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FJ668-02 M6 Book
FJ668-02 M6 Book
FJ668-02 M6 Book
P66 A M6 E
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Lufthansa Technical
Training
Dept HAM US
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22335 Hamburg
Germany
Part -66
GENERAL
Abbreviations Conversions
AA Aluminium Association of America Fahrenheit to Centigrade Conversion
AISI American Institute of Steel and Iron S °C = (°F - 32) x 0.555
COMPRESSION
SHEAR
Ductility
The property which allows metal to be drawn into thinner sections without
breaking.
Malleability
That characteristic of material that allows it to be stretched or shaped by beat-
ing with the hammer or passing through rollers without breaking.
Toughness
The property of a metal which allows it to be deformed without breaking.
Brittleness
The property of a metal to break when deformed or hammered. It is the
resistance to change in the relative position of the molecules within the
material.
Conductivity
The characteristic of a material which makes it possible for it to transmit heat or
electrical conduction.
Durability
The property of metal that enables it to withstand force over a period of time.
METAL GENERAL
Metal consists of basic chemical elements which have different characteristics
and properties:
S strength, heat-treatable or cold-workable
S crystal structure
5 kg/dm3
Mg -- Magnesium
Mg Al Ti Zn Cu Al Aluminum
-- Alumin
Ti Titan
-- Titanium
1.74 2.7 4.5 7.14 8.93
Zinc
Zn -- Zi
Cu -- Copper
Lightweight Metals Heavyweight Metals
Cube
Cube 3
MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT
GENERAL
The selection of materials should be the best compromise between the quality
of the material to fulfil the requested function and all costs (material prices,
2010 Steel 6%
Titan. 9%
Steel Steel Titan. 5%
Aluminum 15% Titan. 3% Aluminum 12% Various 4%
Aluminum
20% 23%
35%
STEEL APPLICATIONS
General
The base material iron is a chemical element which, in its pure form, is a very
soft, malleable and ductile metal which is easy to form and shape. In practical
FLAP LINKAGE
LANDING GEAR 15--5PH AND 4330M
4340M
ALLOYING INGREDIENTS
General alloying elements
The main alloying agents of steel are:
MATERIAL DESIGNATIONS
General
Designations given to most low alloy steels are based upon an AISI (American
Iron and Steel Institute) system that refers to the chemical composition of the
FORWARD PINTLE--PIN
FITTING
RETRACTION ACTUATOR
4330U
DOWNLOCK
ACTUATOR
SIDE STAY FITTING Ti 6Al V4
7049-- T73 LOCKING ARM
SIDE STAY ASSEMBLY 300M
MLG LEG
300M DOWNLOCKING JACK S99/4340
PITCH TRIMMER ARTICULATING LINKS4330U
BRAKE ROD
4340 X X X X
4330M X X X
9Ni-4Co-.30C X
4340M X
15--5PH
For bar and forging applications at strength levels of 200 KSI or lower, 15-5PH
precipitation hardened stainless steel is currently being used in place of alloy
steel. Manufacturing costs are reduced and improved corrosion resistance is
obtained by using 15-5PH steel.
300 Series
The 300 series austenitic stainless steel sheet materials are used for lower
strength applications where corrosion or hygiene concerns dictate material
needs.
Susceptible to embrittlement
EMBRITTLEMENT SUSCEPTIBILITY
190 - 230_ C for not
less than 4 hours
TENSILE STRENGTH
CORROSION-
RESISTANT low good very good
HEAT
very good low very low
CONDUCTIVITY
APU Firewall
Inboard Flap
Support Link Elevator Actuator
Fittings
Inboard Auxiliary
Slat Tracks
Window Sill
and Posts Thrust Reverser Fittings
Hydraulic Lines
Springs
MLG Actuator Support Fittings Fittings (Structural and Non-Structural)
Forward Landing Gear Trunnion Fasteners
Bearing Housing
Corrosion Resisting
Cladding
T Aluminium
Cladding
Thickness of Cladding
3--5% of T
Cladding Material
(Pure Aluminium)
Rubber Stamp
on Sheet
Material Thickness
in Inches
40
Aluminium 2024--T3
30 GLARE 3--3/2
20
GLARE 2--3/2
10
ABBREVIATIONS
Composite Abbreviations
AFRP Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastic
CFRP Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic
CONVERSIONS
Fahrenheit / Centigrade
Fahrenheit to Centigrade Conversion
S °C = (°F - 32) x 0.555
Centigrade to Fahrenheit Conversion
S °F = °C x 1.8 + 32
COMPOSITES GENERAL
Introduction
The term composite is used to describe two or more materials that are com-
bined to form a much stronger structure than either material by itself.
ADVANTAGES/ DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
Composite materials are used mainly to reduce weight. If weight can be saved,
more cargo, fuel or passengers can be carried.
More advantages are:
S high strength-to-weight ratio
S reduction of parts and fasteners
S reduction of wear
S corrosion resistance.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages are:
S general expensive
S not easy to repair; you need well-trained staff, tools, equipment and facilities
to repair composite components.
Boeing
When complete, Boeing’s B787 will become the leader in the use of composite
material in commercial aircraft structure design. Around half of the B787 will be
made of composites (by weight), similar to the ratio applied in the F--35 Joint
Strike Fighter and the Eurofighter Typhoon military aircraft, with grahite epoxy
being the dominant material.
The fuselage will be made with fiber placement stringers, frames and skins
manufactured as one piece in addition to stringers, spars and skins of the air-
craft’s wings and cargo doors. Also, the possibility of using composite wing ribs
is investigated.
REINFORCING MATERIALS
General
When combined with a matrix, the reinforcing material (fibres) are what give
the major strength to the composite component. There are several types of
Fibreglass
Fibreglass is made from small strands of molten silica glass and than spun to-
gether and woven into cloth. There are many different weaves of fibreglass
available, depending on the application. The wide range of application of the
material and its low cost make it one of the most popular used. Fibreglass
weighs more and has less strength than most other fibre material.
Aramid
Aramid fibres are general characterized by its yellow colour, light weight and its
excellent tensile strength. Aramid is a registered tradename of the Du Pont
Company and is an ideal material for aircraft parts that are subject to high
stress and vibration (e.g. rotor blades). It is also used in bullet-proof vests.
Damage to Aramid structural components will, in general, be repaired with fi-
breglass.
Graphite
Black graphite/carbon fibre is very strong and stiff and is used for its rigid,
strong properties. This material is used to manufacture primary structural com-
ponents like ribs and floor beams. Graphite is stronger in compressive strength
than Kevlar, however it is more brittle than Kevlar. It has the problem of being
corrosive when bonded to aluminium.
MATRIX MATERIALS
General
The matrix is the bonding material the completely surrounds the fibre to give
strength and transfer the stress to the fibre. The newer matrix materials have
Thermoplastics
CORE MATERIAL
General
Core material is the central member of the assembly. When the core is bonded
between two thin-face sheets, it provides a rigid, lightweight component. This
Honeycomb Core
Cross Direction
Honeycomb Core
Longitudinal Direction
POLYMERISATION
Polymerisation
The polymerisation process has been generally understood since about 1930.
Polymerisation is a chemical reaction, generally carried out in the presence of a
catalyst, which combines small molecules (monomers), containing a double
bond, into long chain molecules.
The double bond is ”opened up”, thereby making valency bonds available for
linking with its neighbouring monomer molecule.
No by--products are produced.
The monomer molecules may be:
S ethylene polymerising to polyethylene (PE)
S styrene polymerising to polystyrene (PS), or
S vinylchloride polymerising to polyvinyl--chloride (PVC).
POLYCONDENSATION
Polycondensation
Polycondensation was used and partly understood even earlier than 1930.
The most famous product was Bakelite, so named by Baekeland, the Belgian
POLYADDITION
Polyaddition
Polyaddition has been used since 1937. Polyaddition is a reaction of two differ-
ent types of molecules when reactive groups are brought together. No by--prod-
ucts are produced, but hydrogen atoms migrate from their positions in the func-
tional group leaving combinable free valencies.
Two important types of plastics are made this way:
S polyurethanes and
S epoxies.
