SUBMITTED TO:

THEORY OF Sir Rashid Sajid

SUBMITTED BY:
Ahmad Nabeel Hafeez

MACHINES-II 2016-ME-72
SECTION B

Laboratory

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
Table of Contents
1 Experiment 1: ........................................................................................................................................ 7
1.1 Objective: ...................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Page | 1
1.3 Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Theoretical background: ............................................................................................................... 7
1.4.1 Static balancing: .................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.2 Dynamic balancing: .............................................................................................................. 7
1.5 Significance: ................................................................................................................................. 8
1.6 Applications: ................................................................................................................................. 8
1.7 Formulation:.................................................................................................................................. 8
1.8 Observations: ................................................................................................................................ 8
1.9 Comments: .................................................................................................................................... 8
2 Experiment 2: ........................................................................................................................................ 9
2.1 Objective: ...................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Theoretical background: ............................................................................................................... 9
2.4.1 Static balancing: .................................................................................................................... 9
2.4.2 Dynamic balancing: .............................................................................................................. 9
2.5 Significance: ............................................................................................................................... 10
2.6 Applications: ............................................................................................................................... 10
2.7 Formulation:................................................................................................................................ 10
2.8 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 10
2.9 Comments: .................................................................................................................................. 10
3 Experiment 3: ...................................................................................................................................... 12
3.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 12
3.2 Apparatus: ................................................................................................................................... 12
3.3 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 12
3.4 Theoretical background: ............................................................................................................. 12
3.4.1 Static balancing: ................................................................................................................ 12
3.4.2 Dynamic balancing: .......................................................................................................... 12
3.5 Significance: ............................................................................................................................... 13
3.6 Applications: ............................................................................................................................... 13
 3.7 Formulation:................................................................................................................................ 13
3.8 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 13
3.9 Comments: .................................................................................................................................. 13
4 Experiment 4: ...................................................................................................................................... 14
4.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 14 Page | 2
4.2 Apparatus: ................................................................................................................................... 14
4.3 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 14
4.4 Theoretical background: ............................................................................................................. 14
4.4.1 Static balancing: ................................................................................................................ 14
4.4.2 Dynamic balancing: .......................................................................................................... 14
4.5 Significance: ............................................................................................................................... 15
4.6 Applications: ............................................................................................................................... 15
4.7 Formulation:................................................................................................................................ 15
4.8 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 15
4.9 Comments: .................................................................................................................................. 15
5 Experiment 5: ...................................................................................................................................... 16
5.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 16
5.2 Apparatus: ................................................................................................................................... 16
5.3 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 16
5.4 Theoretical background: ............................................................................................................. 16
5.4.1 Static balancing: ................................................................................................................ 16
5.4.2 Dynamic balancing: .......................................................................................................... 16
5.5 Significance: ............................................................................................................................... 17
5.6 Applications: ............................................................................................................................... 17
5.7 Formulation:................................................................................................................................ 17
5.8 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 17
5.9 Comments: .................................................................................................................................. 17
6 Experiment 6: ...................................................................................................................................... 18
6.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 18
6.2 Apparatus: ................................................................................................................................... 18
6.3 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 18
6.4 Theoretical background: ............................................................................................................. 18
6.4.1 Static balancing: ................................................................................................................ 18
6.4.2 Dynamic balancing: .......................................................................................................... 18
6.5 Significance: ............................................................................................................................... 19
 6.6 Applications: ............................................................................................................................... 19
6.7 Formulation:................................................................................................................................ 19
6.8 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 19
6.9 Comments: .................................................................................................................................. 19
7 Experiment 7: ...................................................................................................................................... 20 Page | 3
7.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 20
7.2 Apparatus: ................................................................................................................................... 20
7.3 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 20
7.4 Theoretical background: ............................................................................................................. 20
7.4.1 Static friction:...................................................................................................................... 20
7.4.2 Sliding friction: ................................................................................................................... 21
7.4.3 Rolling friction: ................................................................................................................... 21
7.4.4 Fluid friction: ...................................................................................................................... 21
7.5 Significance: ............................................................................................................................... 22
7.6 Applications: ............................................................................................................................... 22
7.7 Formulation:................................................................................................................................ 22
7.8 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 22
7.9 Comments: .................................................................................................................................. 22
8 Experiment 8: ...................................................................................................................................... 23
8.1 Objective: .................................................................................................................................... 23
8.2 Apparatus: ................................................................................................................................... 23
8.3 Procedure: ................................................................................................................................... 23
8.4 Theoretical background: ............................................................................................................. 23
8.5 Significance: ............................................................................................................................... 23
8.6 Applications: ............................................................................................................................... 24
8.7 Formulation:................................................................................................................................ 25
8.8 Observations: .............................................................................................................................. 25
8.9 Comments: .................................................................................................................................. 25

