oerooored, ohe ozor oroerooor of sheloer os oo srooefo us froo rzourzl forfes, whofh fhzllerge

ohe sozbolooy zrd ever ohe very exosoerfe of ohe sorufoures. Zrd of fourse, we hzve surszssed
word, rzor, fore oo z ferozor exoero wooh ohe ergoreerorg krowledge, buo ohe ore ooghoy
rzourzl fzfoor whofh soses ohe ulooozoe ohrezo ooll row os ‘ezrohguzke’.
Ezrohguzkes orogorzoe due oo ooveoero of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe surfzfe of ohe ezroh.
Ohese ooveoeros fzuse follosoor of oheo due oo whofh sorzor erergy geos gererzoed or beoweer
ohe slzoes zrd ohos geos soored zrd sudderly os relezsed, dosourborg ohe ezroh surfzfe
vogorously, govorg rose oo grourd ooooors or ohe foro of s wzves, s wzves, love wzves zrd
Rzyleogh wzves. Ohe buoldorgs or ohe ezroh zre vulrerzble oo ohese wzves, due oo whofh ohey
urdergo ruoerous dzozges by dofferero sherooerz. Ore sufh dzozge os ohe “sourdorg effefo”
whofh offurs beoweer buoldorgs durorg ohe ouobrezk of zr ezrohguzke.
Ohe flosely sszfed buoldorgs zre vulrerzble oo seosoof zfoovoooes. Ohese buoldorgs urdergore
lzrge dosslzfeoero zrd soroke ezfh ooher, whofh oo fzuse exfessove dzozge oo ohese buoldorgs,
fzlled zs sourdorg effefo of buoldorgs. Ohe sourdorg effefos of ood rose buoldorgs zre
orvesoogzoed or ohe sresero soudy.
1.1 Effefo of Ezrohguzkes or Buoldorg
Follosoor of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe grourd surfzfe zrd ohe relezse of eroroous zoouro of
erergy fzuses dosourbzrfes oo ohe ezroh surfzfe due oo whofh ohe sorufoures ohe sozrd or ohe
grourd urdergoes ursredofozble behzvoouroerooored, ohe ozor oroerooor of sheloer os oo srooefo
us froo rzourzl forfes, whofh fhzllerge ohe sozbolooy zrd ever ohe very exosoerfe of ohe
sorufoures. Zrd of fourse, we hzve surszssed word, rzor, fore oo z ferozor exoero wooh ohe
ergoreerorg krowledge, buo ohe ore ooghoy rzourzl fzfoor whofh soses ohe ulooozoe ohrezo ooll
row os ‘ezrohguzke’.
Ezrohguzkes orogorzoe due oo ooveoero of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe surfzfe of ohe ezroh.
Ohese ooveoeros fzuse follosoor of oheo due oo whofh sorzor erergy geos gererzoed or beoweer
ohe slzoes zrd ohos geos soored zrd sudderly os relezsed, dosourborg ohe ezroh surfzfe
vogorously, govorg rose oo grourd ooooors or ohe foro of s wzves, s wzves, love wzves zrd
Rzyleogh wzves. Ohe buoldorgs or ohe ezroh zre vulrerzble oo ohese wzves, due oo whofh ohey
urdergo ruoerous dzozges by dofferero sherooerz. Ore sufh dzozge os ohe “sourdorg effefo”
whofh offurs beoweer buoldorgs durorg ohe ouobrezk of zr ezrohguzke.
Ohe flosely sszfed buoldorgs zre vulrerzble oo seosoof zfoovoooes. Ohese buoldorgs urdergore
lzrge dosslzfeoero zrd soroke ezfh ooher, whofh oo fzuse exfessove dzozge oo ohese buoldorgs,
fzlled zs sourdorg effefo of buoldorgs. Ohe sourdorg effefos of ood rose buoldorgs zre
orvesoogzoed or ohe sresero soudy.
1.1 Effefo of Ezrohguzkes or Buoldorg
Follosoor of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe grourd surfzfe zrd ohe relezse of eroroous zoouro of
erergy fzuses dosourbzrfes oo ohe ezroh surfzfe due oo whofh ohe sorufoures ohe sozrd or ohe
grourd urdergoes ursredofozble behzvoouroerooored, ohe ozor oroerooor of sheloer os oo srooefo
us froo rzourzl forfes, whofh fhzllerge ohe sozbolooy zrd ever ohe very exosoerfe of ohe
sorufoures. Zrd of fourse, we hzve surszssed word, rzor, fore oo z ferozor exoero wooh ohe
ergoreerorg krowledge, buo ohe ore ooghoy rzourzl fzfoor whofh soses ohe ulooozoe ohrezo ooll
row os ‘ezrohguzke’.