Compatibility with
reinforcement
Mechanical Properties
Resin Choice Main
Criteria
Toxicity/Flammability Density
ADHESIVES
General Elastomeric Adhesives
Adhesive is a substance used to bond two or more surfaces together. Most Elastomeric adhesives, such as synthetic or natural rubber cements, are also
adhesives form a bond by filling in the minute pits and fissures normally pres- used. They
ent even in very smooth surfaces. Adhesive bonds are economical; they dis- S join dissimilar metals without the hazard of producing galvanic corrosion
Resin Adhesives
Resin adhesives cure by chemical reaction. They contain two or more compo-
nents.
FILM ADHESIVES
General Thixotropic Agents
Film adhesives are similar to prepregs. They are used for bonding metal to Some plastic resins are extremely sensitive to temperature changes. At 15oC
metal, sandwich core to skin and GFRP, AFRP and CFRP. they may be as thick as molasses, while at 30oC they will run like water. Since
Adhesives are available as unsupported and supported films. Supported films heat is used as a curing agent, these resins may tend to run off of any vertical
Foam Adhesive
Skin
Core
Skin
Delamination Area
Phenolic or
Metal Block
(Calking Plate)
Clamp
Mechanical Hooking
Surface Solid
Fair Wetting
Solid
Damage Evaluation
A complete inspection of the damaged area or component will give the required
information concerning the extent and the type of damage. Depending on the
type, extent and importance of the affected zone, the damage acceptance level
may be determined.
Acceptance Level
In order to define the applicable repair type and its associated limits (time and
size), it is necessary to initially determine whether the damage is
S allowable
S repairable or
S not repairable.
The acceptance level of damage is determined using the graphics and instruc-
tions contained in the affected component-related SRM chapter (52 to 57) and
allowable damage section of the Structural Repair Manual.
Damage
Discovered
MPD
Damage SRM
Evaluation
Damage
Acceptance
Level
DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION
General Allowable Damage
For composite surfaces (as per the Structural Repair Manual), damage is di- For each of the defined zones, a graphic is to be used to determine allowable
vided into two main categories: damage limits, recommended repair types and repair associated limitations.
S skin not-perforated damage Damage type and dimensions, as well as initial thickness, have to be known in
Chemical Degradation
Chemical degradation principally affects the resin and is generally due to acci-
dental contact with aggressive chemical liquids or products. In case of chemical
degradation detection, the whole contaminated area must be repaired.
Dent / Depression
A depression or a dent is a deformity in the thickness of an area. It may be
caused by impact. This type of defect requires further NDT investigation to de-
tect delamination or debonding. On sandwich structure, the honeycomb is gen-
erally damaged and requires a repair.
TYPICAL REPAIRS
Edge band
Edges are regularly subjected to damages. Therefore these repairs may be
needed for several reasons:
Wires
The truss is held together with high-strength solid steel wires that cross the
bays formed by the compression struts. The wires that extend from the front
spar inboard to the rear spar outboard oppose the forces that tend to drag
against the wing and pull it backwards; these are called drag wires.
The wires that attach to the rear spar inboard and go to the front spar outboard
are called anti-drag wires, since they oppose any force that tends to move the
tip of the wing forward.
A wing truss consisting of spars, compression members and drag and anti-drag
wires, when correctly assembled and rigged, provides the lightweight and
strong foundation needed for a wing.
Rear Spar
BOX SPAR
An adaptation of the truss-type wing is one using a box spar. This was pio-
neered in World War 1 on some of the all-metal Junkers aircraft and the wood
and fabric Fokker triplane.
A box structure built between the spars stiffens the spars so they can carry all
Frame
Spar
Bracket
Web
Skin
Flange (Wing)
PRESERVATION
General Survey of Structure - Single Skin
Long exposure to inclement weather or strong sunlight will tend to destroy the Where single skin plywood structures are concerned, some slight sectional un-
weather--proofing qualities of fabric coverings and of surface finishes generally. dulation or panting between panels may be permissible provided the timber and
If fabric--covered ply structures are neglected under these conditions the sur- glue is sound. However, where such conditions exist, a careful check must be
Ply
skins
Double Skin
Glue Line
When checking a glue line (i.e. the edge of the glued joint) for condition, all pro-
tective coatings of paint should be removed by careful scraping; it is important
to ensure that the wood is not damaged during the scraping operation and
scraping should cease immediately the wood is revealed in its natural state and
the glue line is clearly discernible.
Reinforcing
Members
Laminated
Boom
Web Frame
Access Hole
Longeron
Bush
Ply Skin
Solid Boom
Spars Fuselage
Fuselage Member
Screw Hole
Bulkhead Frame Member
Woodscrew
TYPE OF DEFECTS
General
During the inspection of the aircraft, the structure should be examined for other
defects of a more mechanical nature. Guidance on such defects is given in the
following paragraphs.
C
3A 5A C 3A B
A D
A 3A 10A - 12A E
E
Face grain
B D of plywood
Direction of face
grain of plywood
A Face grain of plywood
side plates A, B, C and E are original dimensions.
Splice plate
Spruce block
Rib cap strip splice over an up- Rib cap strip splice over
right member. a spar.
Spruce or A
basswood Damaged
area
4A
Original
gusset B
5 B
A
3A Longitudinal crack 3A
A
A/4
INTRODUCTION
This section will provide guidance and advice on the covering of aircraft com- S Eyeleted Fuselage Webbing. On a number of older types of aircraft, cot-
ponents with fabric and on the methods employed for repairing and testing ton webbing braid with hooks, or lacing eyelets and kite cord, are used for
such coverings. securing the fuselage fabric.
Guidance on the application of dope to fabric is given towards the end of this S Storage. All materials used for fabric covering should be stored at a tem-
Materials
S Fabrics. Aircraft fabrics are woven from spun threads or ’yarns’; those run-
ning lengthwise are termed the ’warp’; and those running crosswise are
termed the ’weft’. The number of yarns per centimetre (inch) varies with dif-
ferent weights of fabric and is not necessarily the same in both warp and 9mm
weft. The non--fraying edge of the fabric is termed the ’selvedge’.
9mm
S Tapes. Linen tapes complying with BS Fl and cotton tapes complying with 31mm
BS F8 are available in various widths for covering leading edges, trailing
edges and ribs, and for repair work. The materials are supplied with ser-
rated edges, as illustrated in the figure opposite. Cotton tape complying with Lap Seam
BS F47 (referred to as ’Egyptian tape’) is generally used on those members
where chafing may occur between the structure and the fabric and is also
used externally to protect the fabric against damage by the stringing cord.
S Thread. Linen thread complying with BS F34 is normally used. For hand
sewing. No. 40 thread (minimum breaking strength 3 kg (7 lb)) used double,
or No. 18 thread (minimum breaking strength 7.25 kg (16 lb)) used single,
are suitable. For machine sewing. No. 30 thread (minimum breaking
strength 4.5 kg (10 lb)) or No. 40 thread is used.
S Stringing. Flax cordage complying with BS F35 or braided nylon cord
(coreless) complying with DTD 5620 is normally used.
1/16“ 1/16“
French Fell Seam Folded Fell Seam
1/16“ 1/16“
1/2“
Stitching
1/16“
3/4“ 1/16“
PREPARATION OF STRUCTURE
The structure to be covered should be inspected as outlined in the previous S Mainplanes. The envelope is drawn over the wing tip and gradually worked
paragraphs. All comers or edges and any projections such as bolts or screw down over the mainplane, generally keeping the spanwise seam in line with
heads likely to chafe the fabric must be covered with tape. Where serious chaf- the trailing edge. When the cover is located it is secured (by stitching, ce-
ing may occur and a strong reinforcement is required, a canvas or leather menting, or retaining strip) to the inboard end of the mainplane, any neces-
Wire Clip
1/2in Fabric
patch
turned un- Herring-bone Wing Rib
der stitch
Wire Clip
Sewn-In Patch
Sheet Metal Screw
Plastic Washer
Reinforcing Tape
Fabric
Wing Rib
Attachment of Fabric in a
Control Surface Well
Lock Stitch
Stitching
Overhand Stitch
Half hitch
Pull No 4
Completed Knot
Edge of capstrip
Pull No 4 - 10lb to
completed knot
B - Second Step
Edge of capstrip
Pull No 1 - 10lb
to tighten loops
Operation No 1
Top
Fabric
Double
Knot
Anti-Chafing Tape
Single Knot
Upper
Rib Bottom Fabric
Boom
1. Sew up the tear. 2. Apply dope to sewn area. 3. Scrape off old dope.
Pre-doped
pinked tape
2 1/4 in
Dope lap area
4. Apply new dope. 5. Press down patching tapes. 6. Dope entire patch.
INSPECTION OF FABRIC
General
The fabric covering of an aircraft will deteriorate in service, the rate of deterio-
ration depending, to a large extent, on the type of operation, climate, storage
conditions and the maintenance of a satisfactory surface finish.
