Basic Optics For Optical Metrology

Basic Optics for Optical Metrology
Laboratory for 1
Precision Engineering & Metrology
What is Optical Metrology?
• Definition
– The science of measurement in which optical gauging is used for the
inspection of measurand.
• Elements
– Light sources
– Detectors
– Optics components
Laboratory for 2
Philosophy of this course
• Provides a broad and useful introduction into the optics for optical metrology
• Concepts
• Terminology
• Understanding of the physics rather than mathematics or detailed derivation
• This short course will cover the basics required for understanding optical
metrology principles.
Laboratory for 3
Contents
• Part I. Optics (p. 5)
– I-1. Fundamentals of optics (p. 6)
– I-2. Geometrical optics (p. 31)
– I-3. Optical aberrations (p. 68)
– I-4. Wave optics (p. 92)
– I-5. Polarization (p. 102)
– I-6. Interference (p. 119)
– I-7. Diffraction (p. 134)
• Part II. Optical System Design (p. 144)
• Part III. Optical Components (p. 172)

– III-1. Laser (p. 173)
– III-2. Bulk optics components (p. 185)
– III-3. Fiber optics components (p. 194)
– III-4. PD, CCD & CMOS sensors (p. 213)
– III-5. Frame grabber (p. 223)
Laboratory for 4
Part I. Optics
1. Fundamentals of optics
2. Geometrical optics
3. Optical aberrations
4. Wave optics
5. Polarization
6. Interference
7. Diffraction
Laboratory for 5
I-1. Fundamentals of optics
• Competing theories of light
• Wave propagation
• Refractive index
• Dispersion
• Image formation
• Law of refraction
• Law of reflection
• Phase and interference
• Diffraction
• Fermat’s principle
Laboratory for 6
Competing theories of light
Laser
Quantum optics
Polarization
Electromagnetic optics
Interference, diffraction
Wave optics
Ray optics
Laboratory for 7
Wave propagation
• Periodic disturbance that varies with time and position
• Disturbance acts normal to direction of propagation
• Disturbance propagates outward from source at finite speed
• Wave will reflect from obstacles
• Overlapping waves will interfere
• Waves diffract(spread) at edges of obstacles
Laboratory for 8
Wave propagation – Surface waves
Y
X
Wavefronts
A 2π
Y (r , t ) = cos[ (r − vt )]
r λ
Laboratory for 9
Wave propagation – Surface waves
• Source is mechanical disturbance
• Circular waves
• Disturbance is mechanical force that displaces matter
• Material medium required
Laboratory for 10
Wave propagation – Light waves
Ray
X
Wavefronts Electric field in x-dir

r A 2π
B r E (r , t ) = cos[ (r − ct )]
E r λ
Z Magnetic field in y-dir

A 2π
B (r , t ) = cos[ (r − ct )]
r λ
Laboratory for 11
• Source is accelerating electrical charge
• Spherical waves
• Disturbance is coupled electric and magnetic fields
• Can propagate in vacuum
Laboratory for 12
Y
Ray
A 2π
X E (r , t ) = cos[ (r − ct )]
Wavefronts
r
r λ
B r
A 2π
E
B (r , t ) = cos[ (r − ct )]
r λ
Z
2π
• Propagation number k is defined as k =
λ
• Speed of light c is constant in a material medium
c0 = 3 × 108 m / sec ( vacuum)
Laboratory for 13
• Electromagnetic spectrum
Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (m)
3×1024 10-16
Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
GAMMA
RAYS 10 Ultraviolet
1016 400 390
3×1020 10-12
Violet
X-RAYS Ultraviolet 100 455
Blue
3×1016 10-8 1015 492
500
OPTICAL
Visible
Green
1×103
3×1012 10-4 Yellow 577
1014 597
600 Orange 622
µ-WAVES 1×104
3×108 (UHF-TV) 1 Infrared Red

1013
(VHF-TV) 700
(FM-radio) 760
RADIO 1×105
WAVES (AM-radio)
3×104 104 Infrared
1012 800
3 108
Laboratory for 14
• Radiometry
– The science of measurement of any EM radiation
– Assumes instruments have “flat” spectral response
(energy vs. wavelength response)
• Photometry
– The science of measurement of visible light
– Assumes instruments have spectral response approximating that of the average
human eye (max. response at 555 nm)
– E.g. detectors like camera & CCD (charge coupled device)
Wavelength
Spectral response of human eye
conversion factor
Blue Green Red
Wavelength (nm)
200 400 600 800
Laboratory for 15
• Wavefronts and Ray patterns ray wavefront
Diverging beam (Spherical) Converging beam (Spherical)
Collimated beam (Planar) Converging beam (Aberrated)
Laboratory for 16
Refractive index
Vacuum Material
(velocity = c) (velocity = c/n)
λ
λ
n
• Absolute refractive index • Relative refractive index

Speed in Vacuum Speed in Air
n1 (λ ) = n (λ ) =
Speed in Material Speed in Material
Laboratory for 17
Dispersion
• Dispersion
The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all wavelength but the speed in a
material substance is different for different wavelengths. Therefore the refractive
index of material depends on wavelength. The dependence of wave speed and
refractive index on wavelength is called dispersion.
B Y R
n2 − 1
Abbe Number : V =
n1 − n3
Laboratory for 18
Image formation by a lens
Source Image
where,
i : incident angle
r : refracted angle
n : refractive index of a lens
Laboratory for 19
Image formation by a mirror
Concave mirror
Source
Image
Laboratory for 20
Law of refraction
____
BC = n sin [i]
n
n'
where,
i : incident angle
r : refracted angle
____
AD = n' sin [r ]
• Triangles ABC, ADC ; Optical length AD = BC , n sin [i ] = n' sin [r ]

• Incident ray, surface normal, refracted ray lie in a common plane
Laboratory for 21
Law of reflection
where,
i : incident angle
r : reflected angle
• Triangles ABC, ADC : i = − r

• Incident ray, reflected ray, surface normal lie in a common plane
Laboratory for 22
Total internal reflection
• Critical angle(θcrit ) : the angle of incidence for which the refracted ray
emerges tangent to the surface
Law of refraction : n sin [θ a ] = n' sin [θ b ]

In case, θb =90°
−1 n'
θa = θcrit = sin [ ]
n
If θa >θcrit , total internal reflection happens
Laboratory for 23
Phase
Source 1
r1
Observation point
r2
Source 2
A 2π
E (r , t ) = cos[ (r − ct )]
r λ
1
• Phase on the observation point by source 1 : ( r1 − ct )
λ
1
• Phase on the observation point by source 2 : ( r2 − ct )
λ
1
• Relative phase on the observation point : ( r1 − r2 )
λ
Laboratory for 24
Phase and interference
d
Source 1
0
S
1
Source 2 2 Y
3
Observation point
S=50λ, λ=0.5 µm, d=254 mm
0 1 2 3
Y (mm) 0 2.54 5.08 7.62
Source 1 (wave) 50800.00 508025.15 508101.09 508227.80
Source 2 (wave) 50800.00 508025.65 508102.09 508229.30
Relative wave (wave) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Illumination Light Dark Light Dark
Laboratory for 25
Diffraction (Huygens-Fresnel model)
Laboratory for 26
Fermat’s principle
• Fermat’s principle
When light travels between any two points in an optical system, its actual
path, when compared to neighboring paths, will be the one that requires
the least time.
The light follows a curved path, which requires less time, even though the distance is greater.
Index (hot air) < Index (cool air) ; Light speed (hot air) > Light speed (cool air)
Laboratory for 27
Proof of the law of refraction using Fermat’s principle
AO OB
t= +
vi vt
a2 + x2 b 2 + (c − x ) 2
= +
vi vt
dt x c−x
= −
dx vi a 2 + x 2 vt b 2 + (c − x) 2
sin [θ i ] sin [θ t ]
= − =0
vi vt
n n
( i ) sin [θ i ] − ( t ) sin [θ t ] = 0 c
c c (where, v = )
n
ni sin [θ i ] = nt sin [θ t ]
Laboratory for 28
Proof of the law of reflection using Fermat’s principle
L a 2 + x 2 + b 2 + (d − x) 2
t= =
v v
dt 1 x d−x
= [ − =0
dx v a 2 + x 2 b + (d − x)
2 2
1
(sin[θ1 ] − sin[θ 2 ]) = 0
v
θ1 = θ 2
Laboratory for 29
Summary
• Wave theory models light properties
• Rays are lines normal to wavefronts
• Optical elements change shape of wavefronts and direction of rays
• Laws of refraction and reflection give change of ray direction at optical

surfaces
• Diffraction limits the ability to form perfect point images
Laboratory for 30
I-2. Geometrical optics
• Geometrical optics vs. wave optics
• Optical system terminology
• Cardinal points of the optical system
• Ideal optical system
• Ideal imaging with aspheric optics
• Ray tracing operation
• Thick lens and analytical ray tracing
• Paraxial concepts (Gaussian optics)
• Thin-lens equation
• Gaussian lens formula
• Image location, size, focal length determination
• Thin lens combination
• Thick lens formula
• Definitions : stops, pupils
• System specifications
• Optical systems
Laboratory for 31
Geometrical optics vs. wave optics
limit (Wave optics) = (Geometrical optics)

λ0
• When light waves propagate through and around objects whose

dimensions are much greater than the wavelength, the wave nature of
light is not readily discerned, so its behavior can be adequately described
by rays obeying a set of geometrical rules.
Laboratory for 32
Optical system of the eye
(홍채)
(망막)
(각막)
(동공) (황반)
(모양체)
Laboratory for 33
Optical system terminology
Object plane
Laboratory for 34
Cardinal points of an optical system 1/2
Secondary principal plane
First focal point Second focal point
Primary principal point

Forward focal back focal length
length
Primary principal plane Secondary principal point
• Focal point
• Principal point
The incident and emerging rays will meet at points, the locus of which forms a curved
surface that may or may not reside within the lens. The surface, approximating a plane
in the paraxial region, is termed the principal plane. Points where the primary and
secondary principal planes intersect the optical axis are known as the principal points.
Laboratory for 35
Cardinal points of an optical system 2/2
• Nodal points
Extending both the incoming and outgoing rays until they

cross the optical axis locates what are called the nodal points
• When the lens is surrounded on both sides by the same

medium, generally air, the nodal and principal points will be
coincident
• The six points, two focal, two principal, and two nodal, constitute the cardinal
points of the system
Laboratory for 36
Properties of ideal optical systems
Object space Image space
• Objects and images are regarded as arrays of points

