A.C.Machines A.C.Fundamentalsan D: Basicelectricalandelectronicsenginee Ring

BASICELECTRICALANDELECTRONICSENGINEE
RING
CHAPTER 3
A.C.FUNDAMENTALSAN
D
A.C.MACHINES
3. 2 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
3.0 INTRODUCTION
We know that, there are two types of currents namely A.C. and D.C. The applications of
direct current (D.C.) is limited, such as charging of batteries, electroplating, electric traction
etc. Hence, Now-a-days the most commonly used system is alternating current (A.C) in
every where, such as Domestic, Industrial, Offices, Work-shops etc. In this chapter we
shall focus our attention on fundamentals of alternating circuits and the machines which
are operating with A.C.
3.1 ALTERNATING
CURRENT
An alternating current is one which changes
i
its magnitude continuously and alternates
in direction at regular intervals of time.
+ ve + ve
From the Fig. 3.1 it is observed that its π 2 π
0 3
π 2 π
magnitude rises from zero to maximum 2
– ve Time
value and then falls to zero in positive
values then alternating quantity increases
Cycle
to maximum in the reverse direction and
falls backs to zero again. FIGURE 3.1 :
1. Wave From : The shape of the curve
drawn between voltage (or) current (on
Y-axis) and time (on X-axis) is known as
“wave form”. π 2 π
π 2 3
The Sinusoidal wave form is shown in π
2
Time
Fig. 3.2.
(seconds)
2. Cycle : One complete set of all positive
FIGURE 3.2 :
and negative values of an alternating
quantity (voltage (or) current) is known as “Cycle”. Figure 3.1 shows one cycle of
altnerating current.
A cycle can also defined interms of angular measure i.e., one cycle corresponds to
360 o electrical or 2 π radians.
3. Time Period : The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one full cycle is
called time period. It is denoted by letter ‘T’ and is measured is “Seconds”.
4. Frequency : The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity in one second
is called “Frequency”. It is denoted by the letter ‘f’ and is measured in “Hertz” (Hz).
In India almost of all electrical appliances are operated at 50 Hz. In case of North
America it is 60 Hz, and in Russia it is 40 Hz.
CHAPTER-3 A.C. Fundamentals and A.C. Machines 3. 3
5. Instantaneous Value : The value of alternating quantity (Voltage or Current) at any
instant of time is called “ Instantaneous value”.
6. Maximum (or) Peak Value : The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity
either in positive (or) Negative direction is called Amplitude (or) Peak value of an
alternating quantity.
7. Root - Mean - Square (R.M.S) Value : The R.M.S value of an alternating quantity
may be defined as the steady (D.C) current which when flowing through a given
circuit for a given time produces the “SAME AMOUNT OF HEAT” as produced by
an alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time. It is
also called as Effective (or) Virtual value.
R.M.S. Value of an alternating quantity can be determined by two methods namely
(a) Mid ordinate method (b) Analytical method.
(a) Mid Ordinate Method : Fig. 3.3, are the positive half-cycles of both symmetrical sinusoidal
and non-sinusoidal alternating current.
Divide the time base in to “n” - equal intervals of time each of duration “t/n” seconds. Let
the average values of instantaneous currents during these intervals be 1i, 2i , 3i , .... in
respectively.
Let I-be the alternating current passed through a resistance of R ohms. Then
i3
i2
i
i 3 i1
i1 2 in
0 t
n time (t)
time
FIGURE 3.3 :
2 t
Heat produced in 1st interval = 0.24 i1 R cal
n
2 t
2nd interval = 0.24 i 2 R cal
n
2 t
3rd interval = 0.24 i 3 R cal
n
.
.
.
2 t
n th interval = 0.24 i n R cal
n
⎡i2 + i2 + i2 +...... +i 2 ⎤
∴ The total heat produced in ‘t’ second is = 0.24 R t ⎢ 1 2 3 n
⎥
⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦
Now, suppose that a direct current of value ‘I’ produced the same heat through the same
resistance during the same time ‘t’.
∴ Heat produced, H = 0.24 I 2 Rt cal
By definition, the two amounts of heat produced should be equal
⎡i12 + i22 + i32 +...... +i 2

n
⎤
∴ 0.24 I 2 Rt = 0.24 Rt ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦
⎡i12 + i22 + i32 +...... +i 2

n
⎤
I2 = ⎢ n
⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
i12 + i22 + i32 +...... +i 2

∴ n
Irms =
n
(b) Analytical Method : The standard form of sinusoidal alternating current is ,
i = I m Sin ω t (or) i = I max Sin θ
The mean of the squares of the instantaneous values of current over one complete cycle is
2π
i2 d θ
2
Irms = ∫
0
(2π − 0)
2π 2π
i2 1
∴ Irms = ∫
0
(2π − 0)
dθ =
2π ∫
0
2
Imax Sin 2 θ d θ
We know that
2
1− Cos 2θ
Cos 2 θ = 1 – 2 Sin θ ∴ Sin 2 θ =
2
2 2π 2 2π
Imax ⎛ 1 − Cos 2θ ⎞ Imax
∴ Irms =
2π ∫ ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎟ dθ =
⎠ 4π ∫
0
(1 − Cos 2 θ) dθ
0
Imax ⎡ 2π ⎡ sin 2θ ⎤ ⎤
2 2π 2
Imax ⎡ sin 2 × 2 π sin 0 ⎤
⎢[θ ]0 − ⎢ ⎥ = 2π − 0 − +
=
4π ⎢ ⎣ 2 ⎥⎦0 ⎥ 4π ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
2 2
Imax Imax
= × 2π =
4π 2
Imax
∴ Irms = = 0.707 I max
2
R.M.S value of current = 0.707 of maximum value of current
Note : In Electrical Engineering work, unless indicated otherwise, the values of the given
current and voltage are always the R.M.S values.
8. Average Value : The average value of an alternating quantity may be defined as the
steady (D.C) current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces
the “Same Amount of Charge” as produced by an alternating current when flowing
through the same circuit for the same time
In case of symmetrical alternating quantities (i.e., one whose two-half cycle are exactly
similar whether the wave forms are sinusoidal (or) Non-sinusoidal), the average value
over a complete cycle is zero.
Hence, while calculating the average values for symmetrical wave forms only Half-cycle
is considered and for unsymmetrical wave forms the total time period is considered.
The average value of an alternating quantity can be determined by the following methods.
(i) Mid-ordinate method

(ii) Analytical method.
(i) Mid-Ordinate Method : Divide the time base i3
in to n-equal intervals of time each of duration i2
t
seconds. Let the average values of i1
n
instantaneous currents during these intervals π 2π
t
be i1, i 2, i 3, ...... i n respectively. n
∴ The average value of the alternating current

time
is given by,
i1 + i2 +i 3 +......i n FIGURE 3.4 :

Iav =
n
(ii) Analytical Method : The standard form of a sinusoidal alternating current is i = i max sin θ
(or) I max Sin ωt .
The average value of alternating quantity over a half-cycle,
π
π π
i dθ 1 I
IaV =
0
∫
(π − 0) = π ∫I max Sin θ dθ = max
π ∫ Sin θd θ
0 0
Imax π I
= ⎡ − cos θ⎤⎦0 = max ⎡⎣cos π − cos0⎦⎤
π ⎣ π
Imax 2 Imax
= [(−1) − (1)] =
π π
2 Imax
∴ Iaverage = = 0.637 I max
π
Similarly, it can be also be proved that for alternating voltage varying simultaneously.
∴ E average = 0.637 E max
Form Factor :
The ratio of R.M.S value to Average value of an alternating quantity is known is “Form Factor”.
R.M.S Value
Form Factor =
Average Value
Ex : For a sinusoidal voltage (or) current wave form
0 .707 × Imax
Form Factor = = 1 .11
0.637 × Imax
Peak Factor : The ratio of Maximum value to the R.M.S value of an alternating quantity
is known as Peak Factor.
Maximum Value
∴ Peak Factor =
R.M.S Value
Ex : For Sinusoidal Voltage (or) Current.
Imax 1
Peak Factor = = = 1. 414.
0.707 × Imax 0.707
3.3 PHASE
Phase Value of an alternating quantity is the fractional part of time period or cycle
through which an alternating quantity has advanced from the selected zero position
of reference.
(i) Phase : Phase of an alternating quantity depends

upon the instant from which the time is measured. V
π 3π/2 2π
From Fig. 3.5, time is measured from the instant 0
π/2
of the voltage is zero. Otherwise if the time is
measured from the instant the voltage is positive
maximum, the phase of maximum positive would time
have been zero. FIGURE 3.5 :
(ii) Phase Difference : Two alternating quantities of the same frequency and differ in the
fraction of the time period is called the “Phase Difference”.
From the Fig. 3.6 the angle between the zero
points of the two alternating quantities is "φ" V i
and is called phase difference. It is measured V i

in degrees (or) radians. φ
0
φ wt
The alternating quantity which passes through
zero point earlier is said to be “Leading” and
while the other is said to be “Lagging”.
FIGURE 3.6 :
3.4 POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS
Power : The power consumed in the resistance circuit at any instant is equal to the
product of the voltage and current at that instant.
∴Instantaneous Power, P = v i
= (V max Sin wt) (I max Sin wt)
⎛ 1 − cos 2wt ⎞
= V max Imax Sin 2wt = V max Imax
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Vmax Imax Vmax Imax Cos 2 wt
P = –
2 2
From the above it is observed that, the instantaneous power has two parts, namely constant
Vmax Imax V I
part and variable part max max cos 2 wt. Because the power is a scalar quantity,
2 2
the average power over a complete cycle is to be considered.
∴Power Consumed over a cycle,
2π 2π
Vmax Imax
P =
1
2π
∫
0
2 d (wt) +
1
2π ∫
Vmax Imax
2
cos 2wt d(wt)
0
Vmax Imax Vmax Imax