Sleeve
Fabric
Penetrating Cone
M 6.4 CORROSION
Atomic Oxygen
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium Alloy
OXIDATION
Amorphic Oxidisation
(rust)
Metal or Metal-Alloy
CHEMICAL CORROSION
FILIFORM CORROSION
Filiform corrosion is a special form of oxygen-concentration cell corrosion or
crevice corrosion which occurs on metal surfaces having an organic coating
system.
It is identified by its characteristic worm--like trace of corrosion products be-
Acid Solution
Aluminium Surface
STRESS CORROSION
Stress corrosion is an intergranular cracking of the metal which is caused by a
combination of stress and corrosion.
Stress may be caused by internal or external loading. Internal stresses are pro-
duced by non-uniform deformation during cold working, by unequal cooling
Tensile load
ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTION
In the figure opposite we have a piece of aluminium alloy (such as alloy 2024,
of which most aircraft structure is made). In this material, copper is alloyed with
aluminium and the microscopic grains of the copper and the aluminium serve
as the cathode and the anode for our explanation.
Electron
Direc-
tion
Electrolyte (ie
seawater)
ALCLAD 2024
5056
ALCLAD 7075 Electro-chemical potentials
Zinc of some metals in relation to
Magnesium Alloy
Al-Clad 2024
Pure Magnesium
PITTING CORROSION
The most common type of corrosion on aluminium and magnesium is pitting.
Pitting first appears as a white, powdery deposit. It starts on the surface of a
material and then extends vertically into the material.
This type of corrosion is dangerous because of the vertical extension, which
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
General
Intergranular corrosion is an attack on the grain boundaries of a metal.
Each of these tiny grains has a clearly defined boundary, which from a chemi-
+
+ + +
+
+ +
EXFOLIATION CORROSION
General
Exfoliation corrosion is an advanced form of intergranular corrosion which ex-
hibits itselfs by lifting up the surface of a metal by the force of expanding corro-
FRETTING CORROSION
General
Fretting corrosion is the result of rubbing contact between two heavily loaded
surfaces, one of which must be metallic.
Step 1
Corrosion products
Step 2
MICROBIAL CORROSION
General
Microbial corrosion in integral fuel tanks is caused by bacteria, fungi or yeast in
unclean kerosene-type jet engine fuel.
GALVANIC CORROSION
General
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals make electrical contact
in the presence of an electrolyte. Metals of one group corrode when they are
CREVICE CORROSION
General
Crevice corrosion occurs between two materials that come into contact. The
metals may be similar or dissimilar or in some cases one of the parts may be
Oxy-
gen
Oxy-
gen
Expanding Corrosion
Products
M 6.5 FASTENERS
GENERAL
The installation of fasteners is one of the usual procedures used to attach com-
ponents or assemblies to aircraft structures.
Aluminium solid rivets are mainly used with high-strength, aluminium alloy com-
ponents and assemblies.
SPECIAL FASTENERS
General Taper--Lok Fasteners
These fasteners have a close-tolerance shank or pin and a collar or nut which The Taper--Lok is a two--part fastener. These two parts are:
forms the closing tail. 1. a tapered bolt with a threaded end
THREAD FORMS
Introduction Single and Multiple Threads
A screw thread is the ridge left when a groove is cut into a cylindrical or conical When formed by one continuous groove, a thread is said to be single or single
surface. If the groove is formed on the external surface, the ridge is called an start. The majority of threads used for adjustment and fastening are single
external or male thread, whereas the thread formed inside a cylinder or cone is start, and the lead is equal to the pitch (P) of the thread.
Minor Di-
ameter
Pitch
Crest Root
British Unified
55o
BSW Nut
BA
American
60o
60o
ANC
60o
Bolt
ANF
Internal
IDENTIFICATION
Aircraft bolts can be identified by the code marking on the bolt head.
The markings according to US standards denote the bolt manufacturer, the ma-
terial from which the bolt is made and whether the bolt is a standard type or a
Raised cross
(Steel)
Raised dash
(CRES)
H = Drilled Head
Example
Basic Part No
INSTALLATION OF BOLTS
In materials with a thickness greater than 2.4mm it is acceptable to have 2
pitches of screw-thread contained within the hole.
If the material thickness is less than 2.4mm then no threads may be contained
within the hole.
STUDS
Introduction Stud Box
A stud is a piece of rod, threaded at each end with a plain portion in the middle. This is simply a piece of hexagonal metal bar, drilled and tapped through its
It should be a tight fit in the thread tapped to receive it. axial centre-line.
1. The stud is screwed into one end and a standard set screw into the other.
Fitting
Various methods are employed to fit studs. Amongst these methods are
S stud box
S stud insertion tool, and
S lock nuts.
Hexagon
To Insert To Remove
Copper
Disc
Stud
Stud
To Remove
Stud Insertion/Re-
Stud Box moval Tool
Lock Nuts
Filed Flats
Ezi-Out
Broken
Stud
SELF-TAPPING SCREWS
These are used extensively to secure thin-gauge sheet-metal parts where nuts
and bolts are either impractical or too expensive.
When screwed into a hole of the correct diameter they form their own thread.
The screw head may be slotted or cruciform.
NUTS
General Castle Nut
Nuts for aircraft bolts and screws are manufactured in many sizes and shapes. These nuts are designed to fit on standard airframe bolts and may be used
S non--self--locking nuts when the bolt is subjected to either shear or tensile loads. They are made from
the same material as the shear castle nut.
NON--SELF--LOCKING NUTS
These are used with drilled--shank hex--head bolts, clevis bolts, eye bolts or
struts and is designed to accommodate a cotter pin or wirelocking as a means
of safetying.
Castle Nut
Shear Castle Nut
Used only for shear load on clevis bolts. Slotted Engine Nut
These nuts are available in cadmium--plated nickel steel, corrosion--resistant This nut is designed for use on an aircraft engine and is not approved for air-
steel and in 2024 aluminium alloy. frame use. It is made of heat--treated steel.
Wing Nut
LOCKING NUTS
Lock Nut Oddie Stiffnuts
A lock nut is a thin, plain nut which is tightened down firmly onto the main, plain Oddie stiffnuts have six tongues at their outer end which are bent inwards to
nut. This friction wedges the threads to prevent them both slackening. form a circle slightly less in diameter than the root of the bolt thread. As the bolt
passes through the nut the tongues are pushed upwards, applying a locking
Clinch Nuts
Lock Nut
Nyloc Stiffnuts
This nut has an unthreaded nylon insert permanently housed at the outer end.
As the bolt threads engage the insert, the nylon is compressed into them, set- Anchor Nut
ting up a friction which prevents the nut unscrewing.
Oddie Stiffnuts
Cap Nut
Aerotight and Philidas Stiffnuts
These nuts have slotted locking extensions which are closed during manufac-
ture to put the screw-thread out of alignment. As the bolt engages and realigns
the extension thread, a grip is produced which provides a friction lock.
Nyloc Nut
Aerotight
Philidas
Anchor Nut
Aerotight and Philidas Stiffnuts
Nyloc Stiffnuts
Oddie type
Strip
Locking Insert
Notch
Tang
Wire Section Insert Partly Installed
Wire thread inserts have a tang at the inner end to facilitate fitting with a spe-
cial tool; this tang may be removed after installation if required.
