INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL SYSTEM OPTICS 1, Inc DESIGN & ENGINEERING Toptea Syston Deane by Robert E. Fischer, OPTICS 1, Inc. 11:00 - 12:00 | Introduction: What Imaging Optical Systems Are Alll About 12:30 - 1:25 Design And Analysis Of Real Systems 1:35 - 2:30 Thermal Infrared Systems And How They Differ From Visible Systems 3:00 - 3:55 Tolerancing And Producibility, Or How We Produce Real Systems 4:05 - 5:00 Design Examples Using State Of The Art Computer Optimization Programs SN ETS Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Page OfInnovators In Optical System Design Session I - 11:00 - 12:00 Introduction: What Imaging Optical Systems Are All About Pages 1 - 29 Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc., Session __ Page __—sOfPHILOSOPHY OF THIS SHORT COURSE In Optical System Design + Provide a broad and useful introduction into the design of optical systems + Concepts, along with the logical transition of these concepts into the design of real systems, will be developed + The terminology or “jargon” typically used will be covered + Mathematics and detailed derivations will not be presented - rather, the understanding of the design and engineering process will be emphasized + The short course will cover the technology from basic conceptual design and theory through producibility and testing a Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session ZJ Page /_ Of Z7FUNDAMENTAL OPTICAL SYSTEM OPTICS 1, Inc. REQUIREMENTS ‘rope Syston Dee + Performance + Provide imagery of sufficient quality to resolve specified minimum size objects over desired field of view + Image blur must be matched to detector size + Clear aperture and transmittance must be sufficient for desired sensitivity ¢ Configuration selection + Design form must be capable of providing desired performance + Special requirements such as in scanning systems, cold stop efficiency in ir systems, etc. must be met + Producibility considerations + Minimize size / cost / weight / environmental effects Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Sess nZ Page 2 OF 2”Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS OPTICS 1, Inc, Innovators In Optical System Design Focal length f/number Clear aperture diameter Full field of view Spectral range and relative wavelength weights Packaging constraints + Length, diameter, back focal distance or clearance Environmental parameters + Temperature range + Gradients (radial, axial, diametral) Transmittance and relative illumination (vignetting) Distortion Performance TE . Focal Length—-+——-+] + RMS wavefront . . degradation yk Full Field Of View + Encircled energy — - + Other Full Field Aperture | of View Diameter 0.707 Field Session Z Page 3_ Of 27CARDINAL POINTS OF OPTICS 1, Inc. AN OPTICAL SYSTEM omit syne Representation Of An Imaging Optical Principal System + Magnification = y'/y=s'/s > f'=f (inair) . xx'= f2 + Us' =f + 1s an Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page ¥ Of 27IMAGE QUALITY + Imagery is never perfect + Geometrical aberrations Due entirely to mathematically predictable geometrical effects, such as the spherical abberation shown + If there were no geometrical aberrations, the image of a point source would be an “Airy disc” Other image degrading effects + Fabrication, assembly, and alignment error « Material properties + Factors external to the optics such as the detector, atmospherics, image motion and vibration, etc. aE EPEEPNED Yt eunrenersrmnrmmemrtsesemmressimamamamnmeme ee Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page S Of 27Airy D, tS disc a ea + Physical diameter is proportional to 2 finumber : Angular Diameter : = ——244 2 __ radians —»r clear aperture diameter a os | + Angular diameter is inversely a/3 a proportional to clear aperture diameter Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 7 Of 27,IMAGERY OF A POINT OBJECT AGAINST A UNIFORM BACKGROUND tenet + For both systems, irradiance of the background on image is the same + hennsin2 @, (flux per unit area, n = source radiance) + For both systems, airy disc diameter * a=2.44 > finumber But, the flux forming the image from the larger system will be (D/d) 2 times the flux from the smaller system + This is important in astronomical and other forms of point imagery ee Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page # OFZ7BENDING OF LIGHT AT AN OPTICAL SURFACE OPTICS 1, Inc, Innovators In Optical System Design « Refractive index = n= velocity of light in vacuum velocity of light in glass ~—-_—— 0 other material * Light bends or refracts when entering (or leaving) a material * Two ways of thinking nsinO=n' sing’ [Snell's law] * Rays in air, sin 6' = sin@/n' + Waves Air 4 f Glass |r aS SSS