Figure 1 dynamic Balancing ......................................................................................................................... 7

Figure 2 static unbalance .............................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 3 dynamic unbalance ....................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 4 static and dynamic balancing ........................................................................................................ 12
Figure 5 static balancing apparatus ............................................................................................................. 14
Figure 6 Static balancing ............................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 7 Static and Dynamic Balancing ..................................................................................................... 18
Figure 8 Static Friction ............................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 9 Rolling Friction ............................................................................................................................ 21
Figure 10 Fluid Friction .............................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 11 Worm and Worm Gear ............................................................................................................... 23

Page | 4
Page | 5
Laboratory Layout:
1. Flywheel apparatus
2. Moment of inertia apparatus
3. Governor apparatus
4. Oscilloscope apparatus Page | 6
5. Gyroscope apparatus
6. Cam and tapped apparatus
7. Balancing machine for rotating and reciprocating masses. (A,B & C)
8. Journal bearing and pressure distribution
9. Co-efficient of kinetic friction apparatus
10. Mechanisms:
a. Four bar chain mechanism
b. Quick return motion mechanism
c. Slider crank mechanism
d. Shaping machine mechanism
e. Scotch yoke slotted link mechanism
f. Akerman steering mechanism
g. Crank and slotted lever mechanism
11. Simply supported beam apparatus
12. Roof truss apparatus
13. Inverted gear train apparatus
14. Simple gear train apparatus
15. Warren girder truss apparatus
16. Redundant truss apparatus
17. Fink truss apparatus
18. Edibon static apparatus
19. Radius of gyration apparatus (Inclined plane)
20. Manual steering project
21. Clutch friction apparatus
22. Worm and worm wheel apparatus
23. Toggle joint apparatus
24. Whirling of shaft apparatus (A and B)
25. Duplex screw jack apparatus
26. Belt and pulley apparatus
1 Experiment 1:
1.1 Objective:
To balance a rotating mass (disturbing mass) with a same mass (balancing mass) rotating at same radius
in the same plane.

1.2 Apparatus: Page | 7

• Balancing apparatus
• Weights
• Nuts

1.3 Procedure:
• First, select any plane to which disturbing and adjusting mass must be connected.
• Then pick any mass, drew in it at any radius and at angle Ɵ.
• Put the estimation of the mass, radius, and angle to get horizontal and vertical parts of power.
• Equate this to adjusting force and get balancing mass at radius r.
• Using equation get the benefit of adjusting edge, Ɵb = 180+Ɵd.
• Then connected with this balancing mass in a similar plane at a similar radius.
• Now check that if there is any ambulancemen, if yes then do the experiment again.

1.4 Theoretical background:

1.4.1 Static balancing:
Along the axis of rotation, if the center of rotating body lies, then it is known as static loading. With the
help of static balancing, the object always remain in a stationary position while rotating. Although it can
never be achieved but we try to balance any object to static balancing.

1.4.2 Dynamic balancing:

When there is no force or torque or couple produced while the center of gravity is not in the axis of
rotation, then it is known as the dynamic balancing. Dynamic balancing is an approach to balance out
machines by pivoting parts rapidly and after that estimating the imbalance utilizing electronic gear. The
imbalance determined would then be able to be included or subtracted from the weight until the vibration
of the parts is decreased.