Prewind
Inserting
Tool
Mandrel
Tang
Nozzle
Chamber
Slot
Body Handle
Mandrel
Punch
Minimum
Fitted Length Full
of Insert Sleeve
Thread
Depth
Minimum Notch
Thread
Tang Break-Off Punch
Half-Pitch Runout
Minimum
Tang
Handle
A
Blade
1/4 coil
(approx) View A-A
End of
Insert Coil
SAFETY METHODS
General
Safetying is the process of securing all aircraft bolts, nuts, screws, pins and
other fasteners so that they do not work loose due to vibration. A familiarity
MS 20995 -- NC -- 32
Standard--Number
Letter Code
19% Chromium
C CRES
9% Nickel
Ni Base with
N Ni Cr Fe -- Alloy
15.5% Cr and 8% Fe
WIRELOCKING
Wirelocking is the most positive and satisfactory method of safetying cap--
screws, studs, nuts, bolt--heads, and turnbuckle barrels which cannot be safe-
tied by any other practical means. It is a method of wiring together two or more
units in such a manner that any tendency of one to loosen is counteracted by
Bend
down or
back
Bend
down or
back
Bend
down or
back
External snap
(single-wire method)
Screw-heads
(double-twist method)
Grip end of
wire with
pliers Clockwise
twist
No safety wire
hole provided
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Step 5 Step 6
Step 4
Counter- Fold back,
clockwise cut off
twist square
Shakeproof Washers
Spring Washers
Tab Washer
This is a metal washer with two or more tabs, suitable for use with plain nuts.
One tab is bent against one of the flats of the nut and the other is bent over an
edge of the component or fitted into a slot or hole machined in the component.
It is not permissable to straighten the tabs and re-use the washer.
Tab Washers
Centre Punching/Burring
Pal Nut
Circlips
Outer Member
Stud Assembly
Grommet
Retaining Ring
Rivet
Flush or
Protruding Grommet
Inner Member
Receptacle
Stud Retaining Ring
Grommet
Retaining Ring Protruding-Type Installation
Outer Member
Stud Retaining Ring Stud Assembly
(used on some fasteners)
Grommet
Grommet
Receptacle Retaining Ring
Rivet
Inner Member
Flush-Type Installation
Oval Type
Receptacle
Cross Pin
Spring Stud
Diameter
Uneven prong
optional
Optional Preferred
Hub
Hub
Shaft Shaft
Hub
Key
Shaft
Gib-Headed Key
Hub Hub
Key
Key
Shaft
Shaft
Monel Rivets
Monel rivets, without heat treatment before use, are used in steel, titanium or
aluminium alloy riveted assemblies.
Titanium Rivets
Titanium rivets are rivets with a cylindrical or a partially tapered shank. No heat
treatment is necessary for this type of rivet.
Selection of the Correct Rivet
When repairing aircraft structure, it must be restored to the condition of struc-
tural integrity and aerodynamic shape that was needed for its original certifica-
tion.
When selecting a rivet, the shear strength of the rivet must match the bearing
strength of the material being riveted, with the bearing strength being slightly
higher than the shear strength.
A commonly-used rule of thumb for selecting the rivet size is to choose a rivet
whose diameter is at least 3 times the thickness of the thickest sheet being
joined.
Round Head
Brazier Head
Universal Head
Flush Head
Slug
Flush 100
_ Shear Head
(NAS 1097)
RIVET MATERIALS
1100 Aluminium (A) 5056 Aluminium Alloy (B)
This is commercially pure aluminium, and a rivet made of this material is too Many aircraft parts are made of magnesium, and to avoid a dissimilar metal
soft and does not have the strength required for structural applications on air- contact that could lead to corrosion, magnesium structure is riveted with 5056
Monel M Dimpled No
Monel M r Raised r No
Titanium T V Raised V No
Titanium T T Raised T No
AD DD Universal Head
o
AD DD 82 Flushhead (CSK)
MS 20426 MS 20470
100o Countersunk Head Universal Head
Length
Length
Application: Solid shank rivets are the most universally used device for the construction of sheet metal aircraft
Length: The second dash number is the length of the rivet in 1/16“ increments
MS 20470 AD 5 -- 12
Military Standards Number for AL Rivets with Universalhead
MS 20426 = 100 Flush Head
Material Designation
NAS 1097 AD 5 -- 12
National Aerospace Number for AL Rivets with Countersink
100o Flush Shear Head
Material Designation
Internal Recess
COLLAR
PIN FITTED
5. DISENGAGE THE INSTALLATION TOOL
2. INSTALL COLLAR ON THE PIN BY FROM PIN, DISCARD COLLAR DRIVE END
HAND, USE AT LEAST 2 THREADS
TO MAKE CORRECT THREAD NOTE: THIS ILLUSTRATIONS SHOWS
ALIGNMENT. A PROTUDING HEAD PIN.
COUNTERSUNK HEAD PINS
ARE INSTALLED IN A SIMILAR
SOCKET MANNER.
ALLEN WRENCH
COLLAR DRIVE END
TAPER-LOK
General It is very important to tightly clamp the parts together when they are prepared
A Taper-Lok fastener is a tapered bolt with a threaded end and a self-locking for the installation of Taper-Loks.
nut. The nut is also threaded and includes its own washer. The use of this fas- Taper-Lok bolts can be installed with hand or power tools.
tener is almost the same as that of a standard nut and bolt. It is very important to prepare the hole for a Taper-Lok to the highest possible
LOCKBOLT
General
A Lockbolt (pin swaged) fastener is a two-piece assembly consisting of: S All cutting tools (drills, reamers and countersinks) used to prepare the hole
1. A pin with a protruding or countersink head. The shank of the pin includes for a pin must be in good condition, to ensure that the surface of the hole is
RIVNUTS
Introduction
A rivnut is a combination of a rivet and a nut, resembling a hollow rivet with
threads inside its shank. It is used when it is necessary to attach anything with
.075in max
.045in min
Visu-Lok
Hi-Shear
TUBE FITTINGS
General
Tube fittings or tube connections form the transition to the fittings on the units,
branches or to other tubes.
Fitting Nut
Nut Line Component Side
Component-To-Line Connection
Line (Harrison Type)
Swaged Ferrule
Bulkhead
Locknut Nut
Swaged Fitting
Harrison Type
Line
Deutsch Type
FLARELESS FITTINGS
The illustrations show versions of the ”flareless tube fittings” now widely in use
which usually achieve their seal by the ”ball--bush principle”.
MS Fitting
Sleeve
Tube
Swaged Ferrule
Nut Line
Sleeve
Lower Die
Hydraulic Tube Block Assembly
Fitting Stop
Plate
Knurled
Surfaces
Reference
Mark
Knurled
Surfaces
Power Unit
Seal
FLARE-TYPE FITTING
Introduction Types of Flare
With a flare-type fitting a special tool is required to make the flare. There are two types of flare used in aircraft tubing systems:
By tightening the union nut, a sleeve is pulled against a conical fitting, whereby S Single Flare
the tube is pressed between the fitting and the sleeve. The close fit between
TOP VIEW
Steel
Grip Pilots
Die Tubing
SIDE VIEW
Tube
AN Feature AC
37o Angle 35o
Recess
Coarser Threads Finer
black
Flared fitting part numbers are either ’AN’ or ’MS’. Some older types (’AC’)
still exist. It is important to be aware of this and note that there are a num-
ber of physical differences that mean they are NOT interchangeable.
B
1. Position tubing against stop
Tube
Size
TUBE DAMAGE
Evaluation of tube damage
Various different types of damage are described in the aircraft manuals:
-- Sharp--bottomed surface defect is defined as damage with loss of ma-
HOSES
General Construction
Hoses (including fittings) are produced mainly by a manufacturer. It is unusual Hoses are built up from layers.
to fabricate hose assemblies. S The inner layer carries the fluid and therefore must be compatible (chemi-
Fitted hoses must meet the following requirements: cally) with the fluid being transported and have the minimum amount of po-
Low pressure
Swaged fittings require special machinery
to assemble and cannot be reused.