ne Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 0 Of ZFOPTICS GEOMETRICAL ABERRATIONS Innovators In Optical System Design Geometrical aberrations are due entirely to the failure of the optical system to produce a perfect or point image « The geometry of focusing light with spherical surfaces is mathematically imperfect Spherical surfaces are used almost exclusively due to their inherent ease of fabrication Tool Elements NN Rotation Axis + The refractive index (or bending power) of glass and other transmitting materials changes as a function of wavelength + This produces changes in the aberrations at each wavelength Se ee Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page /¥ Of ZFSPHERICAL ABERRATION tn Optical System Design Paraxial Focus (This Is Where Light Infinitely Close + Spherical aberration is an axial aberration T° The Optical Axis Focuses) + itis generally cubic with aperture + therefore a given lens with an image blur of 0.01 inches would have a 0.00125 inch blur at half of its aperture + Can be controlled by varying lens bendings note that each of the three CC _[ So differently bent lenses has the same focal length + Can j controlled by adding lenses (or splitting optical power) >_> _I> Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session J Page /S Of 27SPHERICAL ABERRATION OF f/2 LENSES, |[oPics ACTUAL COMPUTER RAY TRACES ope Systm ag a Seemingly “Innocent” Lens With An Enormous Amount Of Spherical Aberration Same Lens Bent For Minimum Spherical Aberration aan Sn aRREP "prune enreneevumerensnsan-seroversenaaeeecimemnseeiioe asses renee Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session J Page 4 Of Z7REDUCTION OF ABERRATION BY “SPLITTING ELEMENTS” + Consider baseline lens bent for minimum spherical aberration pens Innovators In Optical System Design ¢ Split lens into two lenses 1. Scale lens by 2 x + aberration increases by 2 x 2. Scale aperture by 0.5 x * aberration reduces to 0.125 since it is proportional to the cube of the aperture (aberration is now 0.25 of original) 3. Put two lenses together 10 + Net aberration is 0.50 of original lens os + Fora real lens the second element is bent for minimum spherical aberration with converging light incident which reduces the aberration further 0.6 04 0.2 ee oO Spherical Aberration 12345 10 Number Of Lenses Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page /7 Of 27SPHERICAL ABERRATION VERSUS REFRACTIVE INDEX & # OF ELEMENTS OPTICS 1, Inc, —~ Innovators In Optic: lem Design nasa ‘Actual Bk7 Solution ROXIMATE Forms REGION OF DIFFRACTION y 4 LIMITED PERFORMANCE | | ~ NY CLASSICAL 2 3 ° 2 In Waves at 0.5876 um Peak-to-Valley Optical Path Difference 2 5 0.000001 & - 15 16 7 es Refractive index opyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session I Page # Of 27OPTICS 1, Inc. Innovators In Optical System Design Chief Ray or Principal Ray — + The central or chief ray usually defines the image height + A comatic image occurs when the outer periphery of the lens produces a higher or lower magnification than dictated by the chief ray + Coma can be controlled by shifting the aperture stop and selectively adding lenses Note Reduced Coma Due to Greater Lens iii Symmetry About 4 Aperture Stop Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session I PageZo OFZ?ASTIGMATISM OPTICS 1, Inc. Innovators In Optical System Design ic 1 ZI~~ 7 pays Focus Here y4 " Off Axis Astigmat * An astigmatic image results when light in one plane (yz) is focused differently from light in another plane (xz) + Astigmatism is essentially a cylindrical departure of the wavefront from its ideal spherical shape + Astigmatism can be controlled by selectively locating and bending lenses + An interesting and potent astigmatism correcting technique + A tilted plate in a converging cone CI introduces astigmatism ischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page Z/ Of 27 Copyright 1992, R.FIELD CURVATURE In OpitestSyatem Design + In the absence of astigmatism, the image is formed on a curved surface called the “Petzval” surface + The curvature of the petzval image surface is 6 = 1radius of petzval surface) = o (1(nf) for all elements in the system + n= refractive index, f' = focal length of lens elements for a flat image, o = 0 + For a single element as shown above, the petzval radius is approximately 1.5 times the focal length + This is for a glass of 1.5 refractive index Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 23 Of 27METHOD OF REDUCING OPTICS 1, Inc FIELD CURVATURE — rnnowslora In Optical System Design + The contribution a lens element makes to the system power is proportional to yo + Where “y” is the ray height above the optical axis and “” is the optical power of the element + The contribution a lens element makes to the