= +0 = × = V rms Irms
2 2 2
∴ P = V I watts
3.4.1 Power Factor in A.C. Circuit
Power Factor (Cos φ ) : Power factor is the cosine of the angle between voltage (V) and
current (I) phasors.
R
∴ Power factor, Cos φ =
Z
Note : The phase difference between voltage (V) and current (I) phasor in pure R-L circuit,
⎛X ⎞
φ = Tan-1 ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
⎛ ⎞⎞
∴ Power factor, Cos φ = Cos ⎜tan −1 ⎛⎜ X L ⎟⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎝ R ⎠⎠
3.4.2 Resistance is Connected Across an A.C Source
Consider a pure resistance RΩ is connected across an i R
alternating voltage source and is as shown in Fig. 3.7 (a).
Let the instantaneous value of alternating voltage is given by
v = V max sin wt ............ (1)
v = V max Sin ωt
∴ The current flowing through the resistance,
(a)
V i
i = ............ (2) 0 v
R
(b)
Substituting the value “v” in Equation (2), we have
FIGURE 3.7 :
V
i = max sinwt ................. (3)
R
The value of i - is maximum when Sin wt = 1.
Vmax
∴ Imax = ............... (4)
R
Substituting the value “I max ” from Equation (4) in Equation (3),
i = Imax sinwt ................. (5)
From the Equations (1) and (5) it is observed that the applied voltage and the current
flowing through the resistance are inphase with each other. Its vector diagram is
represented in Fig. 3.7 (b).
Salient Features :
1. The current flowing through the pure resistance is inphase with the voltage
applied.
2. The phase difference ‘ φ ’ = 0
3. Power factor, Cos φ = 1 (Unity)
4. Average power, P = V I watts

SOLVED PROBLEMS
PROBLEM - 1
Calculate the maximum vale of a sinusoidal voltage if its frequency is 60 Hz and the
instantaneous voltage is 5 V at a time period of 0.003 sec.
Oct/Nov. 2006 [C-05]
Solution :
Given data :
f = 60 Hz; e = 5 V; t = 0.003 sec; V m =?
Using the relation, e = V m sin wt
= Vm sin 2π ft
e 5 5
∴ Vm = = = = 6.18 V
sin 2π ft sin 2π× 60 × 0.003 0. 809
PROBLEM - 2
In a pure resistance circuit, the instantaneous voltage and current

are given by.
10 sin ωt R
v = 250 Sin 314 t
i = 10 sin 314 wt
Determine (i) Peak Power (ii) Average Power

v = 250 sin 314 t
Solution :
Instantaneous Voltage, V= 250 sin 314 t FIGURE 3.8 :
Instantaneous Current, i = 10 sin wt

We know that
v = V max sin wt
i = Imax sin wt
∴ Maximum value of voltage, V max = 250 volt.
Similarly Imax = 10 Amper
(i) Peak Power, P = V max Imax = 250 × 10 = 2500 watt
Vmax Imax 250 × 10

(i) Average Power, Pav = = = 1250 watt.
2 2
PROBLEM - 3 R = 20 Ω
i
A 250 volt (rms), 50 Hz voltage is applied across a pure
(Non-Inductive) resistance of 20 Ω . Determine (i). The
250 volts
current flowing through the circuit and (iii). Power
Absorbed by the circuit. Give the expressions for the 50 Hz
voltage and current draw the phasor diagrams. (a)
Solution : i
v
V 250 (b) Phasor Diagram

(i) Current flowing through the circuit, I = = = 12.5 Amp.
R 20
FIGURE 3.9 :
(i) Power absorbed, P = VI = 250 × 12.5 = 3125 watt.
Peak value of applied voltage, Vmax = 2 V rms = 2 × 250 = 353.6 Volt.
Peak value of current, I max = 2 Irms = 2 × 12.5 = 17.68 Amp.
∴Expression for voltage, V = V max sin wt = V max sin 2π ft .
= 353.6 sin 2π × 50 × t
V = 353.6 sin 314 t volt.
Expression for Current, i = I max sin wt = 17.68 sin 2π × 50 × t

i = 17.68 sin 314 t Amp.
3.4.3 Inductance is Connected Across an A.C. Source
i L
Let us consider a pure Inductance (L) is connected across an
alternating voltage source and is as shown in Figure 3.10 (a)
v = V max sin ωt
The instantaneous value of alternating voltage is given by
v = V max sin wt ............ (1)

(a)
We know that when ever an alternating voltage is applied across 0
90 o v (ref)
a pure Inductance coil causes a back emf is produced due to the
self-inductance of the coil
i
di (b)
v = L ............ (2)
dt FIGURE 3.10 :
Substituting the value “v” from Equation (1) in Equation (2), we have.
di
V max Sin wt = L
dt
di 1
∴ = V Sin wt
dt L max
Vmax
di = Sin wt dt ............... (3)
L
Integrating the Equation (3) on both sides, we have
Vmax
∫ di = ∫ L
Sin wt dt
Vmax (− Cos wt ) − Vmax

i = = Cos wt
L w wL
Vmax
∴ i = Sin (wt – π/ 2) ............... (4)
wL
Vmax ⎛ π⎞
Maximum value of “i”, I max = , when sin ⎜wt − ⎟ = 1
wL ⎝ 2⎠
i = I max sin (wt – π/ 2) ................. (5)
From the Equations (1) and (5) it is observed that the current lags behind the applied
voltage by an angle π/ 2 and it is represented by vector form in Fig. 3.10 (b) (or) The
π
phase difference between the two quantities is with voltage leading and it is
2
represented by wave form in Fig. 3.10 (c).
v = V max sin wt v = V max sin wt
i = I max sin (wt – π/2) p
i = I max sin
(wt – π/2)
v i
π 2π +ve
0
π/2 π/2
0 π 2π
–ve
t
3.10 (c) 3.10 (d)
Power : The power consumed in the pure inductance at any instant is equal to the
product of voltage and current at that instant.
∴Instantaneous Power, P = v. i = (V max Sin wt) (I max Sin (wt – π/ 2)).
= V max Imax Sin wt (– Cos wt) = – V max Imax Sin wt Cos wt

−Vmax Imax
P = Sin 2 wt
2
2π
−Vmax Imax
∴The Power for whole cycle, P =
2
∫ Sin 2wt dt
0
= 0 watts
From the Fig. 3.10 (d), during the first 90 o of cycle, the voltage is positive and the
current is Negative. The power supplied is Negative and during the next 90 o of cycle
the voltage and current are positive. Hence the power is positive. Hence the resultant
power over half cycle is zero, similarly during the next half cycle the power becomes
zero i.e., the power consumed in a pure inductance is zero.
From the power wave form it is observed that it is a sine wave of double frequency that
Vmax Imax
voltage and current waves. The maximum value of instantaneous power is .
2
Salient Features :
1. The current flowing through the pure inductance is 90 o lagging with the voltage
phasor.
2. Phase difference, φ = 90o lagging.
3. Power factor, cos φ = 0.
4. Power consumed, P = 0 watts.
PROBLEM - 1
A pure inductive coil allows a current of 10 Amp to flow from a 230 volt, 50Hz supply.
Find (i) Inductive reactance (ii). Inductance of the coil. (iii) power absorbed.
Solution :
Supply voltage V = 230 volt
Current flowing through Inductance, I = 10 Amp. 10 A L
Frequency, f = 50 Hz.
230 volts, 50 Hz
V 230
(i) Inductive reactance of the circuit, X L = = = 23 Ω
I 10
FIGURE 3.11 :
XL 23
(ii) Inductance of the coil, L = = = 0.073 H
2πf 2π × 50
∴ Inductance of the coil, L= 0.073 Henry.
(iii) Power Absorbed in pure inductance circuit, P = 0 watt

PROBLEM - 2
i L = 0.014 H
A 0.014 Henry choke coil with neglisible resistance is connected
to a 220 volt (r.m.s), 50 Hr supply. Determine (i) Inductive
reactance of the coil. (ii) current flowing through the coil (iii)
power consumed by the coil.
Solution : 220 V, 50 Hz
FIGURE 3.12 :
Applied voltage,V rms =220 volt
Supply frequency, f = 50 Hz
Inductance, L = 0.014 Henry
(i) Inductance reactance of the coil,
X L = 2π fL
X L = 2π × 50× 0.014 = 4.4 Ω
(ii) Current flowing through the coil,
V 220
I = X = 4. 4 = 50 Amp
L
(iii) Power consumed by the coil, P = 0 (zero) watt.