Medium pressure
Hose length
Assembly length
High pressure
Use wrench
on hex
Hose Vice Nipple Nut
Jaws
Hose Shoulder
of Socket
Assembly
Tool Adaptor
Socket
2. Lubricate assembly tool and
Nut force into hose to open inner liner. 4. After installation there should be clear-
ance between nut and socket to permit
nut to turn freely.
Nipple
Vice
Jaws Socket 1/32 to 1/16 inch clearance
Hose
Breakdown of Reus-
able Hose Fitting
Shoulder
of Socket Assembly
Swivel Type
Tool
HOSE INSTALLATION
There are a number of checks to carry out prior to installing a flexible hose.
Inspect the hose for:
S applicability
S length
Flexure
Clamp
Flexure
Prevent twisting
Chafe marks
M 6.8 BEARINGS
BEARINGS (GENERAL)
Plain Bearings Bearing Loads
In their simplest form, these bearings consist of load--carrying cylindrical inserts Bearings typically have to deal with two kinds of loading, radial and thrust.
made of hard wearing materials, such as cast iron, phosphor--bronze, white Depending on where the bearing is being used, it may see all radial loading, all
metal or special plastics. Plain bearings are used mainly in applications where thrust loading or a combination of both.
Sliding Bearings
The journal of a sliding bearing operates in a bearing box, a bearing bushing
or directly in the bearing body.
Bearings for large journal diameters and bearings that cannot be pushed over
the shafts during assembly (eg crankshafts) must be two-part bearings.
To decrease friction between journal and bearing, a continuous lubrication film
has to exist. For this, bearing play is necessary.
The amount of bearing play depends on the demands the bearing is subjected
to and the lubricant.
Sliding bearings are resistant to push forces, they operate with little noise and
they are suitable for both slow and fast rotational journal speeds.
Their high starting resistance, however, is disadvantageous. They also require
continuous maintenance.
Thrust
Load
Motor
Radial
Load
Radial Load
(weight of car)
Hub
Tapered roller
bearings
Thrust Load
(cornering forces)
Bearings
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS
There are five basic types of anti--friction bearings:
S tapered
S needle
Cylindrical Rollers
Needle Rollers
Spherical Rollers
Tapered Rollers
0.
8
0.
6
0.
4
0.
2
0
The same calculated fatigue life as for ball or cylindrical roller bearings can
be achieved under the same combined axial / radial load by a tapered roller
bearing of a much smaller bore.
Alternatively, a tapered roller bearing of the same bore can achieve much
greater fatigue life.
BEARING MATERIALS
The following are suitable as bearing materials: copper tin alloys, copper tin
zinc casting alloys, lead tin alloys, cast iron, dry-powdered metals and synthet-
ics.
These materials have good sliding properties. Some have good emergency
RADIAL BEARINGS
Radial bearings can accept forces that act radially to the shaft axis. Axial bear-
ings or longitudinal bearings accept forces that act in the direction of the axis of
the shaft. With the exception of roller bearings and pin bearings, radial bearings
can be subjected to low axial forces and axial bearings can be subjected to low
radial forces.
M 6.9 TRANSMISSIONS
TRANSMISSIONS GENERAL
General
Physical power transmission from the engine to flying control surfaces, under-
carriage etc is achieved by belts, cables, control chains, chainwheels, pulleys
Outer Plate
Bearing Pin
Inner Plate
Width between
Roller inner plates
Bush
Outer Plate
Roller Diameter
End-Connector
(b)
End-Connector
End-Connector
CHAIN DRIVES
General
Chain drives are suitable for non-slip power transmission with large spaces be-
tween axles when cogwheels are not available to decrease the size of the
TOOTH-TYPE CHAIN
ROLLER CHAIN
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARS
General
Toothed-wheel gears transfer rotational movement at low speeds without slip.
This means that a change of the transformation ratio (which could be caused
Pinion
Spur gears Internal toothing Spur gear and spur rack Bevel gears Helical gears Worm gears
SPUR GEARS
General
Spur gears may have straight teeth, slanting teeth and herringbone teeth. On
wheels with slanting or herringbone teeth, the teeth are arranged helically on
STEPPED GEAR
BEVEL GEARS
General
Bevel gears that operate together are two conical surfaces which roll without
slipping because of their tooth system. The bevel peaks meet at one point, pro-
Pinion
Bevel wheel
Bevel wheel
HELICAL GEARS
General
Helical gears are only suitable for the transfer of small forces, because the
flanks of the teeth contact in only one spot. Helical wheels that operate to-
WORM GEARS
General
Large transmissions can be achieved with worm drives when the drive is
created by the worm. When a one-toothed worm turns once, the respective
worm gear moves only the distance of one tooth. The ratio of transmission be-
comes larger the higher the number of teeth of the worm gear.
GEAR UNITS
Gear units transmit the (usually constant) rotational speed of the driving engine
in a way that the shaft or spindle turns with the required rotational speed. Gear
units can also change the direction of the rotational movement.
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARS
There are two types of variable gears, depending on how the individual toothed
wheels contact each other:
S caster swivel wheel gears, and
S driving-key-type transmission.
The wheels of variable gears are engaged and reach the desired rotational
speed by moving them sideways. If many rotational speeds are required by a
machine tool, several gears are arranged in series. Variable gears are suitable
to transmit large forces. They are used to adjust the revolutions of turning ma-
chines, milling machines and planing machines.
Like all other toothed-wheel gears, they are not suitable to drive machines for
precision work. Variable gears usually may only change gears during start up or
run down.
Input drive
Input drive
DRIVING-KEY-TYPE GEARS
The driving-key-type gear can only be used to transmit small forces at low rota-
tional speeds. The tightly-fitted toothed wheels on the driving shaft are
constantly engaged to the loosely-adjusted wheels of the driven shaft. An elas-
tic spring coupling key is moved in axial direction in the slot of the hollow driven
Shift Rod
Driven Shaft II
Ring
Shift Lever
Coupling Key
Output Drive
Output Drive
Input Drive
Rudder
Torque Tube
Aft Quadrant
RA RB Quadrant In-
put Rod
Rudder
Control
Cables
Cable RB
Cable RA
PUSH RODS
Push rods are used to operate rudders, auxiliary rudders, flaps etc. Push rods
can transmit pulling and pushing forces.
CAUTION: IF PUSH RODS ARE ADJUSTED, ENSURE THAT THE
THREAD IS VISIBLE THROUGH THE CONTROL--HOLE.
Structure
Quadrant
Aileron
Quadrant
Push Rod
Push Rod
Cable
Quadrant
Push Rod
ROTARY SELECTORS
Swinging or rotating movements are transmitted by rotary selectors.
Torque Tube
Flap Trans-
mission
CABLE LINES
Introduction
Cable lines have advantages over other mechanical actuators, such as
linkages, shafts and chains, predominantly weight-saving. Friction
Lock
Cable lines are used in many applications and can be routed into almost every
Tensioning
Large aircraft have a complex automatic cable tensioning system to maintain
tension relative as the aircraft expands and contracts due to ambient air tem-
peratures.
Small aircraft cable tensions are set up as a compromise as they do not have
this automatic system.
1x7 1 x 19
Non-Flexible Cable Non-Flexible Cable
(A) (B)
Diameter Diameter
7x7 7 x 19
Flexible Cable Extra-Flexible Cable
(C) (D)
CABLE TERMINALS
Introduction
Metal cable terminals are swaged to the end of a cable by plastic deformation
of their hollow shanks.
Fork End
Eye End
CABLE TURNBUCKLES
Air Seal Bulkhead
Rub Strip
Introduction
Pressure Seal
Change in cable tension is effected by turnbuckles.
There must be no more than three threads exposed at either end of the turn-
buckle barrel and the turnbuckle must never be lubricated.
Locking
Fairlead Guard
Opposite are illustrations of the various methods of locking turnbuckles. Pin
Many of the more modern turnbuckles are safetied with clip-type locking de- Solid Fairlead
vices. When the tension is correctly adjusted, the two-piece clips are inserted
into a groove in the turnbuckle body and the terminal end on the cable. The two
pieces are then clipped together through the hole in the barrel.