petzval sum is proportional only to + Thus, negatively powered elements with small values of y can effectively reduce the petzval sum and flatten the field « For example, consider the Cooke triplet and the petzval lens shown below +* The smaller ray heights on the negatively powered lenses help to reduce the petzval sum i Lens With Field Flattener Cooke Triplet (Petzval Lens) Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page Z¥ Of 27DISTORTION tn Optical System Design + Distortion is a change in magnification as a function of field of view . Distortion Real Chief Ray i (Positive) ana Height =(f't Chief Ray y=(f lan o) } Representative Lens System Zero Positive or Negative or Distortion Pincushion Distortion Barrel Distortion ERS SS RRR Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 27 Of 27AXIAL CHROMATIC ABERRATIONS Blue Yellow Red + Left, Primary Axial Color + Right, Primary Axial Color is / Corrected " + Residual Of Secondary Axial | Color a Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session ZT Page ZP Of 27OFF AXIS LATERAL COLOR In Optical System Design + Lateral color is a change or difference in focal length with color + As shown below, the red has a longer focal length than the blue,resulting in a larger red image Red Blue / en a RR Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session J Page Z7 Of Z7Session II - 12:30 - 1:25 Design And Analysis Of Real Systems Pages 1 - 41 Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session _ Page__—saOf__Pa THE RAYLEIGH CRITERIA In Optical System Design If OPD (Optical Path Difference) = 0.25 i, System Just Meets Rayleigh Criteria, and Imagery is Nearly Perfect + The Rayleigh criteria states that: “An optical instrument would not fall seriously short of the performance possible with an absolutely perfect system if the distance between the longest and shortest paths leading to a selected focus did not exceed one quarter of a wavelength.” + (Quotation from “Optics and optical design” by Conrady) a TE Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page /_ Of #PEAK-TO-VALLEY OPD a VERSUS RMS _ WAVEFRONT ERROR opt yaem dein Typical Peak-to-valley opd is the difference Wavefront between the longest and the shortest paths leading to a selected focus RMS wavefront error is given by: Rms = >. ¥ opp2 Summed Over The Wavefront Reference Sphere SY Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 2 Of 4DEPTH OF FOCUS In Optical System Design SS 1/42 ¢ —|||<— 6 = Depth of Focus + The depth of focus is the amount of defocus permitted which introduces + 1/4) wavefront error + This depth of focus, 5=+4/(2n sin 6)=+22 (f/#)2 16 2 = 0.6328 um X= 4.0 um: X= 10.0 pm nS o f/number ane im 0.0001 0.001 0.01 Depth Of Focus, Inches (+) Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 3 Of H_EXPLANATION OF RAY TRACE CURVES | Ray trace curves (or Tangential transverse aberration or Y-Z Ray Sagittal plots) are the basic Fan or X-Z Ra performance evaluation Fan y aid for the optical Ay designer Ax -1 : { +1 HM ens Exit — Pupil Z Normalized Pupil Coordinate Image Plane Actual Third Order Coma Pattern Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. " Session Z Page ¥ Of 4FORMATION OF COMATIC IMAGE BLUR OPTICS 1, Inc, Innovators In Optical System Design Tangential ray trace curve Normalized Entrance Pupil Chief Ray Coordinate Position Axial —~—x Image Sagittal Point Lens Exit Pupil Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 5 Of 4H.FORMATION OF RAY TRACE CURVES FOR SPHERICAL ABERRATION Paraxial Image Plane Ltt ALLL | Transverse | Aberration. “Best Focus” Image Plane Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 4 Of /.TYPICAL TRANSVERSE RAY TRACE CURVES Tn Optea Systm Design tangential ray fan Sagittal ray fan tangential ray fan Sagittal ray fan defocus h [ | / + 3rd and - 5th order spherical aberration third order re a” coma \ coma plus astigmatism EE bee 3rd order spherical secondary aberration axial color Ze Zz 3rd order spherical off axis aberration & best focus S lateral color stigmatism & defocus h astigmatism \ { ) (a Copyright 1992, R. E, Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 7 Of HYa USE OF ASPHERIC SURFACES In Optical System Design « Spherical surfaces provide mathematically imperfect imagery = —oonore . (apert order spherical aberration affects the wavefront error proportional to ‘aperture + An aspheric surface departure of proper magnitude and sign proportional to the (aperture)* can correct spherical aberration Spherical + A Schmidt telescope is a good example of this principle Radius of Mirror / . . : A Add Weak Sphere (More Spherical Mirror Classical Solution Producible, Less Color) a Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page // Of HYSTOPS AND PUPILS OPTICS 