Figure 1 dynamic Balancing

1.5 Significance:
Balancing is done to keep away from vibrations in turning bodies. In overwhelming apparatus, as in
electric generator or gas turbine vibrations can cause disastrous disappointment. At the point when an
unbalanced framework is pivoting intermittent direct or torsional powers are produced. Intermittent nature
of these powers is experienced as vibrations. So to stay away from genuine harm, balancing is vital.
Page | 8
1.6 Applications:
Assume if pivoting speed is high despite the fact that the mass is low, as in gas turbines or fly motors, or
under certain conditions where turning speed is low however the mass is high, as in ship propellers,
balance of the pivoting framework ought to be very considered, in light of the fact that it might produce
substantial vibrations and cause disappointment of the entire framework.

1.7 Formulation:

1.8 Observations:
Sr. no md (lb) rd Ɵd m d rd mb (lb) Ɵb rb m d rd
1 0.5 5 0 2.5 .5 180 5 2.5
2 1 3 0 3 1 180 3 3

1.9 Comments:
• In this investigation, I figured out how to balance single load with single balancing mass in same
plane at same radius.
• Balancing is essential in our life to limit vibrations in any machine.
• On the off chance that a machine has vibration implies mass circulation isn't uniform, at that point
vibration can harm that pivot entire machine so to keep away from these harms we do balancing.
2 Experiment 2:
2.1 Objective:
To balance a rotating mass (disturbing mass) with a balancing mass rotating at different radii in same
plane.

2.2 Apparatus: Page | 9

• Balancing apparatus
• Weights
• Nuts

2.3 Procedure:
• First, select any plane to which disturbing and adjusting masses must be connected.
• Then pick any mass, drew in it at any radius and at angle Ɵ.
• Put the estimation of the mass, radius, and angle to get horizontal and vertical parts of power.
• Equate this to adjusting force and get balancing mass at radius r.
• Using equation get the benefit of adjusting edge, Ɵb = 180+Ɵd.
• Then connected with this balancing mass in a similar plane at a different radius.
• Now check that if there is any ambulancemen, if yes then do the experiment again.

2.4 Theoretical background:

2.4.1 Static balancing:
Along the axis of rotation, if the center of rotating body lies, then it is known as static loading. With the
help of static balancing, the object always remain in a stationary position while rotating. Although it can
never be achieved but we try to balance any object to static balancing.

2.4.2 Dynamic balancing:

When there is no force or torque or couple produced while the center of gravity is not in the axis of
rotation, then it is known as the dynamic balancing. Dynamic balancing is an approach to balance out
machines by pivoting parts rapidly and after that estimating the imbalance utilizing electronic gear. The
imbalance determined would then be able to be included or subtracted from the weight until the vibration
of the parts is decreased.

Figure 2 static unbalance

 Page | 10

Figure 3 dynamic unbalance

2.5 Significance:
Balancing is done to keep away from vibrations in turning bodies. In overwhelming apparatus, as in
electric generator or gas turbine vibrations can cause disastrous disappointment. At the point when an
unbalanced framework is pivoting intermittent direct or torsional powers are produced. Intermittent nature
of these powers is experienced as vibrations. So to stay away from genuine harm, balancing is vital.

2.6 Applications:
Assume if pivoting speed is high despite the fact that the mass is low, as in gas turbines or fly motors, or
under certain conditions where turning speed is low however the mass is high, as in ship propellers,
balance of the pivoting framework ought to be very considered, in light of the fact that it might produce
substantial vibrations and cause disappointment of the entire framework.

2.7 Formulation:

2.8 Observations:
Sr. no md (lb) rd Ɵd m d rd mb (lb) Ɵb rb m d rd
1 1 5 40 5 1.25 220 4 5
2 2 4 60 8 1.6 240 5 8

2.9 Comments:
• In this investigation, I figured out how to balance single load with single balancing mass in same
plane at different radius.
• Balancing is essential in our life to limit vibrations in any machine.
• On the off chance that a machine has vibration implies mass circulation isn't uniform, at that point
vibration can harm that pivot entire machine so to keep away from these harms we do balancing.