• Each point on the object is mapped into a corresponding point in the
image
• Distances between image points are proportional to distances between
corresponding object points
• A planar object has a planar image
Laboratory for 37
Ideal imaging with aspheric optics 1/2
• Cartesian surfaces “map” perfectly within the limits of geometrical optics
(ignoring the wave nature of light)
• Cartesian reflecting surfaces
• Cartesian refracting surfaces
Laboratory for 38
Ideal imaging with aspheric optics 2/2
• A double hyperbolic lens produces an image that is free from all

monochromatic aberrations, but only for a single choice of image and
object position
Laboratory for 39
Refraction at spherical surfaces
Optical path length : OPL

OPL = n1lo + n2li
= n1 ⋅ R 2 + ( so + R ) 2 − 2 R ( so + R ) cos φ + n2 ⋅ R 2 + ( si − R ) 2 + 2 R ( si − R ) cos φ
n1 n2 n2 − n1
Fermat’s principle & Paraxial approximation + = : Refraction at spherical surfaces
so si R
Laboratory for 40
Ray tracing operation
Here, imaging operation can be modeled by 3 “Transfer”s

and 2 “Refraction”s
Laboratory for 41
Thick lens and analytical ray tracing
• Thick lens (Lens whose thickness is not negligible)
-Thick lens can be envisioned more generally as an optical system, allowing for the
possibility that it consists of a number of simple lenses not merely one)
• Analytical ray tracing

n α  n α  n α  Ray can be modeled by height and slope
ηt1 =  t1 t1  , ηi1 =  i1 i1  , ηi 2 =  i 2 i 2 
 yt 1   yi1   yi 2 
– Refraction operation (Law of refraction at interface)

 (nt1 − ni1 ) 
1 −
ηt1 = R1ηi1 (where, R1 ≡  R1  )
 
0 1 
– Transfer operation
 1 0 ηi 2 = T21R1ηi1
ηi 2 = T21ηt1 (where, T21 ≡   )
d n
 21 t1 1 
Laboratory for 42
Paraxial concepts (Gaussian optics)
y2 1⋅ y 4 1⋅ 3 y 6
x = R ± (R − y ) =
2 2
+ 2 3
+ 3 5 +L : Binomial series expansion of sphere
2 R 2 2! R 2 3! R
In paraxial region, these
Paraboloid
terms are negligible
• Paraxial rays lie “near the axis” throughout system
• Ray trace equations are linear in ray height, ray slope
– Rays from object point pass through common image point
– Ray height at image point is proportional to ray height at object point
• Within paraxial region, systems form ideal images
Laboratory for 43
Paraxial ray trace example
Surface
ⓞ ① ② ③
r - 4.00 -4.00 -
n 1.000 1.500 1.000
d ∞ 0.500 3.914894
(n-n’)/r - -0.125 -0.125 -
d/n ∞ 0.333 3.914894
y - 1.200 1.150 0
nu ∞ -0.1500 -0.29375
Laboratory for 44
Thin-lens equation (Lens maker’s formula)
n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ = : Refraction at spherical surfaces
so si R
nm nl nl − nm
Left hand side of thick lens : + = …………①
so1 si1 R1
nl n n −n
Right hand side of thick lens: + m = m l …②
(− si1 + d ) si 2 R2
nm nm 1 1 nl d
①+② : + = (nl − nm )( − ) +
so1 si 2 R1 R 2 ( si1 − d ) si1
d → 0, nm ≅ 1(air )
1 1 1 1
+ = (nl − 1)( − ) : Thin-lens equation
so si R1 R 2
Laboratory for 45
Gaussian lens formula
1 1 1 1
+ = (nl − 1)( − ) : Thin-lens equation
so si R1 R 2
so → ∞ si = f i
If so is moved out to infinity, the image
distance becomes the focal length f i , or
symbolically,
lim si = f i
s0 → ∞
Similarly lim so = f o
si → ∞
It is evident from “Thin-lens equation” that for thin lens f i = f o , and consequently we drop
the subscripts altogether. Thus
1 1 1 1 1 1
= (nl − 1)( − ) , + = : Gaussian lens formula
f R1 R 2 so si f
Laboratory for 46
Computation of image location and size (1)
yo f f y
AOFi ∽ P2 P1 Fi = …… ① S 2 S1 Fo ∽ BOFo = i …… ②
yi ( si − f ) ( so − f ) yo
From ①, ② xo xi = f 2 : The Newtonian form of the lens equation
xo and xi have like signs, which means that the object and image must be on
opposite sides of their respective focal point
Laboratory for 47
Computation of image location and size (2)
• Transverse(lateral) magnification
yi
MT ≡
yo
From S 2 AB ∽ P2 BA,
si
MT = −
so
A negative value means the image is inverted
• Longitudinal magnification
dxi
ML ≡
dxo
The Newtonian form of the lens equation
xo xi = f 2 ………… ①
By differentiating ①,
f2 2
ML = − 2 = − MT
xo
Laboratory for 48
Focal length determination
H H’
S S’
L
• Solve for focal length, given object size, image size, and object to image
distance
H = 1829 mm, H ' = 25.40 mm, L = 7315 mm : Given
H' S'
= ⇒ S = 72 S '
H S
S + S ' = 73 S ' = 7315 mm ⇒ S ' = 100.0 mm, S = 7215 mm
1 1 1 1 1 
= + =  + 1 ⇒ f = 98.83 mm : Gaussian lens formula
f S S' S '  72 
Laboratory for 49
Images formed by thin lens
Convex
Object Image
Location Type Location Orientation Relative size
∞ > so > 2f Real f < si < 2f Inverted Minified
so = 2f Real si = 2f Inverted Same size
f < so < 2f Real ∞ > si > 2f Inverted Magnified
so = f ±∞
so < f Virtual |si| > so Erect Magnified
Concave
Object Image
Location Type Location Orientation Relative size
|si| < |f|,
Anywhere Virtual so > |si| Erect Minified
Laboratory for 50
Thin lens combination 1/2
• Procedure (d is smaller than either focal length)
– Overlook L2 for a moment, construct the image formed by L1 using ray 2 and 3. As usual,
these pass through the lens object and image foci, Fo1 and Fi1 respectively
– Ray 4 is then constructing running backward from P1’ through O2. Insertion L2 has no
effect on ray 4, whereas ray 3 is refracted through the image focus Fi2 of L2.
– The intersection of rays 4 and 3 fixes the image (which in this case is real, minified, and
inverted)
Laboratory for 51
Thin lens combination 2/2
• Image distance of the compound lens
1 1 1
= − : Gaussian lens formula for L1
si1 f1 so1
so 2 = d − si1 f 2 d − f 2 so1 f1 ( so1 − f1 )

si 2 =
d − f 2 − so1 f1 ( so1 − f1 )
1 1 1
= − : Gaussian lens formula for L2
si1 f1 so1
• Total transverse magnification of the compound lens
M T = M T 1M T 2 (where, M T 1: transverse magnification of lens 1, M T 2 : transverse magnification of lens 2)
• Effective focal length of the compound lens (if d0, that is the lenses are brought into contact)
1 1 1
= +
f f1 f 2 (where, f1 : focal length of lens 1, f 2 : focal length of lens 2)
Laboratory for 52
Thick lens formula
• Theory is similar to the “Thin-lens equation”
• Thickness of lens is not ignored
1 1 1 (n − 1) t 
= ( nr − 1)  − + r 
f R
 1 R2 n R R
r 1 2 
n2
(where, nr ≡ )
n1
• Use of the Thick lens formula

– Distances are measured relative to the principal planes
– The “Thin-lens equation” can still be used
– The position of the principal planes is found using :
f (nr − 1)t f (nr − 1)t

h1 = − , h2 = −
R2 nr R1 nr
Laboratory for 53
Definitions – Stops (1)
Object
Image
Aperture stop Field stop

All lenses collect only a fraction of the energy emitted by a point source
• Aperture stop
– A diaphragm that limits and defines the diameter of light beams collected by an optical system
– Determines the light-gathering capability of a lens
– Rim of lens or separate diaphragm can be an example
• Field stop
– A diaphragm that limits and defines the size or angular breadth of the object that can be imaged by
the system
– Determines the field of view of the optical system
• Aperture stops and field stops are totally independent
Laboratory for 54
Definitions – Stops (2)
• Aperture stop location affects

– Lens diameters
– Aberrations in “Off-Axis” images (Quality of the image)
• Field stops can be used to block stray light
Laboratory for 55
Definitions – Pupils 1/2
Aperture stop Entrance pupil Aperture stop
Exit pupil
(Exit pupil) (Entrance pupil)
• Entrance pupil
– The image of the aperture stop as seen from an axial point on the object through those
elements preceding the stop.
– If there are no lenses between the object and aperture stop, aperture stop itself serves
as as the entrance pupil
• Exit pupil
– The image of aperture stop as seen from an axial point on the image plane through the
interposed lenses, if there are any
– If there are no lenses between aperture stop and the image, aperture stop itself serves
as as the exit pupil
Laboratory for 56
Definitions – Pupils 2/2
• Control of pupil location is important mainly when coupling two or more systems.
Place the exit pupil of the I th system at the entrance pupil of the I+1st system
Laboratory for 57
System specifications – Basics
• Focal length (distance between exit pupil and focal point)

• Clear aperture
• Full field of view
Laboratory for 58
System specification – f-number
f = f : f-number
# D
D : Aperture diameter
• f-number (speed of the lens) f : focal length
– Flux density at the image plane varies as (D/f)2. The ratio D/f is known as the
relative aperture and its inverse is the f-number(or focal ratio)
– When f-number decrease, the intensity of image increases
Laboratory for 59
System specification – Numerical aperture
Entrance pupil Exit pupil
n n'
θ θ'
Optical system D/2
NA = n sin θ ≅ n tan θ =
f
D : Aperture diameter
f : focal length
n : refractive index
• Numerical aperture
– Measure of the angular size of the focusing cone of light
– Shows the brightness of finite imagery See pg. 26
• Object-side NA ( NAo = n sin θ )

– Example : Objectives of the microscope
• Image-side NA (NAi = n' sin θ ')