Pulley
STAGE 2
STAGE 1
Rotary Movement
Not Exceeding 90o Anti-Torsion
Tube
Clamp Block
Nipple-Type Con-
Sliding End Swivel Joint nector
Fitting
Quick-Break
Unit
Teleflex
TELEFLEX CONTROLS
Cables Conduits
The cable consists of a tension wire wound either with a continuous left- or The rigid conduits normally used in aircraft are of light alloy, although steel and
right-hand helix winding which engages with the teeth of gear wheels at the tungum conduits are used for special purposes. It may be bent in smooth
transmitting and receiving ends of the control run. curves to radii of not less than 3 inches.
Ball Ends
End screwed
to take fitting
Ball and
No 2 Cable No 380 Cable socket end
Eye end
(fork joint)
Fork end
Cable Gear
Wheel
Swivel Joint
Straight Lead Unit Junction Box Unit
Torsion
Drive
Cover Plate
Tabwasher
Lockspring Inspection Hole Swivel Tube
Locknut
Outer Sliding Tube
Forked-End Type
BOWDEN CONTROLS
Cable
This short run, lightly--loaded type of control has a cable made of non corrod-
able steel wire, which. is designed for ”pull” operation only. The return action is
provided by a spring.
End Fittings
Various types of end fitting and connector are provided, each installation being
designed to meet a specific requirement. Normally, the transmitting end of a
control is fitted with a hand lever which engages with the nipple on one end of
the cable. At the remote end, the cable passes through an adjustable stop and
is connected to the component operating lever. To return the hand lever to the
normal position after operation, the system is spring loaded either at the trans-
mitting or receiving end of the control run.
Hand Lever
A typical hand lever is illustrated. If it is necessary to dismantle an existing con-
trol or to fit a new cable, unscrew the adjustment to slacken the cable, then
rotate the nipple and slide the nipple and cable sideways to pass the cable
through the end fitting slot.
Trunnion Plain
Types of Nipple
Nipple
Cable
Stop Cap
Conduit
Parking
Catch
Double-Ended Stop
Cable Connec-
tor
INTRODUCTION
General
The installation of the single wire electrical system in aircraft is unique in that
the wire is only used to support the electrical current to the load and then back
Electrical Installation techniques have evolved rapidly with the new electronic
systems that are used in modern aircraft.
DESIGN
General
A wire is an isolated single copper conductor surrounded by insulation.
A cable is any group of two or more conductors, with or without shielding, sep-
ELECTRICAL WIRES
There are many different types of aircraft wire and cable available from a wide
range of manufacturers. Selection of the correct type, or suitable alternative is
usually made in accordance with the aircraft wiring diagram manuals and gen-
eral specifications.
Normally, a stranded copper conductor is used for maximum wire flexibility. The
strands are tinned, nickel plated or silver plated.
Wires with aluminium conductors are only used for large loads (galleys etc.) to
save weight.
A variety of different materials are used for wire and cable insulation. All consist
of high quality plastics and must be:
Wire types are categorised into different temperature ranges and are manufac-
tured in accordance with military specifications (Mil)
-- Up to 100/150_C (normal)
-- Up to 250_C (high temp)
-- Up to 400_C (fire resistant)
MIL--W--5086 or * MIL--W--7139
MIL--W--7078
1
4
POLYAMIDE or
SOLID DIELECTRIC
ALUMINIUM POLY VINYL CHLORIDE
CONDUCTOR
SHIELD
FIBRE GLASS
AROMATIC PLYIMIDE
POLY VINYL
POLYAMIDE
Antenna
IDENTIFICATION
The following examples illustrate the usual ways in which wires and cables are
part numbered.
All aircraft use a wide variety of different wires and cables. Only the original
The part number of the wire or cable does not reflect its circuit functionality.
This information is printed on the wire or cable, separate from the part number
as required by ISO 2574. (Ref. manufacturer wire ident. next pages)
EXAMPLE:
BMS 13-20 T4 C3 S22
Class
Material Specification
Class
BMS 13--28 is equal to MIL-W 7139
wire type a) Class 1 ( C1)
Type
Single insulated wire
a) Type 1 (T1)
Insulated wire with one conductor b) Class 2 (C2)
Two twisted insulated wires
b) Type 2 (T2)
c) Class 3 (C3)
Shielded cable.Type1 with one additional shield
Three twisted insulated wires
Shielded cable type 2 with one additional shield Four twisted insulated wires, etc.
insulation
Wire Size
d) Type 4 (T4)
Example:
* *
* *
All single wires and multi conductors (on the red wire only) shall have a
manufactures legend, printed in a contrasting color, repeated at intervals of
150 to 500 mm and containing the following information:
ESPM 20--32--21
Examples:
AND ON
1991: 91
1 SPECIFICATION 1
Some wires and cables cannot easily be marked without insulation damage. In
these cases, insulation tubing printed with the identification mark can be
installed on the wire or cable. This method is normally used for identifying the
following:
--Shielded wire
-- Thermocouple wire
-- Multiconductor cable
-- High temperature wire ( with insulation difficult to mark)
2233 - 2712
W 2
8 2
1 3
- 3
G -
Vertical printing is used if the 0
wire size is very small and on 2
9 7
newer cable types with thin in-
sulation 9 1
- 2
2
2
SHEATHED
NUMBER
END
The second letter coding is listed in the wiring diagram manual and is used as
follows:
S A = Radio Altimeter
I I_____ Second letter: Sub--System: Radio Altimeter
I_______ First letter: System: Radar Navigation
Common usage is also made of the ATA 100 chapter numbering system as
illustrated in the second table below:
System Coding
A
C
D
P
Q
R
S
T
W
X
ATA - Chapter
Wire Size
Wire Number
System Coding
Wire Bundle
W104 G 299 22 R
COLOR CODE
Color-Code
even bundle no. Electrical systems
AIRBUS IDENTIFICATION
( Ref. ESPM 20--32--21)
Wire Number
All wires on the aircraft must be identified. A numeric reference system is used Colour--Code
which indicates the function of the wire.
33 13 0175 R
ESPM 20--32--21
Ground Wires
Common
Grnd.
S
S
The maximum current flow specified in this table represents wires in wire
If the temperature goes down, the maximum possible current in one wire will go
up and vice versa.
If the number of wires in which 100% current is flowing at the same time is
lower, the maximum possible current flow in every other wire will increase.
The exact maximum current flow for a wire is calculated by the manufacturer in
accordance with MIL--W5088 (current rating calculation).
Wires with metric cross sections are marked with a green dashed line on the
outside of the insulation.
This different cross section measurement under the same AWG does not pres-
ent any problems for crimping but requires careful selection of the correct wire
stripping tool.
1
POLYIMIDE TAPE
WITH 50% OVERLAP
Some older aircraft also use Copper and Constantan as wire conductor materi-
als due to the lower resistance and therefore voltage drop of these materials.
To prevent confusion with normal copper conductor twin core cable (insulation
colour red/blue ) the conductor insulation colours for thermocouple cables are
different. They are usually white/green but can be white/red or red/yellow but
are never the same as normal twin core cable.
Caution:
Repair Alumel wires with Alumel splices only
Repair Chromel wires with Chromel splices only
Fire warning system wire insulation is generally red but can also be white.
SPECIAL CONNECTIONS
Termination of AL-- and CU-- wires AMP Copalum terminations
To reduce the aircraft’s weight some manufacturers use Aluminum (Al) wires AMPCopalum terminals and splices provide reliable, low cost terminations for
for the supplies to galleys, pumps etc. both aluminum and copper stranded wire.
NUT
LOCK WASHER INSERT
NON MAGNETIC
NON MAGNETIC WASHER
INSERT BODY
WASHER
COPPER
TERMINALS ALUMINIUM BODY
TERMINAL
ALUMINIUM
TERMINAL
COPPER
INSERT
TERMINALS
INLINE SPLICE
TERMINAL
TERMINAL
BLOCK
SWPM 20--30--13
ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS
Introduction
Electrical connectors are used to facilitate maintenance when frequent discon-
nection is required.