1, Inc. Innovators In Optical System Design Below is a Real Cooke Triplet Design With Pupil Information Exit Pupil Diameter & - Location =~" a Entrance Pupil Aperture Stop Exit Pupil Entrance Pupil Diameter Location The aperture stop is the surface or location where the ray bundles pivot about - it is the limiting aperture for all ray bundles. + The chief (principal or central) ray passes through the center of the aperture stop + The entrance pupil is where the chief ray would cross the optical axis if it were not redirected by the lens + The exit pupil is where the exiting chief ray appears to have come from Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page /2 Of _#/ ———— EOE5 VIGNETTING In Optical System Design () + Severe ray bending off axis at positions “A” and “B” often causes large image aberrations + By selectivity reducing the clear apertures of lenses, these “bad rays” can be eliminated + This reduces the off axis through put or illumination + 30-50% vignetting is often acceptable + The resulting lens performs better, is smaller, and is reduced in cost 5 Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page /3 Of YOPTICAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS [Pe on + Proper configuration selection is often a key ingredient necessary for a successful design effort + It provides the base for the starting design + “Automatic” design programs are rarely capable of changing configurations + The program generally reaches an optimum solution for input configuration + This is known as the “local minimum” in the merit function + Configuration selection may be driven by the following: + Field of view + Performance requirement ¢ f/number + Spectral range + Other PS Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session 7” Page /¥ Of 4/A PROGRESSION OF CONFIGURATIONS Simple lens + Landscape lens + Achromatic doublet + Cooke triplet - Zeiss Tessar OPTICS 1, Inc, Innovators In Optical System Design Poor image quality Magnifying glass quality Small field of view “Box camera” quality Fields up to + 30 degrees Chromatic aberration Color corrected Small field of view + 8 useful variables Can control 7 primary aberrations plus focal length + Fields of + 25 degrees and f/3 are feasible Superior performance over slightly wider fields of + 30 degrees | Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page /S- Of #_A PROGRESSION OF CONFIGURATIONS, OPTICS 1, Inc, —— CONTINUED opie syst pee + Double Gauss + Wide field, + 25 degrees + Low f/number + Typical of 35mm camera lenses + Petzval Small field, +20 degrees Superior color correction + Telephoto + Long focal length in smali package + Small field of view + Wide angle + Large field of view + Distortion + Eyepiece + Remote aperture stop Lateral color + Distortion re Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z_ Page 4 OFZ —————————— EEERELATIVE MERITS, LENS (REFRACTIVE) VERSUS MIRROR (REFLECTIVE) SYSTEMS Yo CE Refractive Reflective + Straight through, full clear aperture + Central obscuration + Affects throughput + Spherical surfaces, conventional + Degrades performance (MTF) fabrication methods + Difficult to support + Expensive materials in the IR + Requires non-spherical surfaces + Thermally sensitive in the IR + Can be light weight + Reduced thermal sensitivity + Potentially lower cost rasan EF-TU ERPFERFOEEnrreennrGHERIRTEEETERIRETIE Se ce Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page /7 Of #REFLECTIVE OPTICAL SYSTEM Pe CONFIGURATIONS iropte! system Design + Paraboloid + Limited by coma + Cassegrain + Same coma as equivalent f/number paraboloid hyperboloid ; paraboloid | + More field curvature than + Gregorian Cassegrain + Easier to test secondary ellipsoid paraboloid + Maksutov + Spherical primary + Correcting element to minimize spherical aberration CR Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z_ Page /g_ Of 4REFLECTIVE OPTICAL SYSTEM Pe Cc ONFIGURATIONS CONTINUED In Optical system Denon + Schmidt . Schmidt Ee ” Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Ts Very large field Very low f/number Curved image Spherical aberration minimized by concentric spherical corrector Superb performance with weak asphere at stop Good performance All spherical Virtually no chromatic aberration from front zero power group Session Z Page 7 Of 4THE SCHOTT OPTICAL GLASS MAP AND GLASS SELECTION SCHOTT GLASSES Crown Glasses Glass map from GlassView™ program from OPTICS 1, Inc. © Mass produced glasses © Frequently melted glasses ‘© Glasses melted at major intervals or rarely metted + Inquiry glasses © “Proterred” glasses Lak © Standard glasses 2e 2656.28 nm Ad = $87.88 nm ask AF = 498.13 nm Psk 90.7 76.6 62.6 48.5 eA DHE Number Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Pe In Optical