– Example : Eyepieces of the microscope
Laboratory for 60
System specification – Depth of focus (field)
• Depth of focus (field)

– The amount of defocus permitted which introduces λ/4 wavefront error for
diffraction-limited imaging
; Diffraction effect only determines the image quality other
than aberrations.
Depth of focus = ± λ /( 2n sin ϑ ) 2
= ± λ /( 4 NA 2 ) = ± λ ( f # )
2
NA : numerical aperture
Laboratory for 61
Optical systems – Magnifying glass
Laboratory for 62
Optical systems – Compound microscope
Laboratory for 63
Optical systems – Refracting telescope
Laboratory for 64
Optical systems – Reflecting telescope
• Cassegrain type reflecting telescope
Laboratory for 65
Optical systems – Scanner
Laboratory for 66
Summary
• Paraxial images have properties of ideal systems
• Paraxial rays are traced using simple linear formulas
• Paraxial images are determined using simple formulas referenced to

cardinal points
• Lenses can be combined in specific ways to provide diverse functions
• Optical systems should be coupled at pupils
Laboratory for 67
I-3. Optical aberrations
• Definition of aberration
• Aberration causes
• Geometrical aberrations
• Classification of geometrical aberrations
• Geometry for describing aberrations
• Ray and wave aberrations
• Spherical aberration
• Coma
• Astigmatism
• Field curvature
• Distortion
• Axial and lateral chromatic aberrations
• Seidel and Zernike aberrations
Laboratory for 68
Image is never perfect
• Diffraction effects
Laboratory for 69
Aberration definition
First order theory (Gaussian optics) is no more than a good approximation –
an exact ray trace or even measurements performed on a prototype system
would certainly reveal inconsistencies with the corresponding paraxial
description. Such departures from the idealized conditions of Gaussian
optics are known as aberrations
y2 1⋅ y 4 1⋅ 3 y 6
x = R ± (R − y ) =
2 2
+ 2 3
+ 3 5 +L
2 R 2 2! R 2 3! R
: Binomial series expansion of sphere
Laboratory for 70
Aberration causes
• Fabrication errors
– Radius
– Thickness
– Refractive index and its inhomogeneity
– Surface irregularity
– Element wedge (total indicated runout)
• Assembly
– Elements tilt, decenter or roll
– Air spacing
– Lens, object or stop location
• Environmental effects
• Cosmetic effects
– Scratch, dig or bubbles
• Dispersion of glass
Laboratory for 71
Geometrical aberrations
• Geometrical aberrations are due entirely to the failure of the optical system
to produce a perfect or point image
• The geometry of focusing light with spherical surfaces is mathematically
imperfect
• Spherical surfaces are used almost exclusively due to their inherent ease of
fabrication
• The refractive index of glass and other transmitting materials changes as a

function of wavelength. This produces changes in the aberrations at each
wavelength
Laboratory for 72
Classification of geometrical aberrations
Monochromatic Chromatic
Blur the image Deform the image
1. Spherical aberration 4. Field curvature 6. Axial color
2. Coma 5. Distortion 7. Lateral color
3. Astigmatism
These are caused by the

These are caused by the inability inability of refracting or These are caused by
of refracting or reflecting surfaces reflecting surfaces to perfectly variation of refractive index
to form spherical wavefronts map points on an object plane with wavelength
into points on the image plane
Laboratory for 73
Order of aberrations
• Law of refraction : n sin φ = n' sin φ '
• Paraxial approximation : nφ = n'φ '
• Power series expansion of sin φ

φ3 φ5 φ7
sin φ = φ − + − +L
3! 5! 7!
First order (Paraxial)
Third order (Seidel)
Higher order Fifth order

aberrations Seventh order
…
Laboratory for 74
Geometry for describing aberrations
Meridional plane Image point
Meridional ray
Sagittal ray
Exit pupil
Sagittal plane
Optical system
Entrance pupil
Object point
Zone
Laboratory for 75
Ray and wave aberration
Wavefront error : W ( x, y )
Optical
System Ray error : ε ( x, y )
Actual wavefront Paraxial image plane

Ideal wavefront
(Reference sphere)
1 ∂W ( x, y )
εy = −
NA ∂y
ε = ε x2 + ε y2
1 ∂W ( x, y )
εx = −
NA ∂x
Laboratory for 76
Spherical aberration
• Spherical aberration is an axial aberration
• Can be controlled by varying lens bending or by adding lenses
; Dependence of focal length on ray height.
As = 1λ 2λ 3λ
Balanced spherical : As ( ρ 4 − ρ 2 )
Laboratory for 77
Spherical aberration – Example (1)
Inside focus Outside focus
Perfect
Side view
Laboratory for 78
Spherical aberration – Example (2)
Image of “Hubble telescope”
Before After
Correction of spherical aberration
Laboratory for 79
Coma
• A comatic image occurs when outer periphery of the lens produces a
higher or lower magnification than dictated by the chief ray
• Can be controlled by shifting the aperture stop and selectively adding
lenses
; Dependence of Mt on ray height.

Transverse magnification
Ac = 1λ 2λ 3λ
Coma : Ac ρ 3 cosθ
Laboratory for 80
Coma – Example
Perfect Coma
Side view
Laboratory for 81
Astigmatism
• An astigmatic image occurs when light in one plane is focused differently
from light in another plane
• Can be controlled by selectively locating and bending lenses
; Dependence of focal length on ray angle.
tangential sagittal
Aa = 1λ 2λ 3λ
Balanced Astigmatism : Aa ( ρ 2 cos 2 θ − 0.5 ρ 2 )
Laboratory for 82
Astigmatism – Example
Sagittal
Tangential
Sagittal
Tangential
Perfect Astigmatism
Side view
Laboratory for 83
Field curvature
• In the absence of astigmatism, the image is formed on a curved surface
called the “Petzval” surface
• For a single glass(n=1.5) element, the Petzval radius is 1.5 times the focal
length
Focal surface
Laboratory for 84
Field curvature – Example
Perfect Field curvature
Laboratory for 85
Distortion
• Distortion is a change in magnification as a function of field of view
No distortion
Positive distortion Negative distortion

Pincushion barrel
Laboratory for 86
Axial chromatic aberrations
• Axial chromatic aberration is caused by a change or difference in focal
length with color
• The red has a longer focal length than the blue
Laboratory for 87
Lateral chromatic aberrations
• Lateral chromatic aberration is caused by a change or difference in focal
length with color
• The red has a longer focal length than the blue, resulting in a larger red
image
Laboratory for 88
Seidel aberrations
W ( x0 , ρ , l ) = W200 x02 + W111 x0 ρ cos θ + W020 ρ 2 + W040 ρ 4 + W131 x0 ρ 3 cos θ + W222 x02 ρ 2 cos 2 θ + W220 x02 ρ 2 + W311 x03 ρ cos θ
Wavefront aberrations
1 1 1 1 1
W ( x0 , ρ , l ) = S I ρ 4 + S II x0 ρ 3 cos θ + S III x02 ρ 2 cos 2 θ + ( S III + S IV ) x02 ρ 2 + SV x03 ρ cos θ : Seidel aberrations
8 2 2 4 2
Wavefront
aberration W200 W111 W020 W040 W131 W222 W220 W311
coefficient
Seidel ( S III + S IV ) SV 2
aberration SI 8 S II 2 S III 2
coefficient 4
Form x02 x0 ρ cosθ ρ2 ρ4 x0 ρ 3 cos θ x02 ρ 2 cos 2 θ x02 ρ 2 x03 ρ cos θ
Field
Name Piston Tilt Focus Spherical Coma Astigmatism
curvature
Distortion
Laboratory for 89
Zernike aberrations
n m n-2m Zernike polynomial Monomial representation Meaning
0 0 0 1 1 Piston or constant term
1 0 1 ρ sinθ x Tilt about y axis
1 -1 ρ cosθ y Tilt about x axis
2 0 2 ρ2 sin2θ 2xy Astigmatism with axis ±45°
1 0 2ρ2 -1 -1+ 2y2+ 2x2 Focus shift
2 -2 ρ2 cos2θ y2 - x2 Astigmatism with axis at 45° or 90°
3 0 3 ρ3 sin3θ 3xy2 - x3 Triangular astigmatism with base on x axis
1 1 (3ρ3 -2ρ) sinθ -2x+ 3xy2+ 3x3 Third-order coma along x axis
2 -1 (3ρ3 -2ρ) cosθ -2y+ 3y3+ 3x2y Third-order coma along y axis
3 -3 ρ3 cos3θ y3- 3x2y Triangular astigmatism with base on y axis
4 0 4 ρ4 sin4θ 4y3x- 4x3y
1 2 (4ρ4 -3ρ2) sin2θ -6xy+ 8y3x+ 8x3y
2 0 6ρ4 - 6ρ2 +1 1- 6y2- 6x2+ 6y4+ 12x2y2+ 6x4 Third-order spherical aberration
3 -2 (4ρ4 -3ρ2) cos2θ -3y2+ 3x2+ 4y4- 4x4
4 -4 ρ4 cos4θ y4-6x2y2+x4
5 0 5 ρ5 cos5θ 5xy4- 10x3y2+ x5
1 3 (5ρ5 -4ρ3) sin3θ -12xy2+ 4x3+ 15xy +10x3y2- 5x5
2 1 (10ρ5 -12ρ3 +3ρ) sinθ 3x-12xy2-12x3+10xy4+ 20x3y2+10x5
3 -1 (10ρ5 -12ρ3 +3ρ) cosθ 3y-12y3-12x2y+10y5+20x2y3+10x4y
4 -3 (5ρ5 -4ρ3) cos3θ -4y3+12x2y+5y5-10x2y3-15x4y
5 -5 ρ5 cos5θ Y5-10x2y3+5x4y
Laboratory for 90
Summary
• Image is never perfect because of geometrical aberrations and diffraction
effects
• Aberrations are caused by fabrication errors, assembly errors,