3.4.4 Capacitance is Connected Across an AC. Source
Let us consider a pure capacitance (C) is connected across C
i
an alternating voltage and is as shown in Figure 3.13 (a).
Let the instantaneous value of alternating voltage is given by

v = V max sin ωt
v = V max Sin wt ............ (1)
We know that when ever an alternating voltage is applied
across a pure capacitance causes, the capacitor is charged i
3.13 (a)
first in one direction and then in the opposite direction.
Let q – be the charge on plates at the given instant. 90 o

v (ref)
∴ q = Cv 0
3.13 (b)
= C V max Sin wt ................. (2)
where C - is the capacitance.

dq
We have i = (i.e., current is nothing but rate of flow of charge)
dt
d
i = (q) ................. (3)
dt
Substituting the value of ‘q’ from Equation (2), in Equation (3)

d
i = (C V max sin wt) = C V max cos wt.w = WC V max cos wt
dt
Vmax
i = sin (wt + π/ 2) ................. (4)
1/wc
Vmax
Maximum value of “i” I max = when sin (wt + π/ 2) = 1.
1/wc
Hence the Equation of current becomes
i = Imax sin (wt + π/ 2) ................. (5)

i = I max sin (wt π/2)
From the Equations (1) and (5) it is observed
v = V max sin wt
that the current leads the applied voltage by
an angle π/ 2 and it is represented by vector i v
form in Fig. 3.13 (b) (or) the phase difference 0 π/2 π 2π
between the two quantities is π/ 2 with π/2 t

current leads and it is represented by wave
form in Fig. 3.13 (c).
(c)
Power : FIGURE 3.13 :
The power consumed in the pure capacitance at any instant is equal to the product of
voltage and current at that instant.
∴Instantaneous power, P = vi = V max sin wt I max sin (wt + π/ 2)
Vmax Imax
= Vmax sin wt I max cos wt = sin wt
2
2π
Vmax Imax
∴ Power for the whole cycle = ∫0
2
sin wt dt = 0 watts
From the Figure 3.13 (c), during the first 90 o of cycle the voltage is positive and the
current is also positive. Hence the power supplied is positive. Similarly during the next
90 o of the cycle the voltage is positive and the current is negative hence the power becomes
negative. Therefore the resultant power over half cycle is zero similarly during the next
half cycle the power becomes zero i.e., power consumed in a pure capacitor is zero.
The maximum value of instantaneous power,
Vmax Imax
P max = = 0 watts
2
Salient Features :
1. The current flowing through the pure capacitance is 90o leading with the voltage phasor.
2. Phase difference, φ = 90 o leading.
3. Power factor, Cos φ = 0.
4. Power consumed, P = 0 watts.
A.C. CIRCUITS PROBLEMS
PROBLEM - 1
A 318 μ F capacitor is connected to 200 volt, 50 Hz supply.

C = 318 μF
Determine. i
(i) Maximum current
(ii) RMS value of the current drawn by the capacitor. 200 Volt 50 Hz
Solution :
Value of capacitance, C = 318 μF FIGURE 3.14
:
Applied voltage, V = 200 volt
Frequency, f = 50 Hz
w = 2π f = 2 π × 50 = 314
1 1
Capacitive reactance, Xc = = = 10 Ω
wc 314 × 318 × 10−6
Vmax 2 × 200
(i) Maximum value of current I max = Xc = = 28.28 Amp
10
V rms 200
(ii) RMS value of current drawn by the capacitor. I rms = = = 20 Amp
Xc 10
PROBLEM - 2
A capacitor of 125 μ F is connected to an alternating source
of 200 sin 314 t. Find the current flowing and current C = 125 μF
equation. i
Solution :
Capacitanceof the circuit, C = 125 μF v = 200 sin 314 t
Instantaneous value of voltage,V = 200 sin 314 t

FIGURE 3.15 :
1
∴ Capacitive reactance, Xc =
wc
1
= = 25.477 Ω
314 ×125 × 10 −6
Vmax 200
Maximum value of current, Imax = = = 7.85 Amp
Xc 25. 477
R.M.S value of current, Irms = 0.707 × Imax
= 0.707 × 7.85 = 5.54 Amp
Instantaneous value of alternating current, i = max

I sin (wt + π/ 2)
i = 7.85 sin (314 t + π/ 2)
3.5 SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS

I. R–L CIRCUIT IS CONNECTED ACROSS AN A.C. SOURCE :
Let us consider a pure resistance ‘R’ ohms is connected in series with a pure Inductance of ‘L’
VL
Henry as shown in Fig. 3.16 (a). i
Vr i
Let I – be the r.m.s value of total current (ampere). R L
V – be the r.m.s value of applied voltage (volt).

VR VL
VL – be the voltage drop across inductance.
VL = I X L = I w L and VL leads ‘I’ by 90 o.

v
V R – be the voltage drop across resistance
V R = IR and V R – is in phase with ‘I’. 3.16 (a)
We know that, in series circuit the current flowing throughout the series circuit is same.
Hence, in this series R–L circuit, current ‘I’ is taken as reference and the phasor diagram is
drawn and is as shown in Figure 3.16 (b).
The applied voltage V-is the Phasor (or) Vector sum of the voltage drops of ‘V R’ and ‘V L’
∴ From the vector diagram
B
2 2
OB = (OA) + (AB)
V
VL
V = VR2 + VL2 = (IR) 2 + (I X L )2
VR 90 o
V = I R 2 + X L2 0
A
I
(b)
V
I = 2
R + XL
2 FIGURE 3.16 :
The quantity R 2 + X L2 – is expressed in ohm and is called Impedance of the circuit. It is

represented by the letter ‘Z’.
V
∴ I = ; Z= R 2 + X L2
Z
V = I Z.
1. Phase Angle ( φ ) : From the vector diagram, the current ‘I’ lags behind the applied
voltage ‘V’ by an angle ‘ φ ’.
VL IXL
∴ Tan φ = V = I R
R
XL
∴ Tan φ =
R
⎛X ⎞
Phase angle, φ = tan -1 ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
Hence, if V = V max sin wt
i = Imax sin (wt – φ ) (Current is lagging with respect to voltage)
if i = Imax sin wt
then, v = V max sin (wt + φ ) (voltage is leading w.r.t. to current)
3. Power in Resistance - Inductance Circuit :
Instantaneous power, P = V i
= V max Sin wt × Imax sin (wt - φ )
1
= . V max Imax [2 sin wt sin(wt − φ) ]
2
We know that 2 sin A sin B = Cos (A – B) – Cos (A + B)
Vmax Imax
∴ P = ⎣⎡Cos φ − Cos (2wt − φ )⎤⎦
2
Vmax Imax V I
P = Cos φ – max max Cos (2 wt – φ )
2 2
1
Since average value of pulsating component V max Imax Cos (2 wt – φ ) over a
2
complete cycle is zero. Hence, the average power of the circuit.
1
P = V max Imax Cos φ
2
Vmax Imax
= . Cos φ
2 2
∴ Average power , P =V I Cos φ watts
Where V & I – Are the rms values of voltage and current.

φ – be the phase angle between applied voltage ‘V’ and circuit current I
4. Impedance Triangle : Consider the phasor diagram of a R–L series circuit and divide each
side by same factor I to obtain impedance triangle.
From the impedance triangle, we have

.Z
I
(a) Impedance, Z = R 2 + X L2 V
=
VL = I X L
Z
XL
R φ φ
(b) Power factor, cos φ = VR = IR R
Z
⎛XL ⎞ FIGURE 3.17 :
(c) Phase angle, φ = tan –1 ⎜ R ⎟
⎝ ⎠
5. Power Triangle : In this R–L series circuit, current I-lags behind the applied voltage V
by an angle ‘ φ ’ as shown in Figure 3.18 (a).
I cos φ
True power, P = VI cos φ
0 V 0
φ Rective Power
Ap
pa Q = VI sin φ
r en
tp
o we
r,
S=
VI
I
I sin φ
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.18 :
From the vector diagram 3.18 (a),

The phasor I - be the vector sum of horizontal component ‘I Cos φ ’ and and vertical
component I Sin φ .
If all the sides are multiplied by voltage ‘V’ then we obtain power triangle and is
shown in Fig. 3.18 (b).
(a) True power (or) Active Power (P) : The power which is actually consumed in the circuit is
called “True Power”. It is measured in kilo watts.
From the power triangle, the true power., P = VI Cos φ watts
(b) Reactive Power (Q) : A part of power flows back and one forth in both the directions in the
circuit (or) reacts upon itself. This circulating power is called Reactive Power. It is measured in
KVAR.
Q = VI Sin φ volt ampere reactive
(c) Apparent Power (S) : The product of voltage (V) and actual current (I) in the circuit is called
the apparent power. It is measured in KVA (Kilo Volt Ampere).
The relation between P, Q & S