Page | 11
3 Experiment 3:
3.1 Objective:
To balance two rotating masses (disturbing mass) with a balancing mass rotating at same radii in same
plane.

3.2 Apparatus: Page | 12

• Balancing apparatus
• Weights
• Nuts

3.3 Procedure:
• First, select any plane to which disturbing and adjusting masses must be connected.
• Then pick any mass, drew in it at any radius and at angle Ɵ.
• Put the estimation of the masses, radius, and angle to get horizontal and vertical parts of power.
• Equate this to adjusting force and get balancing mass at radius r.
• Using equation get the benefit of adjusting edge, Ɵb = 180+Ɵd.
• Then connected with this balancing masses in a similar plane at a similar radius.
• Now check that if there is any ambulancemen, if yes then do the experiment again.

3.4 Theoretical background:

3.4.1 Static balancing:
Along the axis of rotation, if the center of rotating body lies, then it is known as static loading. With the
help of static balancing, the object always remain in a stationary position while rotating. Although it can
never be achieved but we try to balance any object to static balancing.

3.4.2 Dynamic balancing:

When there is no force or torque or couple produced while the center of gravity is not in the axis of
rotation, then it is known as the dynamic balancing. Dynamic balancing is an approach to balance out
machines by pivoting parts rapidly and after that estimating the imbalance utilizing electronic gear. The
imbalance determined would then be able to be included or subtracted from the weight until the vibration
of the parts is decreased.

Figure 4 static and dynamic balancing

3.5 Significance:
Balancing is done to keep away from vibrations in turning bodies. In overwhelming apparatus, as in
electric generator or gas turbine vibrations can cause disastrous disappointment. At the point when an
unbalanced framework is pivoting intermittent direct or torsional powers are produced. Intermittent nature Page | 13
of these powers is experienced as vibrations. So to stay away from genuine harm, balancing is vital.

3.6 Applications:
Assume if pivoting speed is high despite the fact that the mass is low, as in gas turbines or fly motors, or
under certain conditions where turning speed is low however the mass is high, as in ship propellers,
balance of the pivoting framework ought to be very considered, in light of the fact that it might produce
substantial vibrations and cause disappointment of the entire framework.

3.7 Formulation:

3.8 Observations:
Sr. no md1 (lb) rd1 Ɵd1 md2 (lb) rd2 Ɵd2 mb (lb) Ɵb rb
1 1 5 0 0.5 5 60 1.3 200 5
2 1.5 4 0 0.5 4 50 1.85 194 4

3.9 Comments:
• In this investigation, I figured out how to balance single load with single balancing mass in same
plane at different radius.
• Balancing is essential in our life to limit vibrations in any machine.

• On the off chance that a machine has vibration implies mass circulation isn't uniform, at that point
vibration can harm that pivot entire machine so to keep away from these harms we do balancing.
4 Experiment 4:
4.1 Objective:
To balance two rotating mass (disturbing mass) at different radius with single balancing mass rotating at
any radius in the same plane.

4.2 Apparatus: Page | 14

• Balancing apparatus
• Weights
• Nuts

4.3 Procedure:
• First, select any plane to which disturbing and adjusting masses must be connected.
• Then pick any mass, drew in it at any radius and at angle Ɵ.
• Put the estimation of the masses, radius, and angle to get horizontal and vertical parts of power.
• Equate this to adjusting force and get balancing mass at radius r.
• Using equation get the benefit of adjusting edge, Ɵb = 180+Ɵd.
• Then connected with this balancing masses in a similar plane at a similar radius.
• Now check that if there is any ambulancemen, if yes then do the experiment again.

4.4 Theoretical background:

4.4.1 Static balancing:
Along the axis of rotation, if the center of rotating body lies, then it is known as static loading. With the
help of static balancing, the object always remain in a stationary position while rotating. Although it can
never be achieved but we try to balance any object to static balancing.