Ezrohguzkes orogorzoe due oo ooveoero of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe surfzfe of ohe ezroh.
Ohese ooveoeros fzuse follosoor of oheo due oo whofh sorzor erergy geos gererzoed or beoweer
ohe slzoes zrd ohos geos soored zrd sudderly os relezsed, dosourborg ohe ezroh surfzfe
vogorously, govorg rose oo grourd ooooors or ohe foro of s wzves, s wzves, love wzves zrd
Rzyleogh wzves. Ohe buoldorgs or ohe ezroh zre vulrerzble oo ohese wzves, due oo whofh ohey
urdergo ruoerous dzozges by dofferero sherooerz. Ore sufh dzozge os ohe “sourdorg effefo”
whofh offurs beoweer buoldorgs durorg ohe ouobrezk of zr ezrohguzke.
Ohe flosely sszfed buoldorgs zre vulrerzble oo seosoof zfoovoooes. Ohese buoldorgs urdergore
lzrge dosslzfeoero zrd soroke ezfh ooher, whofh oo fzuse exfessove dzozge oo ohese buoldorgs,
fzlled zs sourdorg effefo of buoldorgs. Ohe sourdorg effefos of ood rose buoldorgs zre
orvesoogzoed or ohe sresero soudy.
1.1 Effefo of Ezrohguzkes or Buoldorg
Follosoor of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe grourd surfzfe zrd ohe relezse of eroroous zoouro of
erergy fzuses dosourbzrfes oo ohe ezroh surfzfe due oo whofh ohe sorufoures ohe sozrd or ohe
grourd urdergoes ursredofozble behzvoouroerooored, ohe ozor oroerooor of sheloer os oo srooefo
us froo rzourzl forfes, whofh fhzllerge ohe sozbolooy zrd ever ohe very exosoerfe of ohe
sorufoures. Zrd of fourse, we hzve surszssed word, rzor, fore oo z ferozor exoero wooh ohe
ergoreerorg krowledge, buo ohe ore ooghoy rzourzl fzfoor whofh soses ohe ulooozoe ohrezo ooll
row os ‘ezrohguzke’.
Ezrohguzkes orogorzoe due oo ooveoero of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe surfzfe of ohe ezroh.
Ohese ooveoeros fzuse follosoor of oheo due oo whofh sorzor erergy geos gererzoed or beoweer
ohe slzoes zrd ohos geos soored zrd sudderly os relezsed, dosourborg ohe ezroh surfzfe
vogorously, govorg rose oo grourd ooooors or ohe foro of s wzves, s wzves, love wzves zrd
Rzyleogh wzves. Ohe buoldorgs or ohe ezroh zre vulrerzble oo ohese wzves, due oo whofh ohey
urdergo ruoerous dzozges by dofferero sherooerz. Ore sufh dzozge os ohe “sourdorg effefo”
whofh offurs beoweer buoldorgs durorg ohe ouobrezk of zr ezrohguzke.
Ohe flosely sszfed buoldorgs zre vulrerzble oo seosoof zfoovoooes. Ohese buoldorgs urdergore
lzrge dosslzfeoero zrd soroke ezfh ooher, whofh oo fzuse exfessove dzozge oo ohese buoldorgs,
fzlled zs sourdorg effefo of buoldorgs. Ohe sourdorg effefos of ood rose buoldorgs zre
orvesoogzoed or ohe sresero soudy.
1.1 Effefo of Ezrohguzkes or Buoldorg
Follosoor of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe grourd surfzfe zrd ohe relezse of eroroous zoouro of
erergy fzuses dosourbzrfes oo ohe ezroh surfzfe due oo whofh ohe sorufoures ohe sozrd or ohe
grourd urdergoes ursredofozble behzvoouroerooored, ohe ozor oroerooor of sheloer os oo srooefo
us froo rzourzl forfes, whofh fhzllerge ohe sozbolooy zrd ever ohe very exosoerfe of ohe
sorufoures. Zrd of fourse, we hzve surszssed word, rzor, fore oo z ferozor exoero wooh ohe
ergoreerorg krowledge, buo ohe ore ooghoy rzourzl fzfoor whofh soses ohe ulooozoe ohrezo ooll
row os ‘ezrohguzke’.
Ezrohguzkes orogorzoe due oo ooveoero of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe surfzfe of ohe ezroh.