environmental effects, cosmetic effects, dispersion of glass
• Aberrations can be represented by using Seidel or Zernike polynomials
Laboratory for 91
I-4. Wave Optics
• Wave nature of Light
• Mathematical form of light waves
• Principle of superposition
• The Addition of Waves of the Same Frequency
• Standing Waves
• The Addition of Waves of Difference Frequency
• Anharmonic Periodic Waves
• Nonperiodic Waves
• Frequency bandwidth
Laboratory for 92
What is ‘Wave’ ?
WAVE
; A disturbance traveling through a medium by which energy is transferred
from one particle of the medium to another without causing any permanent
displacement of the medium itself.
Laboratory for 93
Mathematical form of Light waves
Algebraic Form E (r , t ) = a (r ) sin[ 2πυt − (k r + ε )]
Complex Form E (r , t ) = a (r ) exp[i (2πνt − (k r + ε )]
Phasor Form E (r ) = a (r )∠(k r + ε )
Laboratory for 94
Principle of superposition
The Scalar 3D differential wave equation
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
+ 2 + 2 = 2 2
∂x 2
∂y ∂y v ∂t
Solution
(Linear combination)
n
r r
ψ (r , t ) = ∑ Ciψ i (r , t )
i =1
“Principle of superposition”
Laboratory for 95
The Addition of waves of the same frequency
E ( x, t ) = E0 sin[ wt − (kx + ε )] = E0 sin[ wt + α ( x, ε )]
E1 ( x, t ) = E01 sin( wt + α1 )
E2 ( x, t ) = E02 sin( wt + α 2 )
I = E 2 = ( E1 + E2 ) 2
= E012 + E022 + 2 E01 E02 cos(α 2 − α1 )
= I1 + I 2 + 2 E01 E02 cos(ϕ )
ϕ = 2 nπ Constructive interference
ϕ = 2 nπ ± π Destructive interference
Laboratory for 96
Standing waves
Standing wave
: Two waves of the same amplitude and wavelength traveling in opposite
directions form a stationary disturbance that oscillates in place.
E ( x, t ) = C1 f ( x − vt ) + C2 g ( x + vt )
Right going wave Left going wave
Incident wave : E I ( x, t ) = E0 sin( kx + wt )

Reflected wave : ER ( x, t ) = E0 sin(kx − wt )
E = EI + ER
E = 2 E0 sin kx cos wt
Laboratory for 97
The addition of waves of difference frequency
E1 = E01 cos(k1 x − w1t )
E2 = E01 cos(k 2 x − w2t )
1 1
w≡ ( w1 + w2 ) wm ≡ ( w1 − w2 )
2 2
1 1
k ≡ (k1 + k 2 ) k m ≡ (k1 − k 2 )
2 2
E = 2 E01 cos(k m x − wmt ) cos(k x − wt )
Beat frequency : 2 wm
The amplitude varies sinusoidally with the beat frequency!
wm w1 − w2 dw
Group velocity vg = = = time
km k1 − k 2 dk 1/ Beat frequency
Laboratory for 98
Anharmonic Periodic Waves
Fourier Series
A0 ∞ ∞
f ( x) = + ∑ Am cos mkx + ∑ Bm sin mkx
2 m =1 m =1
λ
|| 2
Harmonic Am =
λ ∫ f ( x) cos mkxdx
0
f1 λ
2
+
Bm =
λ ∫ f ( x) sin mkxdx
0
Amplitude
f2
+
f3
+ f4
+ f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 Frequency
f5
f6
Laboratory for 99
Nonperiodic Waves
f(x)
A
• Fourier integral
τ 0 τ x
− ∞ ∞
2 2 1 
f ( x) =  ∫ A(k ) cos kxdk + ∫ B( k ) sin kxdk 
π 0 0 
Fourier Transform
Aτ
X(k) A(k ) = ∫ f ( x) cos kxdx
−∞
∞
B(k ) = ∫ f ( x) sin kxdx
−∞
2 1 0 1 2 k
− −
τ τ τ τ
Laboratory for 100
Frequency Bandwidth
• Wave packet
Fourier Transform
E(x) A(k)
E0
k
-kp 0 +kp
-L 0 +L
E (t ) = E0 cos w p t (−T ≤ t ≤ T ) A( w) = E0Tsinc( w p − w)T
• Frequency Bandwidth
∆k
∆k = 2π / L
k
kp π
π kp −
kp +
L L
Laboratory for 101

I-5. Polarization
• The nature of polarized light
• Linear polarization
• Circular polarization
• Elliptical polarization
• Natural light
• Polarizers
• Polarization by dichroism
• Polarization by birefringence
• Polarization by scattering
• Polarization by reflection
• Retarder
• Circular polarizer
• Induced optical effects ( Faraday effect, Kerr effect, Pockels effect)
Laboratory for 102

The Nature of polarized light
• Light may be treated as a transverse electromagnetic wave. The Electric field
or optical disturbance resides in what is known as the plane of vibration.
• Linear Polarization
• Circular Polarization
• Elliptical Polarization
• Natural Light
Laboratory for 103

Linear Polarization
E x ( z , t ) = iÊox cos(kz − wt )
E y ( z , t ) = ˆjEoy cos( kz − wt + ε )
E ( z, t ) = Ex ( z, t ) + E y ( z, t )
for ε = ±2π
E = (iÊ0 x + ˆjE0 y ) cos(kz − wt )
Ey for ε = ±π
E
E = (iÊ0 x − ˆjE0 y ) cos(kz − wt )
Ex
“Linear Polarization”
Laboratory for 104

Circular Polarization
E x ( z , t ) = iÊox cos(kz − wt )
E y ( z , t ) = ˆjEoy cos( kz − wt + ε )
E ( z, t ) = Ex ( z, t ) + E y ( z, t )
E 0 x = E0 y
Ey “Right Circularly Polarization”

ε = −π / 2 + 2mπ
E
E = E0 [iˆ cos( kz − wt ) + ˆj sin( kz − wt )]
Ex
“Left Circularly Polarization”
ε = π / 2 + 2mπ
E = E0 [iˆ cos( kz − wt ) − ˆj sin( kz − wt )]
Laboratory for 105
Elliptical Polarization
E x ( z , t ) = Eox cos(kz − wt )
E y ( z , t ) = Eoy cos(kz − wt + ε )
2 2
 Ex   Ey    E 
  +   − 2 E x   y  cos ε = sin 2 ε
   E  E 
 E0 x   E0 y   0 x  0 y 
2 E 0 x E 0 y cos ε
where, tan 2α =
E 02x − E 02y
ε changes
Laboratory for 106

Natural light
Phase changes take place at so rapid a rate as to render any single resultant
polarization state indiscernible.
Natural light
Laboratory for 107

Polarizers
• Four Fundamental physical mechanisms of Polarization
– Dichroism
– Reflection
– Scattering
– Birefringence
– Malus’s law
Laboratory for 108

Polarization by Dichroism
• Dichroism refers to the selective absorption of one of the two
orthogonal polarization state components of an incident beam.
– A wire-grid polarizer - A Dichroic crystal (Calcite)
Optical Axis
Vertical component absorption
lateral component
tourmaline
Laboratory for 109

Polarization by Birefringence
• Birefringence shows two different indices of refraction.
Optical Axis
– Calcite
– Birefringent crystal
– Nicol prism , Wollaston prism
Laboratory for 110

Polarization by scattering
• Sunlight streaming into the atmosphere from one direction is scattered in all
directions by the air molecules. The scattered light in the forward direction is
completely unpolarized; off that axis it is partially polarized, becoming increasingly
more polarized as the angle increases.
Non-polarized light
Air molecules
Non-polarized light
Partially polarized light
Linear polarized light
Non-polarized light
Observer
Sky
SUN Earth
Linear polarized light Partially polarized light
Laboratory for 111

Polarization by Reflection
• The reflection of light from the boundary between two dielectric isotropic materials
is polarization dependent. At the Brewster’s angle of incidence, light of TM
polarization is not reflected. At this angle, only the TE component of the incident
light is reflected, so that the reflector serves as a polarizer.
TE TE
TM
θB
TE
TM tan θ B = n2 / n1
n1 n2
Laboratory for 112
Retarder
A Half-wave plate Retarder serves to change the
polarization of an incident wave. One
of the two constituent coherent
polarization-states is somehow caused
to have its phase lag behind that of the
other by a predetermined amount.
Half-wave retarder
Principle of the Optical Axis
A Quarter-wave plate Half-wave retarder
Quarter-wave retarder
Laboratory for 113

Circular Polarizer
Any series combination of an appropriately oriented linear polarizer and a
90° retarder will perform as a circular polarizer.
Non-polarization Linear-P Circular-P Linear-P Linear-P

Laboratory for 114
Induced Optical Effects ; Photoelasticity
• Photoelasticity; Mechanical birefringence, stress birefringence
: Under compression or tension, the material takes on the properties of a negative
or positive uniaxial crystal. The effective optic axis is in the direction of the stress,
and the induced birefringence is proportional to the stress.
Laboratory for 115

Induced Optical Effects; Faraday effect
Faraday effect: The plane of vibration of linear light incident on a piece of glass
rotates when a strong magnetic field is applied in the propagation direction.
The angle through which the plane of vibration rotates, β

Modulating
Magnetic field β = νBd
Modulating
Voltage
Polarizer
Constant
Magnetic field
Polarizer
where, ν :Verdet constant, B :static magnetic flux density, d :length of medium traversed
Laboratory for 116
Induced Optical Effects; Kerr effect
Kerr effect : Isotropic transparent substances become birefringent when
placed in an electric field.
Benzene, Chloroform, Water, …
Plate electrodes
Polarizer
∆n = λo K E 2
Modulating
Polarizer
Voltage
Laboratory for 117
Induced Optical Effects; Pockels effect
Pockels effect : It is a linear electro-optical effect, in as much as the induced
birefringence is proportional to the first power of the applied E-field and
therefore the applied voltage. This effect exists only in certain crystals.
ADP (NH4H2PO4)
KDP (KH2PO4)
Transparent
KDA (KH2AsO4) ...
electrode
Crystal
Polarizer
Modulating
Voltage
Polarizer
Laboratory for 118
I-6. Interference
• What is Interference?
• Basic two beam interferometer
• Conditions of interference
• Complex degree of coherence
• Visibility
• Coherence length
• Approximate coherence lengths of several sources
• Interference conditions of polarized lights
• Wavefront-splitting interferometer
• Amplitude-splitting interferometer
• Multiple beam interference
• Optical coating
• Multiple coatings
Laboratory for 119

What is interference?
Optical interference corresponds to the interaction of two or more light
waves yielding a resultant irradiance that deviates from the sum of the
component irradiances.
Laboratory for 120