4.4.2 Dynamic balancing:

When there is no force or torque or couple produced while the center of gravity is not in the axis of
rotation, then it is known as the dynamic balancing. Dynamic balancing is an approach to balance out
machines by pivoting parts rapidly and after that estimating the imbalance utilizing electronic gear. The
imbalance determined would then be able to be included or subtracted from the weight until the vibration
of the parts is decreased.

Figure 5 static balancing apparatus

4.5 Significance:
Balancing is done to keep away from vibrations in turning bodies. In overwhelming apparatus, as in
electric generator or gas turbine vibrations can cause disastrous disappointment. At the point when an
unbalanced framework is pivoting intermittent direct or torsional powers are produced. Intermittent nature
of these powers is experienced as vibrations. So to stay away from genuine harm, balancing is vital.
Page | 15
4.6 Applications:
Assume if pivoting speed is high despite the fact that the mass is low, as in gas turbines or fly motors, or
under certain conditions where turning speed is low however the mass is high, as in ship propellers,
balance of the pivoting framework ought to be very considered, in light of the fact that it might produce
substantial vibrations and cause disappointment of the entire framework.

4.7 Formulation:

4.8 Observations:
Sr. no md1 (lb) rd1 Ɵd1 md2 (lb) rd2 Ɵd2 mb (lb) Ɵb rb
1 0.5 3 0 1 5 60 1.2 227 5
2 1 4 0 2 5 80 2.85 240 4

4.9 Comments:
• In this investigation, I figured out how to balance single load with single balancing mass in same
plane at different radius.
• Balancing is essential in our life to limit vibrations in any machine.

• On the off chance that a machine has vibration implies mass circulation isn't uniform, at that point
vibration can harm that pivot entire machine so to keep away from these harms we do balancing.
5 Experiment 5:
5.1 Objective:
To balance three rotating mass (disturbing mass) with single balancing mass rotating at same radius in the
same plane.

5.2 Apparatus: Page | 16

• Balancing apparatus
• Weights
• Nuts

5.3 Procedure:
• First, select any plane to which disturbing and adjusting masses must be connected.
• Then pick any mass, drew in it at any radius and at angle Ɵ.
• Put the estimation of the masses, radius, and angle to get horizontal and vertical parts of power.
• Equate this to adjusting force and get balancing mass at radius r.
• Using equation get the benefit of adjusting edge, Ɵb = 180+Ɵd.
• Then connected with this balancing masses in a similar plane at a similar radius.
• Now check that if there is any ambulancemen, if yes then do the experiment again.

5.4 Theoretical background:

5.4.1 Static balancing:
Along the axis of rotation, if the center of rotating body lies, then it is known as static loading. With the
help of static balancing, the object always remain in a stationary position while rotating. Although it can
never be achieved but we try to balance any object to static balancing.

5.4.2 Dynamic balancing:

When there is no force or torque or couple produced while the center of gravity is not in the axis of
rotation, then it is known as the dynamic balancing. Dynamic balancing is an approach to balance out
machines by pivoting parts rapidly and after that estimating the imbalance utilizing electronic gear. The
imbalance determined would then be able to be included or subtracted from the weight until the vibration
of the parts is decreased.

Figure 6 Static balancing

5.5 Significance:
Balancing is done to keep away from vibrations in turning bodies. In overwhelming apparatus, as in
electric generator or gas turbine vibrations can cause disastrous disappointment. At the point when an
unbalanced framework is pivoting intermittent direct or torsional powers are produced. Intermittent nature
of these powers is experienced as vibrations. So to stay away from genuine harm, balancing is vital.
Page | 17
5.6 Applications:
Assume if pivoting speed is high despite the fact that the mass is low, as in gas turbines or fly motors, or
under certain conditions where turning speed is low however the mass is high, as in ship propellers,
balance of the pivoting framework ought to be very considered, in light of the fact that it might produce
substantial vibrations and cause disappointment of the entire framework.