∴ S 2 = P 2 + Q2
II. R-C CIRCUIT IS CONNECTED ACROSS AN A.C. SOURCE :
i
i
VC
VR C
R VR
0 I
VR VC 90 o
VC
V
V B
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.19 :
Let us consider a pure resistance ‘R’ - ohms is connected in series with a pure
capacitance of ‘c’ farads as shown in Figure 3.19 (a).
Let I – be the r.m.s value of total current (Ampere).
V – be the r.m.s value of applied voltage (volt)
V c – be the voltage drop across capacitance.
V c = I X c = I. 1/wc and ‘V o.
c’ lags ‘I’ by 90
V R – be the voltage drop across resistance.
V R = I.R and V R - is in phase with ‘I’
We know that, in series circuit the current flowing through out the series circuit is
same. Hence, in this series R-C circuit ‘I’ - is taken as reference and the phasor diagram
is drawn and is as shown in Fig. 3.19 (b).
The applied voltage V - is the vector sum of the voltage drops of ‘V R’ and ‘V C’
From the vector diagram
OB = (OA)2 + (AB)2
V = VR 2 + VC 2 = (IR) 2 (I X C )2
V = I R 2 + XC 2
V
∴ I =
R 2 + X C2
The quantity R 2+ XC2 – is expressed in ohm and is called Impedance of the circuit. It is
represented by the letter ‘Z’
V
∴ I = ; Z = R 2+ XC2
Z
∴ V = I. Z
1. Phase Angle ( φ ) : From the vector diagram, the current ‘I’ - leads at an angle φ w.r.t
to applied voltage ‘V’
VC I XC
∴ Tan φ = =
VR I.R
Xc
Tan φ =
R
⎛ Xc ⎞
Phase angle, φ = Tan –1 ⎜ ⎟ Leading
⎝R ⎠
Hence, if V = V max sin wt
i = Imax sin (wt + φ ) (current is leading with respect to voltage vector)
(or) if i = Imax sin wt
V = V max sin (wt – φ ) (Voltage vector is lagging with respect to current vector)
2. Power Factor (cos φ ) : Power factor is the cosine of the angle between voltage (V)
and current (I) phasors.
R
∴ Power factor, Cos φ =
Z
Note : The phase difference between voltage (V) and current (I) phasors in pure R-C
circuit,
⎛Xc ⎞
φ = Tan –1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝R ⎠
⎡ −1 ⎛ X c ⎞⎤
∴ Power factor, Cos φ = Cos ⎢Tan ⎜ R ⎟⎥ Leading
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
3. Power in Resistance-Capacitance Series Circuit :
Instantaneous power, P = Vi
= V m sin wt × Imax sin (wt + φ)

1
= V I [2 sinwt sin (wt + φ)]
2 max max
We know that 2 sin A sinB = cos (A–B) – cos (A + B).
Vmax Imax
∴ P = [cos φ − cos (2wt + φ)]
2
Vmax Imax V I
= cos φ – max max cos (2 wt + φ )
2 2
1
Since the average value of pulsating component V I cos (2 wt + φ ) over a
2 max max
complete cycle is zero. Hence, the average power of the circuit.
1
P = V I cos φ
2 max max
Vmax Imax
= cos φ
2 2
∴ Average Power, P = V I cos φ watts.
Where V & I – are the r.m.s values of voltage & current
φ – be the phase angle between the applied voltage ’V’ and the circuit current ‘I’
III. R–L–C SERIES CIRCUIT IS CONNECTED ACROSS AN A.C SOURCE :
VL
B
i i
VR i VC VL
i R L C D
VR VL VC V
φ A
0 i
V VC
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.20 :
Let us consider a pure resistance – R ohms, pure Inductance – L henry and pure
capacitance – C farads are connected in series and is as shown in Fig. 3.20 (a).
Let I – be the r.m.s value of the total current (Ampere).
V – be the r.m.s value of applied voltage (Volt).
V R – be the voltage drop across resistance
V L & V C – are the voltage drop across Inductance & capacitance respectively.
V R = I.R and V R – is in phase with I represented as OA in vector diagram.
V L = I X L ; voltage drop across ‘L’ (V L – leading I by 90 o) represented as AB.
V c = I X c ; voltage drop across ‘C’ (Vc – lagging I by 90o) – represented as AC.
From the vector diagram 3.20 (b), the voltage drops across Inductance (V L) and
capacitance (V c ) are 180 o out of phase with each other.
Assume that V L > V c
The net reactance drop = AB – BD = V L – V c . = AD.
From voltage triangle

B
OD 2 = OA 2 + AD 2
XL
D
V2 = VR2 + (V L – V c )2
= (IR) 2 + (I X L – IX c )2 Z XL – X C
φ A
∴ V = I R 2 + (X L − Xc )2 0 i
R XC
V V C
(or) I = =
R 2 + (X L − X c )2 Z FIGURE 3.21 :
Where Z – is the impedance of the circuit
Z 2 = R 2 + (X L – X C )2 = R 2 + X 2
R R
Power factor, Cos φ = =
Z R2 + (XL − Xc )2
Power : Power consumed, P = V I cos φ (watt)
Three cases in R-L-C Series Circuit :
Case-I : When X L >X C and X L –X C is positive.
In this condition, the circuit behaves like more Inductive. The current I – lags behind
the applied voltage ‘V’ by an angle ‘ φ’
⎛ X − LC ⎞
Where φ = tan –1 ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
Impedance Z = R 2 + (X L− X C )2
Case - II : Where X C >X L and X L –X C is negative.
In this condition, the circuit behaves like more capacitive. The current I– leads the
applied voltage V by an angle ‘ φ ’.
⎛ − (X L − X C ) ⎞
φ = tan –1 ⎜− ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
Impedance, Z = R 2 + (X C − X L )2
Case - III : When X L = X C and X L – X C = 0.
The circuit behaves like a pure resistance. In this condition the current I and applied voltage
‘V’ will be in phase.
∴ The phase angle φ = 0 o
Impedance, Z = R2 = R
3.6 PROBLEMS ON SERIES CIRCUITS

PROBLEM - 1
i 10 Ω 30 Ω
A 120 volt a.c. circuit contain 10 Ω resistance and 30 Ω
Inductive reactance in series. What would be the average
power in the circuit. 120 Volt
Solution :
FIGURE 3.22 :
Supply voltage, V = 120 volt
Resistance of the circuit, R = 10 Ω
Reactance of the circuit, X = 30 Ω
∴ Impedance of the circuit, Z = R2 + X 2

= 10 2 + 302 = 31.6 Ω
V 120
Current flowing through the circuit, I = = = 3.8 Amp.
Z 31. 62
Power factor of the circuit,

R 10
cos φ = = = 0.3162 lagging
Z 31. 62
∴ Average power in the circuit,
P = V I cos φ = 120 × 3.8 × 0. 3162 = 144 watts.
PROBLEM - 2
An inductive circuit has a resistance of 5 Ω in series with an inductance of 0.03 H. Calculate

the current and power factor when connected across 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
Oct/Nov. 2008 [C-05]
Solution :
Given data :
R=5Ω; L = 0.03 H; V = 230 V; f = 50 Hz; I, P.F = ?
Inductive reactance, X L = 2π f L = 2π× 50× 0.03
= 9.4247 Ω 5Ω 0.03 H
Impedance, Z = R 2 + X L2 = 52 + 9.4247 2
I
= 10.66 Ω
V 230
Current, I = = = 21. 566 A
Z 10. 66
R 5
Power factor = Cos φ = = = 0.469 lagg
Z 10. 66
PROBLEM - 3
R = 200 Ω L = 0.38 H
A voltage v = 200 sin 100 π t is applied to a coil having R
i
= 200 Ω and L = 0.38H. Find the expression for the
current and the power taken by the coil. V = 200 sin 100 π t
Solution :
Applied voltage, V = 200 sin 100 π t FIGURE 3.23 :
Inductance of the circuit, L = 0.38 H
∴ Peak value of the applied voltage, V max = 200 volt.
Inductance reactance of the circuit, X L = WL = 100 × π × 0.38 = 119.38 Ω
2 2
Impedance of the R–L series circuit, Z = R 2 + X L 2 = (200) + (119.38) = 232.92 Ω
Vmax 200
Peak value of the current, I max = = = 0.859 Amp
Z 232. 92
⎛XL ⎞ ⎛ 119.38 ⎞
Phase angle of the R–L series circuit, φ = tan –1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan –1 ⎜ ⎟ = 30.8 o
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ 200 ⎠
∴ Expression for current, i = Imax sin (wt – φ ) = 0.859 sin (100 π t – 0.171 π )
200 0.859
Power consumed by the coil, P = VI cos φ = × cos 30.8o
2 2
P = 73.8 watt.
PROBLEM - 4
An inductive coil having a resistance of 15 Ω takes a current of 4A when connected to a 100

V, 60 Hz supply. If the coil is connected to a 100 V, 50 Hz supply, calculate (i) The current (ii)
The power (iii) The power factor. Draw the vector diagram for the 50 Hz condition, showing
the componet voltages.
March/April. 2007 [C-05]
Solution :
Given data :
R = 15 Ω ; I = 4A; V = 100 V, f = 60 Hz
Coil Coil V = 100 V
15Ω L 15Ω 0.053 H φ = 48 ο
100 V, 60 Hz 100 V, 50 Hz IL = 4.46 A