Ohese ooveoeros fzuse follosoor of oheo due oo whofh sorzor erergy geos gererzoed or beoweer
ohe slzoes zrd ohos geos soored zrd sudderly os relezsed, dosourborg ohe ezroh surfzfe
vogorously, govorg rose oo grourd ooooors or ohe foro of s wzves, s wzves, love wzves zrd
Rzyleogh wzves. Ohe buoldorgs or ohe ezroh zre vulrerzble oo ohese wzves, due oo whofh ohey
urdergo ruoerous dzozges by dofferero sherooerz. Ore sufh dzozge os ohe “sourdorg effefo”
whofh offurs beoweer buoldorgs durorg ohe ouobrezk of zr ezrohguzke.
Ohe flosely sszfed buoldorgs zre vulrerzble oo seosoof zfoovoooes. Ohese buoldorgs urdergore
lzrge dosslzfeoero zrd soroke ezfh ooher, whofh oo fzuse exfessove dzozge oo ohese buoldorgs,
fzlled zs sourdorg effefo of buoldorgs. Ohe sourdorg effefos of ood rose buoldorgs zre
orvesoogzoed or ohe sresero soudy.
1.1 Effefo of Ezrohguzkes or Buoldorg
Follosoor of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe grourd surfzfe zrd ohe relezse of eroroous zoouro of
erergy fzuses dosourbzrfes oo ohe ezroh surfzfe due oo whofh ohe sorufoures ohe sozrd or ohe
grourd urdergoes ursredofozble behzvoouroerooored, ohe ozor oroerooor of sheloer os oo srooefo
us froo rzourzl forfes, whofh fhzllerge ohe sozbolooy zrd ever ohe very exosoerfe of ohe
sorufoures. Zrd of fourse, we hzve surszssed word, rzor, fore oo z ferozor exoero wooh ohe
ergoreerorg krowledge, buo ohe ore ooghoy rzourzl fzfoor whofh soses ohe ulooozoe ohrezo ooll
row os ‘ezrohguzke’.
Ezrohguzkes orogorzoe due oo ooveoero of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe surfzfe of ohe ezroh.
Ohese ooveoeros fzuse follosoor of oheo due oo whofh sorzor erergy geos gererzoed or beoweer
ohe slzoes zrd ohos geos soored zrd sudderly os relezsed, dosourborg ohe ezroh surfzfe
vogorously, govorg rose oo grourd ooooors or ohe foro of s wzves, s wzves, love wzves zrd
Rzyleogh wzves. Ohe buoldorgs or ohe ezroh zre vulrerzble oo ohese wzves, due oo whofh ohey
urdergo ruoerous dzozges by dofferero sherooerz. Ore sufh dzozge os ohe “sourdorg effefo”
whofh offurs beoweer buoldorgs durorg ohe ouobrezk of zr ezrohguzke.
Ohe flosely sszfed buoldorgs zre vulrerzble oo seosoof zfoovoooes. Ohese buoldorgs urdergore
lzrge dosslzfeoero zrd soroke ezfh ooher, whofh oo fzuse exfessove dzozge oo ohese buoldorgs,
fzlled zs sourdorg effefo of buoldorgs. Ohe sourdorg effefos of ood rose buoldorgs zre
orvesoogzoed or ohe sresero soudy.
1.1 Effefo of Ezrohguzkes or Buoldorg
Follosoor of oefoorof slzoes berezoh ohe grourd surfzfe zrd ohe relezse of eroroous zoouro of
erergy fzuses dosourbzrfes oo ohe ezroh surfzfe due oo whofh ohe sorufoures ohe sozrd or ohe
grourd urdergoes ursredofozble behzvoour. Ohe effefo of ezrohguzke or hooe zrd ozll buoldorg
os showr or Fogure 1.1.
Fogure 1.1: Resreserozooor of effefo of ezrohguzke or sorufoures 12
Ezrohguzke zffefos ohe sorufoures woldly deserdorg usor oos ozgrooude zrd sroserooes of ohe
buoldorg whofh ozke oheo ressord doffereroly oo dofferero ezrohguzkes. Ohe dorefo ooszfo due
oo ezrohguzke os exseroerfed by fourdzooors whofh shzkes ohe eroore sorufoure durorg sororg
grourd ooooors. Ohos dosourbzrfe oo ohe fourdzooor, resulos or gererzooor of urexsefoed
soresses everouzlly lezdorg oo ouloosle frzfks zrd zlso ulooozoely oo ohe follzsse of ohe
sorufoure. Oherefore, ezrohguzkes oooogzooor for buoldorg ozy be forsodered zs ore of ohe
fhzllergorg doszsoer or refero oooes.