Basic two beam interferometer[13,14]
• Interference of two waves
I
r r r
U (r ) = U1 (r ) + U 2 (r ) 2
(where, I1 = U1 , I 2 = U 2 )
2
2 2 2 2 I1+I2
I = U = U1 + U 2 = U1 + U 2 + U U 2 + U1U 2
* *
1
= I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos ϕ : Interference equation

− 4π − 2π 0 2π 4π ϕ
Interference term
I
(where, ϕ = ϕ 2 − ϕ1 )
4I0
• Example (In case, I1 = I 2 = I 0 )
2I0
I = 2 I 0 (1 + cos ϕ ) = 4 I 0 cos (ϕ / 2)
2
0 λ 2λ 3λ d
Laboratory for 121
Conditions for interference
• Temporal coherence is related with the coherence time.
(coherence time : the temporal interval over which we can predict the phase of the light
wave at a given point in space)
• Spatial coherence is most often used to describe effects arising from the finite
∑
spatial extent of ordinary light sources.
Temporal coherence relates directly to finite bandwidth
of the source, spatial coherence to its finite extent in space
• If partially coherent, complex degree of coherence

is added to interference equation.
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 | γ (τ ) | cos ϕ 0 ≤ γ (τ ) ≤ 1
Laboratory for 122

Complex degree of coherence
Interference
s2 r2 I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 | γ (τ ) | cos ϕ
r1
s1
Complex degree of coherence
0 ≤ γ (τ ) ≤ 1
∑0 γ (τ ) = 0 Incoherent limit
I min γ (τ ) = 1 Coherent limit
∑0 I max
0 < γ (τ ) < 1 Partial coherent
• Contrast (Visibility)
I max − I min 2 I1 I 2 γ (τ )
V= =
I max + I min I1 + I 2
I max − I min
V= = γ (τ )
I1 = I 2 I max + I min
The Modulus of complex degree of coherence is identical to the visibility of the fringes
Laboratory for 123
Visibility
Visibility can be described quantitatively as the quality of the fringes
produced by an interferometer system
I Imax
Imin
I max − I min
V=
I max + I min
V=0.703 V=0.132 V=0.062

Laboratory for 124
Approximate coherence lengths of several sources
Light source Bandwidth (nm) Coherence length
Thermal IR
4000 25000 nm
(8000~12000 nm)
Mid IR 2000 8000 nm
(3000~5000 nm)
White light 300 900 nm
Mercury arc 1.0 0.03 cm
Kr86 Discharge lamp 1.2 x 10-3 0.3 m
Stabilized He-Ne laser 10-6 400 m
Laboratory for 125

Interference conditions of polarized light
• Fresnel-Arago Laws
– Two orthogonal, coherent P-states cannot interfere in the sense that I12=0 and no
fringe results
– Two parallel, coherent P-states will interfere in the same way as will natural light
– The two constituent orthogonal P-states of natural light cannot interfere to form a
readily observable fringe pattern even if rotated into alignment. Since these P-states
are incoherent
E⊥1 < ( E⊥1 + E⊥ 2 ) 2 >

k1 E⊥1
k1 E1 < ( E||1 + E||2 ) 2 >
k1
E⊥ 2
k2
k2
E||2 k2
No interference Interference E2
Laboratory for 126

Wavefront-Splitting Interferometer
r2
S2 r1 y
θ
a
S1
Young’s experiment
r1 − r2 ≈ aθ ≈ ya / s
r1 − r2 = mλ : Constructive interference
s
ym ≈ mλ : m th bright fringe on screen
a
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos ϕ ϕ = k (r1 − r2 )
I1 = I 2
k ( r1 − r2 ) yaπ
I = 4 I 0 cos 2 = 4 I 0 cos 2
2 sλ
Laboratory for 127
Amplitude-Splitting Interferometer I
• Heidinger Fringes Circular fringe
– fringes of equal inclination

Viewing screen
Lens
Beam splitter
Extended source
Laboratory for Dielectric film Black

128 background
Amplitude-Splitting Interferometer II
• Fizeau Fringes
– fringes of equal thickness
Fringe deviation
Extended
Beam splitter
source
E1r
E E2r
Fringe spacing n1
nf
Laboratory for x 129
n2 Spacer
Multiple Beam Interference
Interference between multiple reflection beams.
The difference in optical path length between adjacent rays
Incident ray
Λ = 2n f d cos θ t
θt
nf
Laboratory for 130

Optical coating
• Optical instruments consist largely of a series of interfaces between media where
the light is either refracted or reflected or sometimes both. The intrinsic properties
of these interfaces, particularly in terms of reflectance, transmittance, absorptance,
polarization are often far from ideal. Optical coatings are used wherever the
intrinsic optical properties of an interface between two media have to be altered.
Laboratory for 131

Antireflection coating
• The principle of antireflection coating
is deconstructive interference between two waves !
Phase thickness of the layer

d
δ = 2π ⋅ n ⋅ d / λ
δ =π (out of phase) Antireflection coating
Quarter-wave rule : n d = λ/4 (=π/2 )
Laboratory for 132

Multiple coatings
Air Multi-layers High Efficiency
• The simplest kind of periodic

n0 system is the quarter-wave
nL stack, which is made up of a
nH number of quarter-wave layers.
Air
nL
n0 nH • The periodic structure of
n1 nL nL alternately high- and low-index
n2 nH nH materials.
nS Glass substrate Glass substrate nS

g ( HL) n a
g HLHLHL a
gHLa
g ( HL) n a
Double-quarter Quarter-wave stack
Laboratory for 133
I-7. Diffraction
• What is Diffraction?
• Huygens-Fresnel principle
• Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffraction
• Fraunhofer diffraction from single slit
• Fraunhofer diffraction from double slit
• Fraunhofer diffraction from rectangular aperture
• Fraunhofer diffraction from circular aperture
• Resolution of imaging system
• Diffraction grating
Laboratory for 134

What is Diffraction?
• “Deviation of light from rectilinear propagation” by Grimaldi in the 1600s.
• The effect is a general characteristic of wave phenomena occurring whenever a

portion of a wavefront, be it sound, a matter wave, or light, is obstructed in some
way.
• There is no significance difference between interference and diffraction. It is

customary to say that “interference is the superposition of a few waves, and
diffraction when treating a large number of waves”.
Laboratory for 135

Huygens-Fresnel Principle
• “Every unobstructed point of a wavefront, at a given instant , serves as a
source of spherical secondary wavelets (with the same frequency as that of the
primary wave). The amplitude of the optical field at any point beyond is the
superposition of all these wavelets (considering their amplitudes and relative phases)”
Diffraction at a small aperture
( Diffraction through an aperture with varying λ as seen in a ripple tank )

Laboratory for 136
Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction
• Fraunhofer or far-field diffraction Diffraction patterns from a single slit
– At a very great distance from the opaque

screen containing an aperture (as long as
both the incoming and outgoing waves
approach being planar), Fraunhofer
diffraction obtains.
Increasing Distance
– R > a2/λ (R: distance, a: aperture size)
– The field distribution is the Fourier transform

of the field across the aperture.
• Fresnel or near-field diffraction

2
– When Fresnel number N F = a
λR > 1
Laboratory for 137
Fraunhofer Diffraction from Single Slit
• A single slit illuminated by monochromatic plane waves
• Lens is used as a Fourier transformer and Fraunhofer diffraction is

observed at the plane distant from the lens by its focal length.
z
2
 sinβ 
I (θ ) = I (0) 
 β 
Sinc function
+b/2
R θ , where β ≡ (kb 2)sin θ
b
dz x
-b/2
σ
Laboratory for 138
Fraunhofer Diffraction from Double Slit
• The diffraction pattern is centered about the axis of the lens.
• The pattern is a rapidly varying double-slit interference modulated by a
single-slit diffraction pattern.
2
I(θ)  sinβ 
z
I (θ ) = 4I0   cos2 α
4Io
 β 
, where α ≡ (ka 2)sin θ
β ≡ (kb 2)sin θ
b
a
b
θ x
R sinθ
λ λ λ λ
− − 0
b a a b
Σ
σ
Laboratory for 139
Fraunhofer Diffraction from Rectangular Aperture
• The diffraction pattern is the Fourier transform of the aperture function RECT
e i (ω t − kR ) ik (Yy + Zz ) R
• The total disturbance arriving at P E = εA
R Aperture∫∫ e dS
y 2 2
 sin α '   sin β ' 
Intensity I (Y , Z ) = I (0 )   
 α'   β' 
a
, where α ' ≡ (kaZ 2 R )sin θ
dy
dz r β ' ≡ (kbY 2 R )sin θ
R Y
b x P
z
Po
σ
Laboratory for 140
Fraunhofer Diffraction from Circular Aperture
• The diffraction pattern is the Fourier transform of the cylinder function
e i (ω t − kR )
2π ∫ J 0 (kρ q R ) ρ dρ
a
• The total disturbance arriving at P E = ε A
R 0
y
 2 J (ka sin θ )
2
Intensity I (θ ) = I (0 )  1
0.5 mm hole

 ka sin θ 
Bessel function
ρ
(1st kind, order 1)
φ O Y
a θ R P
q
z
Φ Po 1 mm hole
Airy disk radius = 1.22fλ/D σ

, where f: lens focal length, D=2a
Laboratory for 141
Resolution of Imaging System
• When an object is incoherent point sources, the image will consist of a
distribution of partially overlapping, yet independent, Airy patterns.
• The images will be distinct and easily resolved if the criteria below are
satisfied. object image
– Rayleigh criterion
• The central maximum of one coincides
with the first minimum of the other
– Sparrow criterion Imaging by diffraction-limited optics
• The second derivative of the resultant image illuminance vanishes at the point
midway between the two image point
Clearly Rayleigh Sparrow Not

resolved criterion criterion resolved
Laboratory for 142

Diffraction Grating
• A repetitive array of diffracting elements that produces periodic alteration
in the field of emergent wave is said to be a diffraction grating.
– Amplitude grating (modulation in amplitude)
• E.g. multiple slit configuration
– Phase grating (modulation in phase)

• E.g. regular variations in the optical thickness
A 1D transmission grating A white-light point source
seen through a woven cloth
1st order
(m = 1) m th order
0th order
(m = 0) D θm
C
a
1st order B
(m = -1) θi A
a AB − CD = a (sin θ m − sin θ i )
Laboratory for 143