(a) (b) (c)
When the coil is connected across a 100 V, 60 Hz supply as shown in above Fig. (a)
V 100
Impedance, Z = = = 25 Ω
I 4
Using the relation Z = R 2 + XL2
XL = Z2 − R2 = 252 −15 2 = 20 Ω
X L = 2π f L = 20
20 20
∴ L = = = 0. 053 H
2 πf 2π× 60
When the coil is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply as shown in Fig. (b).
Inductive reactance, X L = 2π f L = 2π× 50× 0.053 = 16.66 Ω
Impedance, Z = R 2 + X L2 = 15 2 + 16. 662 = 22. 41 Ω

V 100
(i) The current, I = = = 4.46 A
Z 22. 41
(ii) The power, P = I2 R = 4.46 2 × 15 = 298.47 w
R 15
(iii) The power factor = cos φ = = = 0. 669 lagg
Z 22. 41
PROBLEM - 5
A resistance of 9 Ω is connected in series with an Inductance reactance of 12 Ω . The
current in the circuit is 10 Amp. Find.
(i) The voltage across the entire circuit.
(ii) Draw the phasor diagram of the voltage & current.
(iii) Write expressions for the instantaneous values of current and the applied voltage.
Solution :
R = 9 Ω XL = 12 Ω
Reactance of the circuit, X L = 12 Ω 10 Amp

V
2 2
∴ Impedance of the circuit, Z = R + XL
FIGURE 3.24 :
= 92 + 122 = 15 Ω
Current flowing through the circuit, I = 10 Amp.
(i) Voltage across the entire circuit, V = I. Z = 10 × 15 = 150 volt.

⎛XL ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞
Phase angle of the R–L series circuit, φ = tan–1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan –1 ⎜ ⎟ = 53.13 o
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝9 ⎠
(or) = 0.295 π radians .
(ii) Voltage across resistance, VR = I.R = 10 × 9 = 90 volt
Voltage across reactance, VL = I.X L = 10 × 12 = 120 volt
(iii) Instantaneous value of Alternating current,

B
i = Imax sin wt
V
= 10 2 sin wt AmP. 15
0
= VL = 120 V
V
Instantaneous value of alternating voltage,
φ = 53.13 o
0
V = V max sin (wt + φ ) 90 V A I = 10 A
= 150 2 sin (wt + 0.295 π )

PROBLEM - 6
A coil of resistance 10 Ω is connected in series with a coil of inductance 0.02 H and is

connected to AC mains of 100 V and 50 Hz. Calculate current, power factor and voltage
drop across both resistance and inductacne.
Oct/Nov. 2007 [C-05]
Solution : 10Ω 0.02 H
Given data :
VR VL
R = 10 Ω ; L = 0.02H; V = 100 V, f = 50 Hz
I, p.F, V R , V L = ?
inductive reactance, X L = 2π f L = 2π× 50× 0.02 = 6.283 Ω
impedance, Z = R 2 + X L2 = 10 2 + 6. 2832 = 11. 81 Ω

V 100
Current, I = = = 8. 467 A
Z 11. 81
R 10
Power factor, p.f = cosφ = = = 0. 846 lagg
Z 11. 81
Voltage across resistance, V R = IR = 8.467 × 10 = 84.67 V
Voltage across inductance, VL = I X L = 8.467 × 6.283 = 53.198 V
PROBLEM-7
A coil of inductance 0.03 H is connected in series with a resistance of 10 Ω and is connected
across single phase 230 V, 50 Hz AC supply. Calculate (a) Impedance (b) current) (c)
active power, (d) power factor and (e) voltage drop across inductance & reactance.
[March/April. 2016]
Solution :
Given data :
Inductance, L = 0.03 H
Resistance, R = 10 Ω
V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz
Inductive reactance, I L = 2πfL = 2× π× 50× 0.03 = 9.4247 Ω
(a) Impedance, Z = R2 + X 2L = 102 +[9.4247]2 = 13.74Ω
V 230
(b) Current, I = = = 16.738 A
Z 13.75
(c) Active power, P = VI cos φ = 230 × 16.738 × 0.7277 = 2801.645 W
(d) Power factor cos φ = I X L = 16.738 × 9.4247 = 157.75 V
Voltage drop across resistance = I R = 16.738 × 10 = 167.38 V
PROBLEM - 8
A current of 10 Amp flows in a circuit lagging behind the applied voltage of 100 volt, 50
Hz by 30 o . Determine the values of resistance, reactance and the impedance of the circuit.
Solution :
Applied voltage across an R–L series circuit, R L
V = 100 volt
Current flowing through R–L series circuit 10 A
100 Volt, 50 Hz
I = 10 Amp
V 100 FIGURE 3.25

∴ Impedance of the circuit, Z = = = 10 Ω :
I 10
Phase angle, φ = 30 o
3
∴ Circuit resistance R = Z cos φ = 10 × cos 30 o = 10 × = 8.66 Ω
2
o 1
Reactance of the circuit, X L = Z sin φ = 10 × sin 30 = 10 × =5 Ω
2
PROBLEM - 9
A voltage of 125 volt at 60Hz is applied across a Non–Inductive resistor connected

in series with a condenser. The current in the circuit is 2.2 Amp. The power loss in
the resistor is 96.8 watts and that in the condenser is neglisible calculate resistance
& capacitance. R
C
Solution :
2.2 A
125 Volt, 60 Hz
Current flowing through the circuit,
FIGURE 3.26 :
I = 2.2 Ampere.
V 125
Impedance of the circuit, Z= = = 56 82 Ω
I 2. 2
Given that power loss in the resistor, P = I 2 R = 96.8 watt.
P 96. 8
∴ Resistance of the circuit, R= 2
= = 20 Ω
I (2.2)2
∴ We know that power loss in the capacitor, C = 0
∴ Capacitive reactance of the circuit, X c = Z 2 − R2 = (56.82)2 −(20)2 = 53.2 Ω
1 1
∴ Capacitance of the circuit, C = = = 50 μF
w X c 2π × 60 × 53 .2
PROBLEM - 10
A circuit consists of 12 Ω resistance is series with a capacitance of 100 μF . It is connected
across a supply of 230V, 50 Hz. Find ___
Oct/Nov. 2012
(a) Reactance, (b) Impedance (c) Current
(d) Power factor (e) Power
Solution : R = 12Ω
C = 100 μF
Supply voltage, V = 230 volt

Capacitance, C = 100 μF I
230 Volts, 50 Hz
Resistance, R = 12 Ω . FIGURE 3.27
:
1 1
(a) Reactance , X C = 2πfC = = 31.83 Ω
2π × 50 × 100 × 10 −6
(b) Impedance, Z = R 2 + XC2 = 122 + 31.832 = 34Ω
V 230
(c) Current, I = = = 6.76 Amps.
Z 34
R 12
(d) Power factor, Cos φ = = = 0.353 Lead
Z 34
(e) Power, P = VI Cosφ = 230 × 6.76 × 0.353 = 548.84 watts
EXAMPLE - 11
A resistance of 10 Ω , an inductance of 0.2 H and capacitance of 100 μ F are connected
across 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the current and power factor.
Oct/Nov. 2009 [C-05]
Solution : 10Ω 0.2 H 100 μF
Given data :
R = 10 Ω ; L = 0.02 H; C = 100 μF , I
230 V, 50 Hz supply
V = 230 V; f = ?; I, p.F = ?
1 1
Capacitive reactance XC = = = 31.83 Ω
2π fC 2π× 50 × 100 × 10−6
Impedance, Z = R 2 +(X L − X C) 2 = 102 + (62.83 − 31.83)2 = 32.57 Ω
V 230
Current, I = = = 7. 061 A
Z 32. 57
R 10
Power factor, Cos φ = = = 0.307 lagg
Z 32.57
PROBLEM - 12
Find the expression for the instantaneous value of the current through an R–L–C
series circuit in which R = 80 Ω ; L = 41.3mH and C = 0.797 μ F. When applied
voltage is 100 sin 2000 π t volt.
R L C
Solution :
80Ω 41.3 mH 0.797 μF
Applied voltage, V = 100 sin 2000 π t.
2000π
∴ Supply frequency, f =
2π
f = 1000 Hz
V = 100 sin 2000 πt
Resistance of the circuit, R = 80Ω
FIGURE 3.28 :
Inductance of the circuit, L = 41.3 mH
Inductance reactance of the circuit,
X L = 2 π fL, = 2 π × 1000 × 41.3 × 10 –3 = 259.5 Ω
1 1
Capacitive reactance,Xc = = = 199.7 Ω
2π fc 2π 1000× 0 .797 × 100−6
Circuit impedance, Z = R 2 + (X L− X c )2 = (80)2 + (259. 5 − 199 .7)2 = 99.88 Ω
Vmax 1000
∴ Maximum value of current, I max = = = 10 Amp
Z 99. 88
XL − XC ⎛ 259.5 − 199.7 ⎞
∴ Phase angle of the circuit, φ = tan –1 = tan –1 ⎜ ⎟ = 36.8 o
R ⎝ 80 ⎠
∴ Instantaneous value of current i = I max sin (wt – φ ) = 10 sin (2000 π t – 0.204 π )
PROBLEM - 13
A series circuit having a resistance of 40 Ω , capacitance of 20 micro farads, and indcutance

of 0.2 H is connected across 110 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (i) Impedance (ii) Current (iii)
Power factor.
Oct/Nov. 2011, 2006 [C-05]
Solution : R L C
Given data : 40Ω 0.2 H 20 μF
R = 40 Ω ; C = 20 μ F; F = 20 × 10 –6 F
L = 0.2 H, V = 110 V ; f = 50 Hz; 110 V, 50 Hz supply
Z, I, p.F = ?