There are six basic types of AN connector, which are further broken down into
the five classes indicated below:
SERIES
CLASS
SHELL SIZE
insert
arrangement
INSERT ROTATION CODE POSITION
HOUSING
INSERT BODY
MOUNTING
MASTER KEYWAY
SOCKETS
PARTNUMBER
MAIN-KEY
Connector installation
Circular connectors, when installed with the axis in a horizontal direction,shall
be positioned so that the master key-way (main groove) is located at the top.
When installed with the axis in a vertical direction the master key-way shall be
1 Shell size
The shell size is denoted in 1/16 inch. The letter “S” is used for a short housing.
3 Contact arrangement
This is a code for the contact arrangement which is sometimes equal to the
number of contacts. (For Boeing aircraft this is always the case)
ORIENTATION CODE
2
NORMAL
(no letter code)
W X
Y Z
CONTACT ARRANGEMENT
In order to establish which way a line is counting, look for the number adjacent
to the outside contact.
SWPM 20--61--00
18/11
10 # 16 contacts 18/31
53
55
18/ 35
56 #22 contacts
24/79
24/61
79 # 22 contacts
61 # 20 contacts
1
Start at the outer shell, circle inside in alphabetical order.
2
After the last upper case letter ’Z’ the first lower case letter ’a’ is marked
with a circle.
3
After the last lower case letter ’z’ the next contact is ’AA’. This is also
marked with a circle.
4
.As some letters are similar to numbers and also to other letters they are
deleted to prevent confusion. Each time a letter is deleted, it is marked on the
connector by a small slash.
CONTACT MARKING
1 1
1
1 1
Q missing
SOCKETS
PINS PINS
ENVIRONMENTAL SEALING
General
All connectors are environmentally sealed. The following example illustrates an
assembled connector sealed at three points.
2 This position is sealed across the mating faces of the plug and receptacle.
3 3
Wire Seal
Contact Wire
1
Unwired contacts
SWPM 20--60--08
ESPM 20--48--41
unwired contact
Appr.
No Contact installed
(PRESSURIZED AREA)
CONNECTOR ALTERNATIVES
As well as the standard connector part numbers, a number of alternative part
numbers and manufacturers are listed in the standard practices manuals.
COAXIAL CONNECTORS
Coaxial cables and connectors are used to interconnect the components in cir-
cuits transporting high frequency signals.
COAX CABLE #1
TYPICAL RECEPTACLE
DIELECTRIC
SHIELD
SHIELD CLAMP
SHELF
COAX CABLE #3 RECEPTACLE Figure 3
K-GRIP ( CRIMPED)
SHIELD CLAMP
COAX CABLE #4
CONTACT
SNAP RING INNER K-GRIP
SLEEVE
OUTER K-GRIP
CAP SHIELD
SLEEVE
POLARISATION KEYS
Most computer shelf receptacles are equipped with polarisation keys to prevent
the wrong computer being inserted into a shelf.
Three posts can be rotated into six different positions so that the shelf and the
computer polarisation keys must match before the computer can be inserted.
POSITIONS
RECEPTACLE HOUSING IN
COMPUTER
4 If the receptacle has no holes for wire locking, the plug can be wire
locked to a hole in the surrounding structure provided that the safety wire
length is less than 5.904 in (15cm).
HOLE PROVIDED
3 5
1
HOLE
STRUCTURE
SAFETY
SCREWS
PLUG SHELL
COUPLING NUT
LOCK--WIRE
MAX: 15cm
2 4 LENGTH 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
M6 MATERIALS AND HARDWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 SYSTEM FOR HEAT TREATABLE ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
M6.0 M A T E R I A L S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 TEMPER DESIGNATION FOR HEAT--TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 GLARE (FIBRE METAL LAMINATES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 M 6.3.1 COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
MATERIALS OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 CONVERSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
METAL GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 COMPOSITES GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
METALS OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ADVANTAGES/ DISADVANTAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
CRYSTAL AND CELLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 USAGE OF COMPOSITES ON AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 REINFORCING MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
M 6.1 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 MATRIX MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
STEEL APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 CORE MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
ALLOYING INGREDIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 HOW PLASTICS ARE CREATED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
MATERIAL DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 POLYMERISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
STEEL ALLOYS AND TEMPERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 POLYCONDENSATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
CORROSION-RESISTANT (STAINLESS) STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 POLYADDITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
PRECIPITATION-HARDENED STAINLESS STEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 ADHESIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 FILM ADHESIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
LOW ALLOY STEELS AND THEIR APPLICABLE STRENGTH RESIN ADHESIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
RANGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 THERMOSETTING RESINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
PRIMARY STEELS USED IN MODERN AIRPLANES . . . . . . . . . . 30 THERMOPLASTIC RESINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT POTENTIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 POLYMER RESINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
M 6.2 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS -NON-FERROUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 EPOXY RESINS (EPOXIDE RESINS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
TITANIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 RESINS AND HARDENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
PROPERTIES - TITANIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 RESIN/HARDENER RATIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 COLD AND HOT CURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 EPOXY HARDENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
SURFACE PROTECTION/CLADDING OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . 46 RESIN/HARDENER RATIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
ALUMINIUM ALLOY DESIGNATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 DISADVANTAGES OF EPOXIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
NON HEAT TREATABLE ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 EPOXY RESINS CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
HEAT TREATABLE ALUMINIUM ALLOYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 SURFACE WETTING AND ABSORBTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
HEAT TREATMENT PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 PRE-TREATMENT FOR BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
NATURAL AGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 DAMAGE TO COMPOSITE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
ARTIFICIAL AGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION (CONT.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COMPOSITE REPAIR TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 SPECIAL FASTENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
TYPICAL REPAIRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 M 6.5.1 SCREW THREADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
M 6.3.2 WOODEN STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 THREAD FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
WOODEN WING CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 STANDARD SCREW SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
BOX SPAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 THREAD PITCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
PRESERVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 THREAD PROFILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
TYPE OF DEFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 M 6.5.2 BOLTS, STUDS AND SCREWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
REPAIR OF WOODEN STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 BOLTS, SCREWS AND NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
M 6.3.3 FABRIC COVERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
PREPARATION OF STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 STUDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
SEAMS, STITCHES AND STRINGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 SELF-TAPPING SCREWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
REPAIRS TO FABRIC COVERINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
INSPECTION OF FABRIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 NON--SELF--LOCKING NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
M 6.4 CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 LOCKING NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 HIGH--TEMPERATURE SELF--LOCKING NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
EFFECTS OF CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 LOW--TEMPERATURE SELF--LOCKING NUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
EFFECTS OF CORROSION ON METALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 HELI - COIL INSERTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
INFLUENCE FACTORS OF CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 M 6.5.3 LOCKING DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
FILIFORM CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 SAFETY METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
STRESS CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 NUTS, BOLTS AND SCREWS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 WIRELOCKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
ELECTRO--CHEMICAL SERIES FOR METAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 LOCKING DEVICES - WASHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
PITTING CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 LOCKING DEVICES - QUICK-RELEASE FASTENERS . . . . . . . . . . . 234
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 LOCKING DEVICES - COTTER PINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
EXFOLIATION CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 LOCKING DEVICES - KEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
FRETTING CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 M 6.5.4 AIRCRAFT RIVETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
MICROBIAL CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 RIVETS (SOLID RIVETS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
GALVANIC CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 RIVET MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
CREVICE CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 HI-LOK AND HI-LITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
M 6.5 FASTENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 TAPER-LOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
LIST OF COMMON ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 LOCKBOLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
LIST OF CONVERSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 CHERRYLOCK BLIND RIVET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 CHERRYMAX BLIND RIVET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
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RIVNUTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 ROTARY SELECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
DETERMINATION OF FASTENER LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 M 6.10 CONTROL CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
M 6.6 PIPES AND UNIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 CABLE LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
RIGID AND FLEXIBLE PIPES (TUBES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 CABLE TERMINALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
TUBE FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 CABLE SYSTEM COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
FLARELESS FITTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 CABLE TURNBUCKLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
FLARE-TYPE FITTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 FLEXIBLE REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
TUBE DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 TELEFLEX CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
HOSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 BOWDEN CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
HOSE INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 M6.11 ELEC. CABLES & CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
M 6.8 BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
BEARINGS (GENERAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 ELECTRICAL WIRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
BEARING MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 WIRE & CABLE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
RADIAL BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 SHIELDED WIRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
M 6.9 TRANSMISSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 COAXIAL CABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
TRANSMISSIONS GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
CONTROL CHAINS, CHAIN WHEELS AND PULLEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 MANUFACTURER WIRE IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
CHAIN DRIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 SYSTEM WIRE IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 AIRBUS WIRE MARKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
SPUR GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 SYSTEMS LETTER CODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
BEVEL GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 BOEING IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
HELICAL GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 AIRBUS IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
WORM GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 SPECIAL AIRBUS REGULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
GEAR UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
STEPPED-PULLEY DRIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 AROMATIC POLYIMIDE (AP) INSULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
TOOTHED-WHEEL GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 SPECIAL WIRES & CABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