Part II. Optical System Design
Laboratory for 144

Introduction to Optical System Design
• This part provides a broad and useful introduction into the design of
optical systems
• Concepts, along with the logical transition of these concepts into the
design or real systems, will be developed.
• The terminology or “jargon” typically used will be covered.
• Mathematics and detailed derivations will not be presented – rather, the

understanding of the design and engineering process will be emphasized.
Laboratory for 145

Fundamental Optical System Requirements
• Performance
– Provide Imagery of sufficient quality to resolve specified minimum size
objects over desired field of view
– Image blur must be matched to detector size
– Clear aperture and transmittance must be sufficient for desired
sensitivity
• Configuration Selection
– Design form must be capable of providing desired performance
• Producibility considerations
– Minimize size/ cost/ weight/ environmental effects
Laboratory for 146

Typical Specifications
• Focal length
• Clear aperture diameter Focal length
F-number =
• F-number Aperture Diameter
• Full field of view
• Spectral range and relative wavelength weights
• Packaging constraints
– Length, diameter, back focal distance or clearance
• Environmental parameters
– Temperature range
• Transmittance and relative illumination (vignetting)
• Distortion
• Performance (MTF, RMS wavefront error, encircled energy, etc.)
Laboratory for 147
Perfect or “Diffraction Limited” Imagery
• Imagery is never perfect
Due entirely to mathematically
predictable geometrical effects, such
as the spherical aberration shown.
• Diffraction effects
If there were no geometrical
aberrations, the image of a point
source would be an “Airy disk”
• Other image degrading effects

– Fabrication, assembly, and alignment error
– Material properties and environmental effects.
Laboratory for 148

F-number vs. Imagery
• Physical diameter of Airy disk is proportional to f/#.
Physical Diameter = 2.44 λ f #
f/1 f/2 f/3
• Image blur diameter must be smaller than the detector size

Physical diameter
Detector Size
1 2 3 f/#
Laboratory for 149
Aperture Size vs. Imagery
• Assume diffraction-limited systems (A), (B) with different aperture sizes
• They have the same f-number and same airy disk size A
• What makes them different in imagery’s point of view?
(A) (B)
• The flux forming the image from the larger system will be (D/d)2 times the
flux from the smaller system, hence the higher SN ratio.
• This is important in astronomical and other forms of point imagery.
Laboratory for 150

Geometrical Aberrations
• Geometrical aberrations are due entirely to the failure of the optical
system to produce a perfect or point image.
• The geometry of focusing light with spherical surfaces is mathematically

imperfect.
• Spherical surfaces are used almost exclusively due to their inherent ease
of fabrication.
• The refractive index (or bending power) of glass and other transmitting
materials changes as a function of wavelength.
– This produces changes in the aberrations at each wavelength.
Laboratory for 151
; Dependence of focal length on ray height.
How to reduce Spherical Aberration

• Spherical aberration can be controlled by varying lens bendings
– Each of two bent lenses below has the same focal length.
Innocent lens with an enormous amount of Same lens bent for minimum spherical aberration
spherical aberration
• Spherical aberration can be controlled by adding lenses
For a real lens the second element is bent for

minimum spherical aberration with converging light
incident which reduces the aberration further.
Laboratory for 152
How to reduce Coma ; Dependence of Mt on ray height
Chief ray
or
Principal ray
Image plane
– The chief ray usually defines the image height.

– A comatic image occurs when the outer periphery of the lens produces a higher or lower
magnification than dictated by the chief ray.
• Coma can be controlled by shifting the aperture stop and selectively
adding lens
Aperture stop
- Note reduced coma due
to greater lens symmetry
about aperture stop
Laboratory for 153

How to reduce Astigmatism ; Dependence of focal length on ray angle.
YZ rays focus here
XZ rays focus here
Optical axis
– An astigmatic image results when light in one plane (YZ) is focused differently from light
in another plane (XZ)
• Astigmatism can be controlled by selectively locating and bending lenses.
• An interesting and potent astigmatism correcting technique.

– A tilted plane in a converging cone introduces astigmatism.
This lens cancels astigmatism

by introducing counter-astigmatism
Laboratory for 154
How to reduce Field Curvature
– In the absence of astigmatism, the image is formed on a curved surface called the
“Petzval” surface.
– Whereas Petzval surface for positive lens curves inward toward the object plane, for a
negative lens it curves outward.
• A suitable combination of positive and negative lenses will negate field curvature.
Laboratory for 155

The Rayleigh Criteria
Reference
sphere If OPD (Optical Path Difference) = 0.25 λ,
system just meets Rayleigh criteria and

Actual
wavefront imagery is nearly perfect.
• The Rayleigh criteria states that

– “An optical system would not fall seriously short of the performance possible
with an absolutely perfect system if the distance between the longest and
shortest paths leading to a selected focus did not exceed one quarter of a
wavelength”
Laboratory for 156

PV vs. RMS Wavefront error
(A) (B)
Typical Wavefront Peak-to-Valley OPD is the difference
between the longest and the shortest
Specific OPD paths leading to a selected focus.
RMS wavefront error is given by
∑
Peak-to-Valley
OPD RMS = OPD 2
wavefront
Reference Sphere (A), (B) have the same PV wavefront

error, but different RMS errors.
• The above also applies to lens or mirror surface departures from their
nominal shapes.
Laboratory for 157

Depth of Focus
δ = Depth of focus
• Depth of focus is the amount of defocus permitted which introduces ±1/4λ

wavefront error.
• This depth of focus δ = 2 λ ( f # )

2
(e.g. δ = 1µm when f/1, λ=0.5 µm)
• Note that ±λ/4 depth of focus corresponds to just meeting the Rayleigh
criteria, and the imagery will be essentially perfect.
Laboratory for 158

What is Ray Trace Curves?
• Ray trace curves (or transverse aberration plots) are the basic
performance evaluation aid for the optical design
Tangential or
y-z ray fan Sagittal or
x-z ray fan
Lens exit pupil

Normalized pupil coordinate
x Image plane
Actual Coma pattern
Laboratory for 159

Formation of Ray Trace Curves for Spherical Aberration
Transverse aberration
Paraxial image plane
“Best Focus”
Image plane
Laboratory for 160

Typical Transverse Ray Trace Curves
Tangential ray fan Sagittal ray fan Tangential ray fan Sagittal ray fan
Defocus
3rd order - 5th order
Astigmatism 3rd order Coma

& Defocus
Astigmatism Coma +
Astigmatism
3rd order
Spherical Secondary
aberration Axial color
3rd order
Spherical
aberration
Off-axis
+ best focus
lateral color
Laboratory for 161

Stops and Pupils
Exit pupil
Entrance
Pupil
Exit pupil Aperture
diameter Stop
• The aperture stop is the surface or the location where the ray bundles pivot about
– it is the limiting aperture for all the ray bundles
– The chief ray passes through the center of the aperture stop.
• The entrance pupil is where the chief ray would cross the optical axis as if it were
not redirected by the lens
• The exit pupil is where the exiting chief ray appears to have come from.
Laboratory for 162

Vignetting
• Severe ray bending off axis at positions “A” and “B” often causes large
image aberrations.
– By selectively reducing the clear apertures of the lenses (vignetting) , these
“bad rays” can be eliminated
– This reduces the off axis throughput or illumination (30%~50% vignetting often is
acceptable)
• The resulting lens performs better, is smaller, and is reduced in cost.
Laboratory for 163

Optical System Configuration
• Proper configuration selection is often a key ingredient necessary for a
successful design effort
– It provides the base for the starting design
– “Automatic” design programs are rarely capable of changing configurations
– The program generally reaches an optimum solution for input solution
– This is known as the “local minimum” in the merit function
• Configuration selection may be driven by the following :

– Field of view
– Performance requirement
– F-number
– Spectral range
– other
Laboratory for 164
Optical Design Process
• 1. Acquire and review specifications
• 2. Select representative starting point
– Prior design, Patent, Hybrid, Original design
• 3. Establish variables and constraints

– Variables are curvatures, thicknesses, air spaces, glass characteristics, etc.
– Constraints can be packaging related (length, diameter, etc.) or f-number and ray angles.
• 4. Optimize performance using program

– Each variable is changed a small amount, or increment.
– The effect to the performance is computed for each variable increment
– The result is a series of derivatives
• ∂P/∂V1, ∂P/∂V1, ∂P/∂V1, ...... P : Performance , V : Variables
– The set of simultaneous equations for each variable is solved so as to minimize the sum of the
squares of the performance residuals.
• 5. The process is repeated until an optimum is reached.

• 6. Perform tolerance analysis and generate performance error budget
Laboratory for 165
Why is Lens Design so Difficult Task?
• A complex lens system consists of a nearly infinite number of possible
solutions in a multi-dimensional space.
– It is the job of the designer to determine the optimum solution.
• Computer programs iterate to a “local minimum” in the error function

– The designer must apply outside influences to the process in order to leave
one local minimum and reach a more optimum solution.
Local minima Global minimum

Performance
error function
Solution or parameter space
• The challenge is to reach the “Global Minimum”.