1 1
Capacitive reactance XC = = = 159.09 Ω
2π fC 2π × 50 × 20 × 10−6
(i) Impedance, Z = R 2 + (X L − XC )2 = 402 + (62. 857 − 159. 09)2
= 104.215 Ω
V 110
(ii) Current, I = = = 1. 055 A
Z 104. 215
R 40
(iii) Power facotr, P.F = Cos φ = = = 0. 3838 lead
Z 104. 29
PROBLEM - 14
A resistance of 50 Ω , inductance of 100mH and a capacitance of 100 μ F are connected in

series across 200 volt, 50 Hz supply. Determine the following.
1. Inductance reactance (X L) 2. Capacitive reactance (X ) c
3. Impedance 4. Current flowing through the circuit.
5. Power factor (cos φ) 6. Voltage across R, L & C (V R, V L & V C)
7. Power in watts.
Solution :
L C
R
50 Ω 100 mH 100 μF
Frequency, f = 50 Hz

200 V, 50 Hz
Inductance of the circuit, L = 100 mH
Capacitance of the circuit, C = 100 μF FIGURE 3.29 :
1. Inductance reactance of the circuit,

X L = 2π fL
= 2π × 50 × 100 × 10 –3 = 31.42 Ω
2. Capacitive reactance of the circuit,

1 1
XC = = = 31.83 Ω
2π fC 2π × 50 × 100 ×10 −6
Net reactance of the circuit, X = X C – X L = 31.83 – 31.42 = 0.41 Ω
3. Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2= (50) 2 + (0.41)2 = 50 Ω (Approximately).

V 200
4. Current flowing through the circuit, I = = =4A
Z 50
R 50
5. Power factor of the circuit, cos φ = = =1
Z 50
6.
(a) Voltage across resistance V R = I.R = 4 × 50 = 200 volt
(b) Voltage across Inductance VL = I. X L = 4 × 31.42 = 125.68 volt
(c) Voltage across capacitance, VC = IX C = 4 × 31.83 = 127.32 volt
7. Power, P = VI cos φ = 200 × 4 × 1 = 800 watt
TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. A current wave is represented by the equation i = 10 sin 250 t. Find its maximum value,
r.m.s value and frequency. Ans : 10A, 7.071A, 39.788 Hz.
2. A circuit consisting of 10 ohms resistance and 8 ohms inductive reactance, takes a current of
6 ampere. Determine (i) Impedance (ii) Total supply voltage, (iii) P.F of the circuit.
Ans : 12.8 Ω ; 76.837v; 0.7808 lagg
3. A resistance of 4 Ω is connected in series with an inductance of 0.02H across the

supply of 200v, 50Hz. Find (i) current (ii) power factor and (iii) the voltage drop
acrose each element.Ans : 26.852A ; 0.537 lagg ; V R = 107.408V ; V C = 168.71 v.
4. A resistance of 50 Ω is connected in series with 43.7 μ F capacitance acorss a supply

of 250 V, 50 Hz. Determine (i) Capacitive reactance (ii) Impedance (iii) Current in the
circuit and (iv) KVA rating. Ans : 72.84 Ω ; 88.349 Ω ; 2.829A; 0.7074 KVA.
5. A capacitor of capacitance 79.5 μ F is connected in series with a non-inductance resistance

of 30 Ω across 100V, 50 Hz supply. Determine (i) Impedance (ii) Current (iii) Phase angle.
Ans : 50 Ω ; 2A ; 53 o lead.
6. A resistance of 200 ohms and an inductance of 0.3H and a capacitance of 120 μF

are connected in series across a supply of 230V, 50Hz. Calculate (i) Impedance
(ii) Current (iii) Power factor and (iv) Power.
Ans ; 70.6127 Ω ; 3.2572A; 0.282 lagg = 212.18 w; 718.48 w ; 749.156 w
7. A coil having a resistance of 5 Ω and an inductance of 0.7 mH is connected in series with

a capacitor having a capacitance of 50 μ F. The circuit is then connected across 240 V, 50
Hz a.c supply. Calculate (i) Inductive reactance (ii) Capacitive reactance (iii) Total impedance
(iv) Current in the circuit (v) Power consumed and (vi) Voltage drop across the coil.
Ans : 0.22 Ω ; 63.66 Ω ; 63.67 Ω ; 3.77A; 71.0 4w: 0.829 v.
3.7 POLYPHASE AND 3–PHASE SYSTEM

The alternating currents voltages so far we discussed are single phase currents and
voltages because they consists of a single alternating current and voltage wave. This
system is most commonly employed for domestic applications example, motors for
mixers, coolers, fans, refrigerators, iron etc., The single-phase system has its own
limitations, hence it has been replaced by poly phase system.
Poly Phase System : If the alternator consists of many armature windings, then it becomes
poly-phase alternator and it produces as many independent voltage waves as the number of
windings or phases. In fact the word “poly-phase means poly (i.e numerous or many) and
phase” (i.e., winding or circuit). The windings are displaced from one another by equal angles
which depends upon the number of phases and can be determined from the following relation.
360 electrical degrees

Electrical displacement =
number of phases
The above relation does not hold good for two-phase windings, which are displaced by
90 electrical degrees apart. The most commonly used poly-phase system is “Three-
phase system”.
Three-Phase System : A 3-phase alternator, has three independent armature windings which
are displaced by 120o electrical degrees apart (from the above equation). The system is universally
used i.e generation, transmission and distribution of electrical power is available in 3-phase
system. The two-phase and six-phase supply are obtained from 3-phase supply.
In case one phase out of three phases of a 3-phase supply connected to the 3-phase load
is not available, then such a condition is called the single phasing.
Poly-phase System (3-phase) has the Following Advantages over Single-phase Supply:
1. The poly-phase system is not pulsating, so they are high desirable particularly for
power loads.
2. 3-phase motors are self-starting one.
3. The efficiency of a poly-phase motors (3-phase motors) is high.
4. It requires less material for a given capacity.
5. Poly-phase system is more capable and reliable than Single phase-system.
6. Parallel operation of Poly-phase alternators is simple compared to that of Single-phase
alternators.
3.8 PHASE DIFFERENCE IN 3-PHASE SYSTEM

Considering three-phase alternator with three coils a 1 a 2 , b 1b 2 & c 1 c 2 as shown in
Fig. 3.30 (a). The coils (windings) are 120 o (electrical) apart rotate about the same
axis in uniform magnetic field, the induced e.m.f in each of them will have a phase
2π
difference of 120 o or radians.
3
E a 1 a2 E c 1 c2
N E b 1 b2 E c 1 c2
c2 ω
b1 ω
π/2
120 o 120 o
B a A π 2π
1 a2 120 o
3π 120 o
c1 /2 120 o E a 1 a2
b2 o
0
24
S 2π/3 or 2π/3 ωt or θ
or
120 o 120 o
D E b 1 b2
4π/3 or 240 o
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 3.30 : Generation of Three Phase EMF

Here, a 1, b 1, c 1, are the starting terminals and a 2, b 2, c 2 are finishing terminals of the
three coils. When the coil a 1 a 2 lie in position AB, the induced e.m.f in the coil is zero
and increasing in positive direction. The coils b 1 b 2 is 120 o behind coil a 1 a 2 and the
coil c 1 c 2 is 240 o behind coil a 1 a 2 i.e., e.m.f induced in coil b 1 b 2 lags e.m.f in coil a 1
a 2 by 120 o and e.m.f induced in coil c 1 c 2 lags e.m.f in coil a1 a 2 by 240 o . The
instantaneous values of the e.m.fs induced in coils a 1 a 2, b 1b 2, and c 1 c 2, are.
ea a = E
1 2 max sin wt
eb b = E o)
1 2 max sin (wt –120
ec c = E o)
1 2 xam sin (wt – 240
The wave diagram and vector diagrams are shown in Fig.3.32 (b) & (c).
3.9 STAR-DELTA
CONNECTION
The three armature coils of the 3-phase alternator are generally interconnected to make the
system simple, cheap. The general methods of connections are.
1. Star or wye (Y) connection and

2. Delta or mesh ( Δ ) connection.
Star or Wye Connection : If the similar ends of all the coils are joined together then such
connection is called “Star connection”. The common point ‘N’ at which similar ends are
connected is called the “Neutral or star point”. The remaining three wires are connected to
3-phase supply as shown in Fig. 3.31 (a) such a system is also know as 3-phase, 4-wire system.
The voltage between any line and the neutral point i.e voltage across the phase winding is
called the phase voltage, while the voltage between any two lines is called line voltage.
R ERY
IR EPh ER
ERY IR
Neutral E BR –E Y
60 o
IB
IB IY
IY Y
E B
B IB EY
(a) Circuit Diagram (b) Vector Diagram
FIGURE 3.33 : Star-Connection