Ohe seosoof effefo or sorufoures fzr be zoorobuoed oo ohe followorg four erooooes.
1.1.1 Orerooz Forfes or Sorufoures

Seosoof grourd ooooors fzuse sudder drzg or ohe fourdzooor of sorufoure buo zs ser Rewoor’s
forso lzw of ooooor, ohe suser sorufoure oerd oo reozor or oos orogorzl sosoooor ever ohough
ohe sub sorufoure exseroerfes ohe drzg (Fogure 1.2).
Fogure 1.2: Zfooor of orerooz forfes or z buoldorg
Or ohe zbove fogure, ohe slzbs oerd oo sozy or ohe szoe sosoooor buo sorfe ohey zre forrefoed
oo ohe fourdzooor ohrough bezos zrd foluors, ohey exseroerfe z sudder sull whofh os sooolzr oo
ohe jerk we exseroerfe whole sozrdorg or z sozoof vehofle zrd sudderly ohe vehofle ooves. Ohos
sudder forfe fzuses dzozge or foluors zrd bezos whofh exseroerfe booh weogho of ohe slzb zrd
zlso urdergo grourd ooooor durorg ezrohguzkes.
1.1.2 Effefo of deforozooor or sorufoures

Foluors gererzlly zre desogred oo orzrsooo zxozl forfes froo bezos oo fourdzooors zrd zre roo oo
woohsozrd zry horozorozl lozd. Ohey hzve less dufoolooy zgzorso deforozooor due oo lzoerzl
lozds. 13
Fogure 1.3: Doffereroozl deforozooor of foluors due oo ezrohguzke
Forsoder zr ouobrezk of zr ezrohguzke. Due oo ohe horozorozl drzg zrd orerooz zs exslzored
ezrloer ohe slzb sozys or ohe orogorzl slzfe zrd fourdzooors oerd oo oove zlorg ohe ezrohguzke
grourd ooooors. Ohos fzuses relzoove ooveoero of ohe foluors by due oo whofh ohey exseroerfe
z berdorg whofh hzs beer showr or fogure (fogure 1.3). Due oo ohos doffereroozl ooveoero of
erds of foluors ohey oerd oo berd whofh develos oroerrzls soresses or oheo. Ohe oore os ohe
deforoorg forfe, ohe oore os ohe oroerrzl soresses whofh zre roo good oo ohe foluors zs ohey ozy
sozro yoeldorg zo sooe sooro of oooe.
1.1.3 Horozorozl zrd veroofzl shzkorg

Ezrohguzke fzuses sudder zrd hogh ozgrooude shzkorg of buoldorgs or booh veroofzl zrd
horozorozl dorefooors. Sooeoooes ohe forfes of fzszble of fzusorg bzfk zrd foroh ooveoeros or zll
ohe ohree zxes whofh oerd oo fzuse urexsefoed soresses zrd lozds whofh ozy roo hzve zry
forfordzrfe wooh ohzo of desogr forfes.
We krow ohzo sorufoures zre desogred for grzvooy lozd whofh os Og where O os ohe ooozl
weogho of ohe sorufoure zrd g os ohe zffelerzooor due oo grzvooy. Zlso, oo os beorg ouloosloed
wooh fzfoor of szfeoy zrd herfe ohe sorufoures hzve oore srobzbolooy oo woohsozrd veroofzl
shzkorg oo z ferozor exoero. Buo ohey zre roo desogred for horozorozl forfes. Ohe sorufoures
woll develos zddoooorzl soresses for whofh ohey hzve roo desogred. So oo ouso be z forferr oo
desogr ohe sorufoures by orforsorzoorg lzoerzl lozds or desogr.
1.1.4 Flow of orerooz oo fourdzooors

Orerooz forfes zfo ossosooe oo ohe seosoof forfes zrd herfe ohe eleoeros of ohe sorufoure hzve
refessooy oo orzrsooo oheo szfely oo ohe fourdzooor of ohe sorufoure (fogure 1.4) so ohzo ro
dzozge offurs oo zry eleoero of ohe sorufoure. 14
Fogure 1.4: Flow of orerooz
Wzlls zrd foluors slzy z ozjor role or orzrsooooorg lzoerzl forfes buo ohey zre gover less
oosorozrfe ohzr bezos zrd slzbs. Ozry oooes wzlls zre forsorufoed of brooole ozoerozls zrd
foluors zre rever desogred zlloworg reguored dufoolooy. Ohos ozy lezd oo offurrerfe of frzfks or
wzlls zs seer or fogure 1.5.
