcurrent Relay

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Numerical Relays

 1970-Present

 Digital computers using analog-to-digital

converters to convert analogue inputs to
a digital output associated with the
contact state.

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Numerical Relays

 Greater flexibility

 Adjustable characteristics (adaptive

protection)
 Increased range of settings

 High accuracy
Function Library
 Reduced size

 Lower costs

 Ancillary functions, such as event

recording, fault location data, remote
setting, self-monitoring and self-
diagnostic capability
 Communication with control station

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ANSI Reference Numbers

 ANSI: American National Standards Institute

 ANSI numbers describe the function and type of the device

 ANSI numbers are used in one-line and connection diagrams to designate relays
or other devices, saving space and text.
 When a relay combines two functions, both function numbers are shown on the
diagram
 Example

 Overcurrent relay combining both instantaneous and inverse time tripping functions (50/51)

 Undervoltage and overvoltage relay (27/59)

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ANSI Reference Numbers

Number Type Number Type

2 Time Delay 59 Overvoltage

21 Distance 60 Voltage or current balance

25 Synchronizing check 64 Instantaneous earth fault (High impedance)

27 Undervoltage 67 Directional overcurrent

32 Directional power 67N Directional earth fault

37 Undercurrent or underpower 79 Auto reclose

40 Field failure 81 Frequency

46 Negative sequence 86 Trip/Lockout
49 Thermal 87 Differential
50 Instantaneous Overcurrent
51 Time delayed overcurrent 51N Time delayed earth fault
52 Circuit breaker 52a Auxiliary switch-NO
85 Signal receive 52b Auxiliary switch-NC

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