5.7 Formulation:

5.8 Observations:
Sr. md1 rd1 Ɵd1 md2 rd2 Ɵd2 md3 rd3 Ɵd3 mb Ɵb rb
no (lb) (lb) (lb) (lb)
1 1 5 0 0.5 5 60 0.5 5 120 1.3 221 5
2 1.5 4 0 0.5 4 50 0.5 4 120 1.769 207 4

5.9 Comments:
• In this investigation, I figured out how to balance single load with single balancing mass in same
plane at different radius.
• Balancing is essential in our life to limit vibrations in any machine.

• On the off chance that a machine has vibration implies mass circulation isn't uniform, at that point
vibration can harm that pivot entire machine so to keep away from these harms we do balancing.
6 Experiment 6:
6.1 Objective:
To balance three rotating masses (disturbing mass) at different radius with single balancing mass rotating
at any radius in the same plane.

6.2 Apparatus: Page | 18

• Balancing apparatus
• Weights
• Nuts

6.3 Procedure:
• First, select any plane to which disturbing and adjusting masses must be connected.
• Then pick any mass, drew in it at any radius and at angle Ɵ.
• Put the estimation of the masses, radius, and angle to get horizontal and vertical parts of power.
• Equate this to adjusting force and get balancing mass at radius r.
• Using equation get the benefit of adjusting edge, Ɵb = 180+Ɵd.
• Then connected with this balancing masses in a similar plane at a similar radius.
• Now check that if there is any ambulancemen, if yes then do the experiment again.

6.4 Theoretical background:

6.4.1 Static balancing:
Along the axis of rotation, if the center of rotating body lies, then it is known as static loading. With the
help of static balancing, the object always remain in a stationary position while rotating. Although it can
never be achieved but we try to balance any object to static balancing.

6.4.2 Dynamic balancing:

When there is no force or torque or couple produced while the center of gravity is not in the axis of
rotation, then it is known as the dynamic balancing. Dynamic balancing is an approach to balance out
machines by pivoting parts rapidly and after that estimating the imbalance utilizing electronic gear. The
imbalance determined would then be able to be included or subtracted from the weight until the vibration
of the parts is decreased.

Figure 7 Static and Dynamic Balancing

6.5 Significance:
Balancing is done to keep away from vibrations in turning bodies. In overwhelming apparatus, as in
electric generator or gas turbine vibrations can cause disastrous disappointment. At the point when an
unbalanced framework is pivoting intermittent direct or torsional powers are produced. Intermittent nature
of these powers is experienced as vibrations. So to stay away from genuine harm, balancing is vital.
Page | 19
6.6 Applications:
Assume if pivoting speed is high despite the fact that the mass is low, as in gas turbines or fly motors, or
under certain conditions where turning speed is low however the mass is high, as in ship propellers,
balance of the pivoting framework ought to be very considered, in light of the fact that it might produce
substantial vibrations and cause disappointment of the entire framework.

6.7 Formulation:

6.8 Observations:
Sr. md1 rd1 Ɵd1 md2 rd2 Ɵd2 md3 rd3 Ɵd3 mb Ɵb rb
no (lb) (lb) (lb) (lb)
1 1 5 0 0.5 4 60 0.5 3 120 1.2 210 5
2 1.5 4 0 0.5 3 50 0.5 5 120 1.65 210 4

6.9 Comments:
• In this investigation, I figured out how to balance single load with single balancing mass in same
plane at different radius.
• Balancing is essential in our life to limit vibrations in any machine.

• On the off chance that a machine has vibration implies mass circulation isn't uniform, at that point
vibration can harm that pivot entire machine so to keep away from these harms we do balancing.
7 Experiment 7:
7.1 Objective:
To determine the kinetic coefficient of friction of various pairs of wheels.

7.2 Apparatus:
• Kinetic coefficient of friction apparatus Page | 20
• Various pairs of metallic wheels
• Steel rod
• Stop watch

7.3 Procedure:
• Select the material of rod like in this experiment is steel.
• Select one by one pair of wheel of which friction has to find.
• Then place the rod on wheels, and by rotating the wheel note the time for 10 revolutions.
• And note the time for three times and take average to get time period.
• Then note the distance between pair of wheels which is “s”.
• After this, put the value in formula to get kinetic coefficient of friction.