Laboratory for 166
The Modulation Transfer Function
• Imaging characteristics of an optical system are most appropriately
represented by the “modulation transfer function” or MTF.
– This tell us how well the modulation in an object is transferred to an image by
the optics.
Intensity
Intensity
Object Image
I max − I min Modulation in Image

Modulation = , MTF =
I max + I min Modulation in Object
Laboratory for 167
Typical Modulation Transfer Function
Perfect system, No obstruction
Modulation Perfect Obscured System
Typical Real system
Spatial frequency, cy/mm

Cutoff frequency
Object
Image
Laboratory for 168

Optical System Tolerancing
• Assign tolerance to all optical and mechanical components
– Tolerances relate to both optical components (lenses/mirrors) and to
mechanical components which support the optics
• Goals for fabricated system

– Meet system performance requirements
– Minimize component cost
– Minimize assembly, alignment, and testing cost
– Maximize yield
• Establish a system performance error budget

– Predict performance
Laboratory for 169

Tolerance Forms
• Symmetrical errors relating to fabrication, assembly, and materials
– Radius, thickness, air space, refractive index
• Asymmetrical errors in optical elements

– Surface irregularity
– Inhomogeneity of refractive index
– Element wedge (total indicated runout)
• Asymmetrical errors in assembly and alignment

– Element tilt, decenter or roll
• Other
– Environmental effects
– Cosmetic effects (scratch, dig, bubbles)
– Dispersion of glass
– Combination of the above
Laboratory for 170
Environmental Consideration
• As an optical system is subjected to high or low temperatures
– Lenses expand/ contract
– Cells or housings expand/ contract
– The refractive index of lenses increases / decreases
• Effect to the system

– Performance may degrade (sometimes substantially)
• Image defocusing is a major problem
• Aberrations may degrade in addition
• Refocusing and inter-element spacing changes are often required
• Strain caused by compressive stresses of cell on lenses can degrade performance
• Further degradations can be caused by thermal gradients (axial, radial, and diametral)
• To minimize the problem

– Select glass types and cell material to minimize thermal focus shifts
– Match expansion properties of glass and cell material
Laboratory for 171

Part III. Optical Components
1. Laser
2. Bulk optics components
3. Fiber optics components
4. PD, CCD & CMOS sensors
5. Frame grabber
Laboratory for 172

III-1. Laser
• LASER
1. Acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation".
2. In its most basic form, a laser is a device that emits light as a perfectly
collimated, monochromatic beam.
3. It is based on the principle of stimulated emission.
Laboratory for 173

Principle of Laser
• Stimulated emission
E2
: Electron
Energy Level
: Light
E1 : Electron Transition
Fluorescence Absorption Stimulated Emission
hf = E 2 − E1
- An atom in an upper energy level interacts with incoming light of frequency f

satisfying the equation, and the atom is stimulated to drop to a lower energy level and
emits the energy difference as light.
- The result of the stimulated emission process is that one photon interacts with an
atomic system and two photons emerge
Laboratory for 174

Principle of Laser [1]
• An illustration of the gain, or amplification, that occurs with

increased path length in the resonant cavity due to the mirrors at
each end
Fig(a) : The beginning of stimulated emission
Fig(b)~(g) : Amplified as the light is reflected

from the mirrors positioned at the cavity ends
Fig(h) : Finally, at the equilibrium state, the

cavity is saturated with stimulated emission
Laboratory for 175

Types of Laser
• Practical laser
Gas laser HeNe laser, Ar laser, CO2 laser, KrF laser, CO laser
Solid state laser Nd:YAG laser, Nd:Glass laser, Nd:YLF laser, Ruby laser
Semiconductor laser Diode laser, Quantum well structure,

Blue/UV semiconductor
Future laser Free electron laser, X-ray laser, Femto-second laser
Laboratory for 176

Gas laser (HeNe laser)
99.7% reflective mirror 100% reflective mirror

Brewster windows
Excited HeNe gas
Standing wave
electrodes
• Laser that utilize HeNe gas material as the active laser medium
• Wavelength( λ=633 nm )
• Output type : continuous wave
• Output power of Energy : 0.1~50mW
• Typical Application : alignment, price code scanning, construction, holographics,

reprographics, measurement
Laboratory for 177
Gas Laser( CO2 laser)
• Laser that utilize CO2 , N2, He mixture

gas material as the active laser medium
• Laser emitted by dynamic motion of

O=C=O molecular
• Wavelength( λ=10.6 µm )
• Output type : continuous wave, pulse
• Output power of Energy : up to 15 kW
• Typical Application : R&D, surgery,

material working, photochemistry, laser
radar, remote sensing
Laboratory for 178

Solid state Laser (Nd-YAG laser)
• Solid state lasers are characterized by active media involving ions of an element
present in a small percentage in a solid host material
• Wavelength( λ=1.06 µm )
• Output type : continuous wave, pulse
• Output power of Energy : 10~20W range
• Typical Application : industrial processing, metal welding, drilling, cutting etc.
Laboratory for 179
Semiconductor Laser(diode laser)
Si Electron • Use a small chip of semiconducting material as the
active medium
Conductor band
Insulator
Energy (eV)
3eV
Bandgap Energy Eg
(Si : 1.11eV) Semiconductor
0.1eV
Valence band
Conductor
Heating / charging
Hole
Laboratory for 180

Semiconductor Laser(diode laser)
• P-N Junction
Radiative recombination of the holes and electrons The difference in energy emitted as light
Si-4 Electron
Donor n-Type
(P) 5 +
+ +
Region
Depletion
- Drift
+ Diffusion - -
Acceptor 3 -
(B)
P-
Type
Hole
Laboratory for 181

semiconductor Laser(diode laser)
6 mm
• Lasing wavelength / linewidth

532, 635, 980, 1064nm, …
• Beam diameter/divergence angle
• Output power
3mW, 5mW, 20W, …
• Operating voltage/current
• LD driver
Laboratory for 182

X-ray Laser
• Laser beams amplified with ions would have much higher energies than
beams amplified using gases
• X-ray laser beams initiated by nuclear explosives
• Practical use of X-ray laser

Nano-electronics
Nanotechnology robot
Bio-holography
Astronomy A line out of the emission spectrum from an x-ray laser
experiment shows that the 14.7nm x-ray laser line is orders
of magnitude brighter than any other emission line
Laboratory for 183
Femto-second Laser
< A few femto second
- The Femto second laser is a Ultra shot pulse laser and has ultra high peak power.
- Pulse duration is a few femto seconds and peak power is several hundred KW.
• Application
Amplifier seeding, coherent terahertz generation, optical coherence tomography,
multi photon microscopy, material processing
Laboratory for 184

III-2. Bulk Optical Components
• Lens ( singlet, doublet )
• Mirror
• Polarizer
• Beam Splitter(BS), Polarized Beam Splitter(PBS)
• Retarder
• Prism, Retroreflector
• gratings
Laboratory for 185

Bulk Optic Component [2]
• Lens( singlet, doublet, rod )
Singlet doublet Rod lens
- Doublet lens is made by attaching two or more lens to decrease lens aberrations.
Laboratory for 186

• Lens ( Filter )
- These lens filters are commonly used as wavelength
selectors (low-pass, Band-pass, notch etc.)
- They are used extensively in clinical chemistry, water

analysis, quality control, and in general purpose laboratory
colorimeters
Narrow interference band-pass filter
Notch filter
UV, VIS, IR Ranges Band pass filter
Laboratory for 187

• Mirror • Polarizer
- Performance of mirror is determined by

mirror’s reflectivity.
- Type : thick mirror, thin plate mirror etc.
Near IR linear polarizing High contrast UV & NIR

film polarizer
Laboratory for 188

• Beam Splitter(BS) • Polarized Beam splitter(PBS)
- Splits a beam in two way. - Splits a beam in two ways like BS

- Ratio of two beam intensity is not - Two beams are polarized perpendicularly
only 1:1, but different for each BS (horizontal, vertical )
Laboratory for 189

• Retarder
- Retarder film is a clear birefringent material that changes the phase of a polarized
beam of light. Generally use λ/2, λ/4 plate.
Laboratory for 190

• Prism
Right angle prism Penta prism dove prism dispersion prism
- Angle prisms are generally used to achieve any angle light path bend
Laboratory for 191

•Retro-reflector
Hollow Corner cube

Retro-reflector(Corner cube array) Corner cube
- This unique product is an injection molded plastic array

of small corner cubes. Each corner cube prism will reflect
an incoming ray of light, regardless of orientation
Laboratory for 192

• Gratings (Transmission Grating Beam-splitters)
Transmission grating equation: -nth

-2
θn = diffraction angle for the nth order -1
0th order
n = diffracted order(integer) Incident
beam +1
λ = wavelength of light (nm) +2
+nth
D = grating period = 1/(grooves/mm)
nλ
θn = sin -1 ( )
d
Transmission grating beam-splitters are commonly used for laser beam division
and multiple laser line separation in visible wavelengths. The transmitted beam
is diffracted into multiple orders.
Laboratory for 193

III-3. Fiber Optic Components
• Couplers
• WDM (Wavelength-Division Multiplexers)
• Polarization Controller
• Polarizers
• Phase Modulators
• Frequency Shifter
• Isolator
• Photonic crystal fiber
Laboratory for 194

Optical fiber
• Optical fiber
Total internal reflection

Cladding n1
n2 By Snell’s
Snell s law
Core θc θc 90°
θ2 = n1 sinθ
n2 sinθ θ1
n1
θc = sin-1(n1 / n2)
n1 < n2
Laboratory for 195

The characteristics of optical fiber 1/3
• NA (Numerical Aperture)
If acceptance angle for a fiber α is less than the maximum acceptance
angle α m , the incident light will be confined within the fiber
Optical fiber
n1
α n2
NA = sin α m = n22 − n12
α m : Acceptance angle
Laboratory for 196

The graded index(parabolic profile) tend to keep the different ray in phase and thus
keeps dispersion small
Materials
Core Cladding
G.O.F (Glass Optical Fiber)
P.O.F (Plastic Optical Fiber)

n1
n2 Graded-Index Fiber
n1
n1
n2 Step-Index Fiber
n1
Laboratory for 197

3
• Multi-mode step index
• Single-mode step index
• Multi-mode graded index
Laboratory for 198

Specifications of Optical fiber
Design wavelength
Multi mode
Single mode (630, 820, 980-1060, 1260-1600nm)
Polarization
Polarization maintaining fiber
Polarization preserving fiber
Numerical aperture
Attenuation
Core/cladding diameter
Laboratory for 199

Fiber Couplers
• Performs the function of beam splitters
A B
Input port Throughput port
Coupled port
D c
In bulk optics In fiber optics
Laboratory for 200

Comparison with a bulk optics
• Michelson interferometer
PD
Dummy PZT PD
L2
L2
L4 L4 L1
L1 BS
laser laser
PZT L3 mirror L3
mirror
4% reflection
from fiber ends
Michelson interferometer
Laboratory for 201

Wavelength-Division Multiplexers
• Multiplex two (or more) signals of different wavelengths
λ1 Fiber core 1
λ2 λ1
λ2
Fiber core 2
Dichroic or bandpass filters
Laboratory for 202

Polarization Controller
• Polarization can be controlled by
Applying lateral pressure Inducing asymmetric radial strains and birefringence
Laboratory for 203

Polarizers
• Polarization by placing metal or birefringent crystal on a polished fiber substrate.
(Light signal is coupled to the current)
Laboratory for 204