DRIVING-KEY-TYPE GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 FIRE WARNING WIRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
INFINITELY VARIABLE ROTATIONAL SPEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 SPECIAL CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
FRICTION GEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
CONE PULLEY DRIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 CONTACT CONFIGURATION -- NUMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS CONTROL MECHANISM . . . . . . . 336 CONTACT CONFIGURATION -- LETTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
PUSH RODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 ENVIRONMENTAL SEALING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
QUADRANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 CONNECTOR ALTERNATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COAXIAL CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
POLARISATION KEYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
LOCKWIRING OF ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figure 36 Composite Damage Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 2 Metallic and Non-Metallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Figure 37 Damage Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 3 Crystals and Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Figure 38 Damage Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 4 Material Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 39 Repair Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 5 Steel Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 40 Edge Band Repair (Airbus typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Figure 6 Alloying Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 41 Sandwich Repair (Boeing typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Figure 7 Material Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 42 Blind Repair I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 8 Properties of Steel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 43 Blind Repair II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 9 Steel Components (Landing Gear) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 44 Potted Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 10 Primary Steels Used in Modern Airplanes . . . . . . . . . 31 Figure 45 Repair to Both Skins (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 11 Hydrogen Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Figure 46 Truss-type wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 12 Application of Titanium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 47 Spars for fabric-covered truss-type wings . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 13 Application Of Titanium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Figure 48 Wood Construction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 14 Aluminium Base Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 49 Plywood Skin Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 15 Properties of Aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 50 Inspection of Gluelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Figure 16 Cladding of Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 51 Check for Water Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 17 Aluminium Alloying Ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure 52 Wing Rib Repairs (Typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 18 Aluminium Association Numbering System . . . . . . . . . . 50 Figure 53 Repair to the Trailing Edge of a Wood Wing Rib . . . . . . 131
Figure 19 Hardening of Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 54 Repair of a longitudinal split in a wood wing spar . . . . . 133
Figure 20 Alloying Elements of Aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 55 Types of Machine-Sewn Seams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Figure 21 Methods of Heat--treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 56 Fabric Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 22 Temperature Schedule of Heat--treatment . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 57 Seine Knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figure 23 GLARE (GLAss REinforced Laminate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Figure 58 Typical Stringing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 24 Composite Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Figure 59 Repair of L-Shaped Tear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 25 Composite Application on A320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Figure 60 Normal Insertion Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Figure 26 Reinforcement Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Figure 61 Fabric Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Figure 27 Matrix Materials and Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Figure 62 Chemical Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Figure 28 Different Core Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 63 Filiform Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure 29 Plastic Creation: The Polymerisation Process . . . . . . . . 77 Figure 64 Stress Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure 30 Resin Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Figure 65 Electrochemical Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 31 Adhesives (Structural) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Figure 66 Electrochemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 32 Adhesive Application Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Figure 67 Pitting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure 33 Resin Injection Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Figure 68 Intergranular Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 34 Typical Edge Delamination Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Figure 69 Exfoliation Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Figure 35 Surface Wetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Figure 70 Fretting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 71 Microbial Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Figure 106 Rivnut - Grip Length Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Figure 72 Galvanic Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Figure 107 Grip Scale Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Figure 73 Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Figure 108 Fastener Length Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Figure 74 Features of a Screw Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Figure 109 Table I (Material / Diameter / Thickness) . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Figure 75 Screw Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Figure 110 Table II (Material / Diameter / Thickness) . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Figure 76 Screw Pitch Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Figure 111 Table II (cont. Material / Diameter / Thickness) . . . . . . 279
Figure 77 Types of Fastener Heads and Recesses . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Figure 112 Connection Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Figure 78 Screw Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Figure 113 Flareless Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Figure 79 Bolt Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Figure 114 Harrison-Type Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Figure 80 Stud Insertion/Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Figure 115 Permaswage Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Figure 81 Stud Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Figure 116 Single Flare Fittings and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Figure 82 Heli-Coil Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Figure 117 Flared Fitting Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Figure 83 Heli-Coil Insertion Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Figure 118 Double Flare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Figure 84 Typical Heli-Coil Extractor Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Figure 119 Damage Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Figure 85 Lockwire Material Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Figure 120 Flexible Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Figure 86 Typical Wirelocking Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Figure 121 Reusable Hose Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Figure 87 Locking of Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Figure 122 Installation Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Figure 88 Locking of Screws (Cont.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Figure 123 Installation Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Figure 89 Locking of Electric Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Figure 124 Types of Bearing Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Figure 90 Other Locking Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Figure 125 Common Anti-Friction Bearing Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Figure 91 Camloc Fastener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Figure 126 Tapered Roller Bearing: Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Figure 92 Dzus and Airloc Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Figure 127 Radial Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Figure 93 Cotter Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Figure 128 Typical Chain Assembly Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Figure 94 Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Figure 129 Chain Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Figure 95 Head Types of Solid Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Figure 130 Toothed-Wheel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Figure 96 Rivet Head Identification Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Figure 131 Spur Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Figure 97 Rivet Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Figure 132 Bevel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Figure 98 Rivet Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Figure 133 Helical and Worm Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Figure 99 Part Number Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Figure 134 Stepped Pulley Drive/Toothed Wheel Gearing . . . . . . . 335
Figure 100 Hi Lok . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Figure 135 Driving-Key-Type Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Figure 101 Sequence of installation: Hi-Loks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Figure 136 Friction Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Figure 102 Taper-Lok Stress Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Figure 137 Control Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Figure 103 Lockbolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Figure 138 Push Rods and Quadrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Figure 104 Cherrylock and Cherrylock Bulbed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Figure 139 Rotary Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Figure 105 Cherry Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Figure 140 Build-Up of Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 141 Cable Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Figure 176 Seal Plug insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Figure 142 Turnbuckles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Figure 177 Examples of part numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Figure 143 Typical Remote Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Figure 178 Coax connector process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Figure 144 Types of Teleflex Cable and End Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Figure 179 Polarisation keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Figure 145 Teleflex System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Figure 180 Polarisation coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Figure 146 Teleflex Distributor Box and Torsion Drive . . . . . . . . . . 361 Figure 181 Lock--wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Figure 147 Teleflex Conduit Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Figure 148 Assembly of Teleflex Sliding End Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Figure 149 Bowden Control Components 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Figure 150 Bowden Control Components 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Figure 151 Examples of wire categorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Figure 152 Wire and cable types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Figure 153 Shielded and Coaxial cable design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Figure 154 BMS numbering system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Figure 155 Airbus wire type coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Figure 156 German Standard sheet DIN 9253 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Figure 157 Manufacturer wire identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Figure 158 Wire marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Figure 159 Airbus wire marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Figure 160 System Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Figure 161 Boeing wire numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Figure 162 Airbus wire identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Figure 163 Airbus special regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Figure 164 Current carrying capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Figure 165 ARC Tracking Sensitive wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Figure 166 Thermocouple Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Figure 167 Fire Warning Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Figure 168 Special connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Figure 169 Split shell connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Figure 170 Split shell construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Figure 171 Assembled connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Figure 172 Contact groove codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Figure 173 Contact arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Figure 174 Contact marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Figure 175 Environmental seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427