7.4 Theoretical background:

Climbing a vertical shake divider implies setting your quality and stamina against the power of gravity,
which pulls you down toward the ground. Another power causes you to climb the vertical shake divider
by shielding your hands and feet from slipping. That constrain is Friction.
Friction is the power that contradicts movement between any surfaces that are in contact. There are four
kinds of friction: static, sliding, rolling, and liquid friction. Static, sliding and rolling friction happen
between strong surfaces. Liquid friction happens in fluids and gases. Each of the four sorts of friction is
portrayed underneath.
There are basically four types of friction:

7.4.1 Static friction:

Static friction follows up on articles when they are laying on a surface. For instance, on the off chance
that you are climbing in the forested areas, there is static friction between your shoes and the trail each
time you put down your foot (see Figure underneath). Without this static friction, your feet would slip out
from under you, making it hard to walk. Truth be told, that is actually what occurs in the event that you
attempt to stroll on ice. That is on the grounds that ice is extremely tricky and offers almost no friction.

Figure 8 Static Friction

7.4.2 Sliding friction:
Sliding friction will be friction that follows up on items when they are sliding over a surface. Sliding
friction is more fragile than static friction. That is the reason it's less demanding to slide a household item
over the floor after you begin it moving than it is to make it move in any case. Sliding friction can be
helpful. For instance, you utilize sliding friction when you compose with a pencil. The pencil "lead"
slides effectively over the paper, yet there's simply enough friction between the pencil and paper to leave Page | 21
an imprint.

7.4.3 Rolling friction:

Rolling friction will be friction that follows up on articles when they are rolling over a surface. Rolling
friction is a lot more fragile than sliding friction or static friction. This clarifies why most types of ground
transportation use wheels, including bikes, autos, 4-wheelers, roller skates, bikes, and skateboards. Metal
rollers are another utilization of rolling friction. You can perceive what they look like in the Figure
beneath. They let portions of a wheel or other machine roll instead of slide over on another.

Figure 9 Rolling Friction

7.4.4 Fluid friction:

Fluid friction will be friction that follows up on articles that are traveling through a fluid. A fluid is a
substance that can stream and take the state of its compartment. Fluids incorporate fluids and gases. In the
event that you've at any point attempted to push your open hand through the water in a tub or pool, at that
point you've encountered fluid friction. You can feel the obstruction of the water against your hand. Take
a gander at the skydiver in the Figure underneath. He's falling toward Earth with a parachute. The
opposition of the air against the parachute moderates his plummet. The quicker or bigger a moving article
is, the more prominent is the fluid friction opposing its movement. That is the reason there is more
prominent air obstruction against the parachute than the skydiver's body.

Figure 10 Fluid Friction

7.5 Significance:
Friction is very important and it plays a vital role in our life. As if we want to do something we need
friction like to walk us and it is also needed to avoid slipping. But on the other hand, it also harms where
we want to minimize it like in case of machinery.

7.6 Applications: Page | 22

Friction is very important and it plays a vital role in our life like if friction is eliminated, we can’t even
walk. Also in vehicles, it is very necessary to have friction in brake systems. Same in the way, if friction
is vanished, everything in motion will remain in motion forever. So friction is very useful in life.

7.7 Formulation:

7.8 Observations:
Sr.No. Rod Wheel Time for Oscilations Time Kinetic
Material Material Period Co-
t1 t2 t3 tavg efficient of
friction
1 Steel Steel 23.94 23.19 22.47 23.2 2.32 0.0718
2 Steel Cast iron 20.8 17.7 18.74 18.92 1.892 0.1079
3 Steel Aluminum 17.80 18.42 16.52 17.6 1.760 0.1247
4 Steel Brass 17.6 18.68 17.45 17.91 1.791 0.1204

7.9 Comments:
• Friction between different types of material is different.
• Frictional forces increases with the increase in applied forces.
• Friction always causes loses in the form of heat energy.
• To lower any frictional type error, we have to clearly lubricate the apparatus.
8 Experiment 8:
8.1 Objective:
To determine the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and mechanical efficiency of worm and worm
wheel gears.