Phase Modulators
• Phase modulation is achieved
Piezoelectric tube
by an external modulation of the
Signal
physical length or the effective generator
index.
Fiber
Epoxy Metal film
Fiber Fiber
Glass PZT cylinder PVF2 jacket

capillary tube ~
~ Signal
Signal Generator
Generator
Laboratory for 205

Frequency Shifter
• Frequency ωo is shifted to ωo + ωq by the acousto-optic interaction.
In bulk optics (Bragg cell) In fiber optics

Crystal Modal
ω0 + ω q filters
ω0 mode 1
ω0 θ
mode 2 ω0 + ω q
Piezoelectric ω0 Periodic
transducer coupling by
acoustic
ωq ~ Signal generator wave (ω 0 )
Laboratory for 206

Optical Isolator
• Fiber optic isolators are passive optical devices that allow light to
be transmitted in only one direction. They are most often used to
prevent any light from reflecting back down the fiber
Laboratory for 207

Optical Isolator
• Faraday rotator mirror
• Two basic applications are possible:
- Minimizing effects of polarization state changes in single-mode retrace

applications, e.g., Michelson Interferometer. Request separate literature from OFR
- As polarization-state 90° rotator in retrace circuits in fiber-optic lasers and fiber-

optic amplifiers.
Laboratory for 208

Photonic Crystal Fiber[3]
- Glass fibers with an array of microscopic air holes running

down their length-vastly extend the possibilities of optical fibers.
Photonic crystal fibers, this refractive index difference is
significantly larger(1.00:1.46), and can be tailored to suit
particular applications.
• Application
High power transmission
Polarization Maintaining fiber
Dispersion compensating fiber
Nonlinear devices & supercontinuum generation
Chemical sensing
Laboratory for 209

Optical fiber sensors
• The emerging applications of optical fiber sensors
Medical
Medical Electrical
Electrical
and
and supply
supply
biomedical
biomedical industry
industry
Optical fiber
sensors
Chemical
Chemical Smart
Smart
and
and structures
structures
environmental
environmental
Interferometers,
Interferometers,
Gyroscopes,
Gyroscopes,andand
hydrophones
hydrophones
Laboratory for 210
Basic concept
• The principles of optical fiber sensors
Physical change
① Source ② Optical fiber Thermal
Pressure
Electric field
Magnetic field
Mechanical movement
Chemical density
Rotation
⑤ Signal processing ④ Detector ③ Sensing part
Optical changes : Intensity

Phase
Polarization
Wavelength
Laboratory for 211
III-4. PD, CCD & CMOS Sensor
• The principle of Photo Detector
• The types of Photo Detector
• The principle of Charge Coupled Device (CCD)
• CCD vs. CMOS sensor
Laboratory for 212

The principle of Photodetector 1/2
• Detector [Semiconductor Photodetector][9]
When light(photon) falls on the PD, it is absorbed and produce free hole-
electron pair
Conductor band V
Electron Photon
ν
hν
Photon Eg
ν
hν
Hole -
+
Valence band
Laboratory for 213

The principle of Photodetector 2/2
• P-N Photodiode detecting mechanism
P-N junction makes Electric field , is proportioned to the intensity of light
Photon Φ(photon flux density)

- -VB
0 - + - V Φ1 V
+ + Φ2
- - Φ3
p + + n
Depletion layer Current-voltage characteristics for PD
Electric field
Laboratory for 214

Types of Photodetector [4]
• Photodiode • Avalanche Photodiode • Position sensitive detector
- Photodiodes are semi- Application Application

conductors that generate a • Fast laser pulses • Optical position and angle sensing
current or voltage when • Low light level signals • Laser beam alignment
illuminated by light. • Beat signals of low level inputs • Displacement and vibration
Photodiodes have no monitor
internal gain but can Feature
operate at much higher light • High Speed Response: Bandwidth Feature
levels than other detectors. 1MHz-1GHz • High position resolution
• Spectral Range of 400nm to 1mm • High speed response
Laboratory for 215

The principle of Charge Coupled Device(CCD)
• Array detectors
If a incident photon has large energy, it can create an electron-hole pair in semiconductor.
When this creation occurs in or near the depletion region, the photon generated electron is
attracted towards the potential well which is formed under the positive charged electrode. A
charge packet is formed.
CCD UV
Visible
IR Light shield
CCD transfer gate
PtSi SiO2
p n n+ p n p
Guard Ring Channel stop
p-type Si
640*480 pixels
Laboratory for 216

Interlaced scan vs Progressive scan
Interlaced scan progressive scan
• Conventional CCDs use interlaced scanning across the chip. The chip is divided into
two fields: the odd field (rows 1, 3, 5..., etc.) and the even field (rows 2, 4, 6..., etc.).
These fields are then integrated to produce a full frame.
• The progressive scan CCD solves this problem by scanning the lines sequentially
(rows 1, 2, 3, 4..., etc.). The progressive scan output has not been standardized so
care should be taken when choosing hardware. Some progressive scan cameras offer
an analog output signal, but few monitors are able to display the image. For this
reason, capture boards are recommended to digitize the image for display.
Laboratory for 217
Other Types of CCD
• 3 CCD
Detect each Red, Green, Blue light by

using 3 CCD and filter
This CCD visualize color image
• Line CCD
CCD Line Scan Sensor 1024, 1728, 2048, 2592
elements
TTL level digital I/O interface, Data rate up to 20MHz
Laboratory for 218

Other Types of CCD(Infrared CCD) [5]
• Observing, recording and digitization of low contrast

images emitted by IR sources, such as IR LEDs and
GaAs and solid-state lasers
Application
- Laser beam alignment and inspection, optical fiber

alignment, telecommunications, inspection of silicon
surfaces.
- Surveillance and investigation in botany, biophysics

and medicine
Laboratory for 219

CCD vs. CMOS 1/2
Output
Q-V
lines
photodiode Conversion
Serial Output and Output
clocks Amplifier
Amplifier
Row
Row decode
signal
parallel Lines
clocks
photodiode
Shift
register
(masked) Direction of Column Decode and Readout
parallel shift
pixel Output Buffer
Interline transfer CCD CMOS Imager
CCD : The charge is actually transported across the chip and read at one corner of
the array
CMOS : There are several transistors at each pixel which amplify and move the
charge using more traditional wire. CMOS approach is more flexible because each
pixel can be read individually
Laboratory for 220
CCD vs. CMOS 2/2
Feature CCD CMOS performance CCD CMOS

Signal out Responsivity Moderate Slightly better
of pixel Electron packet Voltage
Signal out Voltage Bits (digital) Dynamic
of chip (analog) Range High Moderate
Amplifier N/A Moderate
mismatch Uniformity High Low to
System Low Moderate to Moderate
Noise High Speed Moderate to Higher
System High Low High
Complexity
Sensor Low High Windowing Limited Extensive
Complexity
Laboratory for 221

Examples of CMOS Sensor [6]
• Digital cameras have for years used what is essentially a monochromatic image
sensor with individual color filters over each photodetector.
•New photodetector at each pixel location has a multi-layered design which has the
equivalent of a red, green and blue photodetector at each pixel location.
Laboratory for 222

The Principle of Frame grabber [7]
• The task of the frame grabber is to assemble a digital image for

processing in the computer from the video signal transmitted by the
camera. First the frame grabber samples the incoming analog video
signal
• Use PCI port or IEEE 1394 port
• Capture from standard/non-standard,

color/monochrome, analog/digital, frame/line
scan sources
Laboratory for 223

Produced by Hagyong Kihm, Jong han Jin, Youngjin Kim, Seungchul Kim (Jan. 2004)
References
[0] Optics, Hecht, 4th ed. (Part I ~ Part II)
[1] Olympus America INC.
[2] www.edmundoptics.com
[3] www.thorlabs.com
[4] www.hamamatsu.com
[5] power technology
[6] www.dpreview.com/articles/sigmasd10
[7] www.matrox.com
Laboratory for 224


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Basic Optics for Optical Metrology

• Understanding of the physics rather than mathematics or detailed derivation

• Part II. Optical System Design (p. 144)

• Part III. Optical Components (p. 172)

• Disturbance is mechanical force that displaces matter

• Material medium required

Wavefronts Electric field in x-dir

Z Magnetic field in y-dir

• Disturbance is coupled electric and magnetic fields

• Can propagate in vacuum

• Speed of light c is constant in a material medium

c0 = 3 × 108 m / sec ( vacuum)

3×108 (UHF-TV) 1 Infrared Red

Blue Green Red

Diverging beam (Spherical) Converging beam (Spherical)

Collimated beam (Planar) Converging beam (Aberrated)

• Absolute refractive index • Relative refractive index

• Triangles ABC, ADC ; Optical length AD = BC , n sin [i ] = n' sin [r ]

• Triangles ABC, ADC : i = − r

Law of refraction : n sin [θ a ] = n' sin [θ b ]

• Rays are lines normal to wavefronts

• Optical elements change shape of wavefronts and direction of rays

• Laws of refraction and reflection give change of ray direction at optical

• Diffraction limits the ability to form perfect point images

limit (Wave optics) = (Geometrical optics)

• When light waves propagate through and around objects whose

First focal point Second focal point

Primary principal point

Extending both the incoming and outgoing rays until they

• When the lens is surrounded on both sides by the same

Object space Image space

• Objects and images are regarded as arrays of points

• Cartesian reflecting surfaces

• Cartesian refracting surfaces

• A double hyperbolic lens produces an image that is free from all

Optical path length : OPL

Here, imaging operation can be modeled by 3 “Transfer”s

• Analytical ray tracing

– Refraction operation (Law of refraction at interface)

From ①, ② xo xi = f 2 : The Newtonian form of the lens equation

so 2 = d − si1 f 2 d − f 2 so1 f1 ( so1 − f1 )

• Total transverse magnification of the compound lens

M T = M T 1M T 2 (where, M T 1: transverse magnification of lens 1, M T 2 : transverse magnification of lens 2)

• Use of the Thick lens formula

f (nr − 1)t f (nr − 1)t

Aperture stop Field stop

• Aperture stop location affects

– Aberrations in “Off-Axis” images (Quality of the image)

• Field stops can be used to block stray light

• Focal length (distance between exit pupil and focal point)

• Object-side NA ( NAo = n sin θ )

• Image-side NA (NAi = n' sin θ ')

• Depth of focus (field)

• Paraxial rays are traced using simple linear formulas

• Paraxial images are determined using simple formulas referenced to

• Lenses can be combined in specific ways to provide diverse functions

• Optical systems should be coupled at pupils