System Design R e 1.849 f r a c 1.746 ¢ | Vv e 1.643 | n d e 1.540 y —+ 1.437 34.4 20.4 Session Z_ Page 20 Of 4/THE OPTICAL DESIGN PROCESS + Present day computer technology has significantly changed the process of lens design + The essence of most lens design computer programs is as follows: + Each variable is changed a small amount, or increment + The effect to the performance is computed for each variable increment The result is a series of derivatives OP/OV1, OP/AV2, AP/OVS, ...seseeeeeeee P = Performance, V = Variables The set of simultaneous equations for each variable is solved so as to minimize the sum of the squares of the performance residuals The process is repeated until an optimum is reached SS Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 27 Of YW eeeTHE OPTICAL DESIGN TASK AS PERFORMED BY THE DESIGNER tn 1. Acquire and review specifications 2. Select representative starting point + Prior design * Patent « HYBRID + Original derivation 3. Establish variables and constraints + Variables are curvatures, thicknesses, air spaces, glass characteristics, etc. + Constraints can be packaging related(length, diameter, etc.), or specific parameters such as ray angles, f/number, etc. 4. Optimize performance using program 5. Evaluate performance 6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until desired performance is met + If performance is not met, modify design by adding or splitting elements, changing glasses, etc., then return to step 4 + Alternative is to return to step 2 7. Perform tolerance analysis and generate performance error budget 2 Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS J, Inc. Session Z Page Jo Of 4.WHY IS LENS DESIGN SO DIFFICULT A TASK? + Acomplex lens system consists of a nearly infinite number of possible solutions in a multi-dimensional space + It is the job of the designer to determine the optimum solution + Computer programs iterate to a “local minimum” in the error function + The designer must apply outside influences to the process in order to leave one local minimum and reach a more optimum solution +, These interactions can range from subtle changes in weightings to intentional restructuring of the configuration Performance Error Function Solution or Parameter Space AER RSS EE Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 3/ Of WY leeSAMPLE PROBLEM AS CONDUCTED AT 1980 [oPTics 1, Inc, — INTERNATIONAL LENS DESIGN CONFERENC rontea syste nets + Starting design (left) was optimized double gauss + f/2, 30 degree full field + First problem: redesign lens to f/1,5 degree full field, 0.1% distortion + Second problem: redesign lens to f/5, 55 degree full field, 5% distortion Shown at Left c are SS —| | Starting Designs at Above New Specifications Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 22 Of 4/REPRESENTATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR f/5 LENS Ta Optica System belgn + 25% vignetting permitted at +20 degrees, 50% at +27.5 degrees + Note extreme differences in resulting design forms Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page J Of _4/PERFORMANCE COMPUTATION: OPTICS 1, Inc THE MODULATION TRANSFER FUNCTION ; Innovatore in Optical System Design + Imaging characteristics of an optical system are most appropriately represented by the “modulation transfer function” or MTF + This tells us how well the modulation in an object is transferred to an image by the optics fal 2 meee 2 a z 3 = s Object Image I - i . + Modulation = L(max)-T(min) 7, _ Modulation In Image (max) + | (min) Modulation In Object Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page 24 Of 4/TYPICAL MODULATION TRANSFER ee FUNCTIONS ‘moptial System Design 10 Perfect System, No Obstruction , Perfect Obscured System c g 5 Typical Real System 3 o = ° Spatial Fi patial Frequency, Cutoft Ip /mm or cy /mm Frequency Image —> Object VW VW IW =1/ (A fi#) VVV VV I Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z Page $F Of 4/Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. ILLUSTRATION OF SPURIOUS OPTICS 1, Inc, — RESOLUTION ome syste cen With severe defocus, the MTF will drop below zero as shown below A negative MTF is a 180° phase reversal > This is a reversal of white and Rta black bars 2 . By defocusing the target at the . tight you will see this phase reversal, especially at the higher frequencies towards the center of the pattern This can even be seen by relaxing your eye and placing the page progressively closer to your eye 1 0 Session Z Page 36 Of 4DIFFRACTION BASED IMAGE POINT OPTGSTU SPREAD FUNCTIONS | Ss Innovtors In Optical System Design FOR DIFFERENT CENTRAL OBSTRUCTIONS Zero Obstruction 33% Dia. Obstruction 66% Dia. Obstruction re Copyright 1992, R. E. Fischer / OPTICS 1, Inc. Session Z_ Page37_ Of A/