8.2 Apparatus: Page | 23

• Worm and worm wheel gear set
• Hangers
• Weight

8.3 Procedure:
• Set the experimental setup and turn up the worm rope.
• Add a weight into the gear pan.
• Now start adding weights into the pan of worm and continue adding.
• At a point where the pan of worm drops down stop adding the masses.
• Note down the readings.
• This is the force that balances the weight on the gear pan.
• Consider the given formulas and show the calculations.

8.4 Theoretical background:

A worm drive is a gear course of action in which a worm (which is a gear as a screw) networks with a
worm gear (which is comparable in appearance to a goad gear). The two components are additionally
called the worm screw and worm wheel. The phrasing is regularly befuddled by uncertain utilization of
the term worm gear to allude to the worm, the worm gear, or the worm drive as a unit.
Like other gear plans, a worm drive can lessen rotational speed or transmit higher torque. A worm is a
case of a screw, one of the six straightforward machines.
One of the real preferences of worm gear drive units is that they can move movement in 90 degrees.

Figure 11 Worm and Worm Gear

8.5 Significance:
Presently work drive is grinding based and self-locking. Which means you pivot the worm shaft say
clockwise, the worm wheel will turn forward, and the other way around, yet you can't do the contrary
significance, you can't turn the worm haggle the pole pivot one specific way.
8.6 Applications:
Application necessities must be taken into consideration with the workload and environment of the gear
set in mind:
Strength
speed and torque consistency and output peaks of the equipment force so the gear meets mechanical Page | 24
requirements. worm equipment units are mainly appropriate for high torque and equipment reduction
applications.
Inertia
of the tools through acceleration and deceleration. Heavier gears can be harder to forestall or reverse.
Precision requirement of equipment
along with equipment pitch, shaft diameter, strain attitude and tooth format. malicious program gear sets
have precision meshing.
Handedness (left or proper teeth angles)
depending the force perspective.
gear lubrication requirements
some gears require lubrication for easy, temperate operation and that is especially authentic for computer
virus drives, which can also employ ground enamel to reduce friction.
Mounting necessities
utility may restriction the tools’ shaft positioning.
Noise problem
business applications may additionally price a clean, quietly meshing equipment. bug gears provide the
quietest operation.
Corrosion resistance
Gears exposed to weather or chemical substances ought to be mainly hardened or included.
Temperature publicity
a few gears may warp or end up brittle within the face of intense temperatures.
Vibration and surprise resistance
Heavy device loads or backlash, the planned surplus space inside the round pitch, might also jostle
gearing.
Operation disruption resistance
it is able to be important for some equipment units to feature despite lacking teeth or misalignment. If set
up effectively, most malicious program drives will perform if missing a tooth.
8.7 Formulation:
Advantages:
Mechanical Advantage = M.A = Load (L)/Effort Applied (E)
Measure of force application
Page | 25
Velocity ratio:
Ratio of a distance through which any part of a machine moves to that which the driving
port moves during the same line,
Mechanical Efficiency:
Measure of effectiveness with which a mechanical system performs. (M.A/V.R)

8.8 Observations:
Radius of effort drum = R1 =17.5mm
Radius of load drum = R2 = 35 mm
Number of starts on worm = S = 1
Number of threads on worm wheel = T = 40
Distance moved by effort = x = 2πR1S = 109.956 mm
Distance moved by load = y = 2πR1/T = 5.4978 mm
V.R = x/y = 20

Sr. No. Applied Load Applied Effort Mechanical Mechanical

(lb.) (lb.) Advantage Efficiency
1 1 0.45 2.222 1.111
2 1.5 0.75 2 0.1
3 1.6 0.8 2 0.1

8.9 Comments:
• worm and worm gears are specially applied at the shafts that are 900 apart.
• These gearset reduces noise and erosion.
• Worm and worm gears are so much useful where other types of gears failed.