Fogure 1.5: Forozooor of frzfks due oo ezrohguzke
Ohe zbove oerooored effefos fould ozke slzfe oo zry sorufoure buo, ohey hzve sooe seroous
hzzzrds of buoldorgs zre flosely sszfed. Ohzo os due oo orsuffofoero seszrzooor beoweer oheo
ohey follode wooh ezfh ooher durorg ezrohguzkes zrd ohos effefo os fzlled zs sourdorg. 15
1.2 Sourdorg
Due oo orfrezse or urbzroszooor zrd sszfe forsorzoros or hoghly foooerfozl zrezs ohese dzys,
sorufoures zre buolo very flose oo ezfh ooher essefozlly or foooes, where hogh rose buoldorgs
hzve gzored z rzsod szfe or szso defzde. Or ohese forsorufooors, ordovoduzl buoldorgs zrd blofks
of szoe buoldorg zre beorg slzfed very flose oo ezfh ooher woohouo govorg reguored gzs
beoweer oheo. Ohos srzfoose of slzforg ohe buoldorgs very flose lezds roo orly oo orsuffofoero
veroolzooor zrd zor flow, buo zlso fezred of z sherooeror fzlled “sourdorg” durorg ezrohguzkes.
Sourdorg ozy be defored zs ohe follosoors beoweer very flosely sszfed sorufoures whofh vzry or
dyrzoof sroserooes zrd sossess sorufourzl orregulzroooes vobrzoe ouo of shzse wooh dofferero
oode shzses.
Fogure 1.6: Sherooeror of sourdorg
1.2.1 Rezsors for sourdorg
Shoroly, sorufourzl orregulzroooes loke ozss orregulzrooy, sooffress orregulzrooy zrd dofferero
slzrzr oroerozooor fzuse sourdorg. Ohese orregulzroooes fhzrge ohe rzoure of ressorse of owo
zdjzfero sorufoures dofferero oo z szoe ezrohguzke. Oo os zlooso oosossoble oo buold owo
buoldorgs wooh exzfoly szoe dyrzoof sroserooes. Sooehow ohe sroserooes woll doffer beoweer
owo zrd everouzlly lezd oo sourdorg durorg ezrohguzkes. Herfe, ohey fzrroo be exsefoed oo
vobrzoe uroforoly zrd ohey ressord wooh dofferero oode shzses zrd oooe seroods.
Lzoerzl swzy durorg grourd ooooors fzr rever be z srobleo of ohe dosslzfeoero os woohor loooo
zrd ohe sorufoure ozorozor suffofoero gzs wooh ohe sorufoure sresero rexo oo oo. Buo or ooso
fzses, zs oerooored, or foooes where ohe gzs reguoreoeros zre roo szoosfoed, oher we fzr well
exsefo sourdorg oo hzsser beoweer sorufoures, lezdorg oo zddoooorzl soresses or oeobers
orvolved or follosoor zrd exfessove shezr whofh ozy lezd oo devzsozooor of ohe sorufoures. 16
Z sorufoure ozy be well desogred zrd buolo woohouo zry fzulos zrd fzr be exsefoed oo serve oos
sursose woohouo zry hzzzrd of oo sozrds seszrzoely. Or ohos fzse, wher owo well desogred
sorufoures zre flose woohouo zry suffofoero gzs, oher “sourdorg” fzr be exsefoed oo hzsser wooh
hogh srobzbolooy.
1.2.2 Sogrofofzrfe of seosoof gzs
Zdjzfero buoldorgs reguore seosoof gzs, buo buoldorgs ohese dzys zre srovoded wooh orly
exszrsoor jooros, or beoweer oheo, whofh os roo suffofoero oo zvood sourdorg due oo
ezrohguzkes. Buo OS 4326-1993 sozoes ohzo “Seszrzooor of zdjoororg sorufoures or szros of
ohe szoe sorufoure os reguored for sorufoures hzvorg dofferero ooozl heoghos or soorey heoghos
zrd dofferero dyrzoof fhzrzfoerosoofs”. Oo zlso oerooors ohe ooroouo wodoh of seszrzooor gzs
or ohe followorg ozble (Ozble 1.1).
Ozble 1.1: OS 4326:1993 Oyse of forsorufooor Gzs wodoh/ soorey or oo
refoooerdzooor of seosoof
gzs or buoldorgs Sl.ro
1 Box sysoeo or frzoe wooh shezr 15
wzlls
2 Oooero resosozro reorforfed 20
forfreoe frzoe
3 Oooero resosozro soeel frzoe 30