The connection and phasor diagram of star-connections is shown in Fig. 3.31. In star
Linevoltage EL
connection the phase voltage = i.e., E ph =
3 3
and the phase current and line current is same, i.e., I p = I L .
The Power P = 2 VL IL cos φ

Delta or Mesh Connection : If the starting end of one coil is connected to the finishing end
of other coil, then such a connection is known as Delta or mesh connection. The three loads
are taken out from the three junction and are from 3-phase supply as shown in Fig. 3.32 (a).
In delta connection, phase voltage is equal to line voltage i.e., E p = E L
Line current Line current

But the phase current = i.e., Iph =
3 3
The Power P = 3 VL I L Cos φ , same as star-connection. The connection and phasor

diagram are shown in Fig. 3.32.
IRB = I R – I B IRY
R
ER
IR
–I R
E RY – IY
60 o
ERB
IB
IY – I R
Y
IY IY
E YB EB IB
IB
B EY
IB – I Y
(a) Circuit Diagram (b) Vector Diagram
FIGURE 3.32 : Delta Connection
EXAMPLE - 1
Three equal impedances with a resistance of 15 ohm and inductive reactance of 20 ohm are
connected in delta to a supply of 3 phase 2120 V, 50 Hz. supply Calculate the line current.
Oct/Nov. 2011
Given data :
Resistance/ph, Rph = 15 Ω ; Inductive reactance/ph, X Lph = 20 Ω
Line voltage, V L = 2120 V ; frequency, f = 50 Hz ; Line current, I L =?
A
Solution :
2 2 15Ω
Impedance/ph, Z ph = R ph + X Lph = 15 2 + 20 2 = 25Ω 20Ω
20Ω
Vph 2120 15Ω
Phase current, Iph = = = 84.8 A
Z ph 25 C B
2120 V 15Ω 20Ω
Line current, I L = Iph × 3 = 84.8× 3 = 146.877 A
3.10 ALTERNATOR
Alternator is one of the important types of electrical machines. Alternator also known as
A.C. Generator, is constructed in larger sizes i.e., 500 MVA or even more.
Working Principle of Alternator : The operating principle of alternator is fundamentally
same as that of a D.C generator i.e. Electromagnetic induction. Alternator also consists
of armature winding and a magnetic field. But the important difference between the two
is that, in a d.c. generator the armature (conductors) rotates and the field system is
stationary, where as in an alternator the armature (conductors) is stationary and the field
system rotates. Hence, the armature winding (conductors) mounted on a stationary
element called “stator” and field winding on rotating element called “Rotor”.
Another difference between two is that, unlike d.c. generator, in alternator there is no
need to convert a.c to d.c hence alternator does not require a commutator. Alternators
(A.C generators), because of absence of commutator, these are simple in construction
and have many advantages over d.c generators.
When a rotor is rotated by means of some prime-mover, the stator conductors are cut
by the magnetic flux, hence an e.m.f. is induced in stator conductors, due to
electromagnetic induction effect. Because the magnetic poles are alternatively ‘N’ and
‘S’, the e.m.f. and hence current in armature conductors, which first flow in one direction
and then in the other. Hence this e.m.f. is alternating, whose frequency depends on
number of N and S poles and whose direction is given by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
3.10.1 Constructional Features of Alternator

The alternator essentially consists of two parts namely :
1. Stator (Armature) 2. Rotor (Field system)
1. Stator (or) Armature : The stator consists of a cast-iron from which supports the armature
core having slots or its inner periphery for housing the armature conductors. Since the field
rotates in between the stators, so that flux of the rotating field cuts the core of the stator
continuously, and causes eddy current loss in stator core. Hence core is laminated to
minimise loss due to eddy currents. The slots for housing the armature conductors lie along
the inner periphery of the core. The most commonly used slots are open slots because the
coils can be form wound and insulated, it also facilitate in removal and replacement of
defective coils. The number of slots per pole phase should be large to give sinusoidal
generated e.m.f. Generally no. of slots per pole per phase is 3 to 4 for small machines and
more than 5 for large machines. The constructional details are shown in Fig. 3.33.
FIGURE 3.33 : Construction of Alternator

2. Rotor (or) Field System : The magnetic field required for the production of alternating voltage
is provided by field magnets and these need to be supplied with direct current (excitation).
Two types of rotors are used in alternators

(i) Silent-Pole Type (ii) Smooth-Cylindrical Type.
Salient-Pole Type Rotor : It is used for low and medium
speed (engine drive) alternators. It has a large number of
projecting (salient) poles which have concentrated winding and
are wound with ordinary wire coils for the smaller sizes, but in
larger machines the field windings are made of rectangular
copper strips wound on edge. The number of poles may be
4 to 60. To accommodate such a large number of poles, these
machines have large diameter and smaller lengths.
The special features of salient pole rotor are :

FIGURE 3.34 : Salient Pole
1. They have large diameter and short axial length. Type Rotor
2. The pole shoes cover about 2/3 of pole pitch.

3. These are employed with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines.
4. The speed is 100 to 375 rpm.
The general view of salient pole rotor is shown in Fig.3.34.
Smooth-Cylindrical Type Rotor : It is used for steam-driven alternators (turbo-alternators)
which run at very high speeds. The rotor consists of a smooth solid forged steel cylinder
having a number of slots along the outer pheripery for providing field coils. These rotors
are designed for 2-pole (or 4-pole) turbo-generators running at 3600 r.p.m (or 1800
rpm). Normally two-third of the rotor is slotted for the field winding and one-third is left
to form pole faces. Non - Salient Pole
The special features of smooth-cylindrical rotor are :
S
1. They are smaller in diameter and very long axial length
2. Robust construction and noiseless operation.
3. They have very high operating speed (3600 rpm) N D.C. N
Supply
4. Less windage losses.
The general views of smooth-cylindrical rotor is shown in
S
Fig. 3.35.
Field Windings
FIGURE 3.35 : Smooth Cylinderical
(Non- salient) Type Rotor
3.11 FREQUENCY AND SPEED

RELATION
Let N = Speed of rotor in r.p.m. Cycle of
e.m.f
P = Total number of poles
f = Frequency of generated e.m.f
Since one cycle of e.m.f is produced when

N
a pair of poles passes past a conductor,
the number of cycles of e.m.f produced in S S
one revolution of the rotor is equal to the

number of pair of poles. Therefore, Pole Pitch
No. of cycle/revolution = P/2 FIGURE 3.36 :
No. of revolutions /second = N/60.

P N PN NP
Therefore, frequency ‘f’ = × = = (Hz) or f = Hz
2 60 120 120
Hence frequency of induced e.m.f depends on the number of poles and speed of rotor.
3.12 TRANSFORMERS
The Electrical Energy is generated by generating stations (like hydro, thermal, nuclear etc) at
a voltage of 6.6 or 11 or 33 KV. This energy is to be transmitted over a long distances
to supply various consumers in villages, towns and cities. The consumers uses energy at
a voltage of 230/400V. But this transmission of energy is economical at high voltages
such as 132 or 220 or 400 KV. Therefore some means are required for stepping up the
voltage at generating stations and stepping down the same at the places where it is to be
used. The electrical machine which is used for this purpose is ‘TRANSFORMER’, i.e.,
generated voltage of 6.6 or 11 or 33 KV is stepped up to 132 or 220 or 400 KV by step-
up transformer and then stepped-down to 66 or 33 or 11 KV at various sub-stations and
further steped-down to 400/230 V by distribution transformer for consumers use.
Transformer is a static device which transfers electrical energy from one electrical
circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without
a change in the frequency.
3.12.1 Construction and Working Principle of a Transformer

The transformer operates on the principle of mutual induction between two (or more)
inductively coupled coils or circuits, and is as shown in Fig. 3.37.
The transformer basically consists of two-windings which are wound on a soft iron or silicon
steel core. The winding which is connected to supply mains is known as “primary winding”
and the winding to which the load is connected is known as “secondary winding”. The
two windings are not physically connected (no electrical connection) but there is a magnetic
linkage between two. These two windings are insulated from both core and each other.
The core is built with silicon steel laminations and provide a path of low reluctance for the
magnetic flux. In actual construction the two windings are wound one over the other.
When the primary winding is connected to a.c supply mains, a current (I1) flows through it.
This current produces an alternating flux ‘ φ ’ in the core. This flux first, links with primary
winding, so produces. self-induced e.m.f. (E 1) in the primary winding which opposes the
applied voltage. This e.m.f some times known as back e.m.f of the primary. The flux ‘ φ ’
passes through the magnetic core, and links with secondary winding also, so induces an
e.m.f called mutual induced e.m.f (E 2) in the secondary winding. The frequency of the
e.m.f induced in the secondary is same as that of the flux or that of supply voltage. This
e.m.f in the secondary winding will able to circulate the current in the external load connected
across it. Thus the energy is transferred from primary winding to the secondary winding by
Electro-magnetic induction principle without any change in frequency.
Since transformer has no moving parts, it has the highest possible efficiency out of all the
electrical machines and requires almost unliable amount of maintenance and repair.
Secondary
Primary
Magnetic Field
I1 I2
V2
V1 E1 E2 R
N1 (External
N2 Load)
φ
Iron Core
FIGURE 3.37 : Simple Transformer
V 1 = primary voltage V 2 = secondary voltage

I1 = primary current I2 = secondary current
N 1 = no. of turns in primary N 2 = no.of turns in secondary
E 1 = e.m.f induced in primary E 2 = e.m.f induced in secondary
(self-induced e.m.f) (mutual induced e.m.f)
φ = flux produced in Iron core.
3.12.2 Rating of Transformer
The rating of a transformer is expressed in kilo-volt-amperes (KVA) rather than in kilowatts

(KW). Because the rated output of transformer is limited by heating and hence by the
losses in the transformer. The two types of losses in the transformer are core losses and
copper losses. The core losses depends on transformer voltage (V) and copper losses
(ohmic losses) are depending on transformer current (I). So the total losses depends on
transformer voltage (V) and current (I) and are almost unaffected by the load power factor.
Hence the output rating of transformer is expressed in VA (V× I) or KVA, but not in K Watts.
Every Transformer has name plate on it, on which manufacturer records the rated output,
the rated voltage, the rated frequency etc., for example, 25 KVA, 3000/200V, 50Hz.
3.13 RELATION BETWEEN TURNS RATIO, VOLTAGE RATIO & CURRENT

RATIO’S
Let V = Supply voltage (primary voltage)
1
V 2 = Secondary voltage in volt
N 1, N 2 = Number of turns on primary and secondary windings
E 1, E 2 = Induced e.m.f.s in primary and secondary windings in volts

I1, I2 = Current in primary and secondary winding in ampere
φm = Maximum value of flux in webers (Bm × A).
As shown in Fig.3.38, the flux increases from its
Cycle
zero value to maximum value φm in one quarter
of the cycle i.e., in 1/4 f seconds, therefore.
φm
φm
Average rate of change of flux = 1
/4 f
= 4 f φm volts 1/4f sec
Average rate of change of flux means induced e.m.f

T = 1/f
in volts.
∴ Average e.m.f/turn = 4 f φm FIGURE 3.38 :
⎛ r.m.s value ⎞
Now r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11. × 4f φm volt ⎜⎜∴ Form factor = ⎟⎟ =1.11.
⎝ average value ⎠
so r.m.s value of e.m.f in whole of primary winding.
= (induced e.m.f/turn) × No. of primary turns
E 1 = 4.44 φmax f N 1 = 4.44 N 1 f B m × A volt

Similarly r.m.s value of e.m.f induced in secondary winding is
E 2 = 4.44 φmax f N 2 = 4.44 N 2 f B m × A volt

Voltage Ratio : If it is an ideal transformer
V 1 = E 1 and V 2 = E 2.
V2 E 2 4. 44f N 2 φm N2
Hence, Voltage ratio = V = E = 4. 44 f N φ = N
1 1 1 m 1
Voltage Transformation Ratio : The ratio of secondary voltage to the primary voltage
is known as transformation ratio. It is denoted by letter ‘K’.
so voltage transformation Ratio,
V2 E 2 N 2
K = V = E = N
1 1 1
For step-up transformer V 2 > V 1 i.e., N 2 > N 1 , so K>1

For step-down transformer V 2 <V 1 i.e., N 2 < N 1. so K <1
Current Ratio : In an ideal transformer, losses are negligible, Hence
Output = Input
i.e., V 2 I2 = V 1 I1
I2 E1 N1 V1 1
or E2 I2 = E 1 I1 i.e., = = = =
I1 E 2 N 2 V2 K
So primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns and
voltages.
3.14 WELDING TRANSFORMER

The design of welding transformer is mainly depends on the nature of the welding
operation - like arc welding butt welding seam (or) spot welding. Now we consider
only transformer for arc welding.
The welding transformer must have a no-load voltage of about 60-70 volts which is
sufficient to establish the arc and also a sharply dropping external characteristics. For
obtaining the require external characteristics, welding transformers are provided with
a relatively large reactance either in the transformer or in a separate reactor. If the
reactance is placed in a separate reactor, that transformer is called “External reactor
type welding Transformer”. (Fig. 3.39).
This type consists of normal step-down transformer and a separate reactor. The reactor is
placed in the secondary circuit, and secondary voltage varies but little with the welding
current. The arc voltage decreases with the increasing current or increasing voltage drop
across the reactor. This gives the drooping (negative) volt-ampere characteristics.
The welding current can be controlled either by varying the reluctance of the reactor
(moving core reactor) or by varying the number of turns on the reactor (tapped reactor).
In moving core reactor the core consists of fixed portion carrying the winding, and a
moving limb which can be shifted away from and towards the fixed core by a suitable
arrangement, thus varying the air-gap between them. (Fig. 3.39). When air gap increases
the reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases, the magnetic flux decreases, so the
inductive reactance of the coil and the welding current increases. If air gap decreases,
the welding current decreases. In this way welding current can be efficively controlled.
Movable Limb
Reactor
A.C.
Supply
Fixed
welding Arc
Core
Transformer
Object
FIGURE 3.39 : Welding Transformer
In tapped reactor (Fig. 3.40) the core is made solid, but the coil is divided into several
sections, each section having a tap brought out to the regulator cover. Moving of contact
arm across the tap will vary the number of turns brought in circuit and with this, the
magnitude of welding current is controlled in steps.
Reactor
Tappings
A.C. Supply
Fixed
Welding Core Arc
Transformer
Object
FIGURE 3.40 : Welding Transformer with Tapped Reactor
3.15 INDUCTION MOTOR

The Induction Motors (poly phase) are most commonly used a.c motors due to their various
advantages such as very simple and extremely rugged, unbreakable construction, very low
cost, high efficiency, low maintenance, reasonably good power factor and realiability.
3.15.1 Principle of Operation
In d.c. Motors the electrical power (energy) converted into Mechanical power (energy) by
conduction principle i.e., electrical power is conducted directly to the armature (rotor)
through brushes and commutator. However, in a.c motors there is no electrical connection
to the rotor, but currents are induced in rotor circuit by induction principle, exactly same
as that of transformer. Hence induction motors are treated as a rotating transformer.
When the stator (primary) winding of 3-phase induction motor is fed by a 3-phase supply,
⎛ 120 f ⎞
a magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed ⎜N
⎜ s = p ⎟⎟ is
⎝ ⎠
produced. The direction of this field depends on the phase sequence of stator currents.
This revolving magnetic field sweeps across the rotor conductors and thereby induces
an e.m.f in these conductors (According to Faraday’s is laws of electro-magnetic
induction). The frequency of this induced e.m.f is same as that of supply frequency
since the rotor winding is either directly shorted or closed through some external
resistance, the induced e.m.f causes a current to flow in the rotor conductors.
Now, the current carried by rotor conductors will produce a magnetic flux. Which is
shown in Fig. 3.41 (b).The direction of this flux is anti-clockwise direction. Now by
applying the Fleming’s left-hand rule or by the effect of combined field, it is clear that
the rotor conductors experiences of force tending to move the conductor in clock-wise
direction. Hence, the rotor is set into rotation in the same direction as that of the stator
flux, as shown in Fig. 3.41 (c).
Stator Stator Stator
Rotor Rotor Rotor

Relavitve
motion
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 3.41 :
(d) Terminal Box
FIGURE 3.42 :
3.16 CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION

MOTOR
The Induction Motor basically consists of two ports namely (i) Stationary part, known
as “Stator” and (ii) Rotating part, known as “Rotor”.
Stator : The stator of an induction motor mainly consist of stator frame, stator
core, poly-phase distributed winding, two end-covers, bearing etc.,
Stator core is made up of steel laminations which are slotted along their inner periphery
for housing the 3-phase winding. The stator winding is fed from a 3-phase supply. The
stator core and windings are enclosed in cast iron frame. The stator winding is usually
arranged for 3-phase power supply, the phase of which may be connected either in
delta or star depending upon the connection which will give better design for the
particular machine. It is wound for a definite number of poles as per the requirement of
speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice-versa. When stator winding
connected to supply, the magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous
⎛ 120f ⎞
speed ⎜N⎜ s = p ⎟⎟ is produced, which induces an e.m.f. in rotor circuit by mutual
⎝ ⎠
induction. The stator is shown in Fig. 3.43.
Ventilating grills
Stator Bearing shields
Bearing shields Brushes
Ventilating grills
Rotor
Slip rings
Fan
FIGURE 3.43 : Induction Motor Parts (Disassembled)

Rotor : The induction motor has two types of rotors
1. Squirrel cage rotor 2. Phase-wound (or) wound rotor.

Squirrel Cage Rotor : Almost 90 percent of induction motors are provided with
squirrel cage rotor because of its various advantages, such as, very simple, robust
in construction. The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots
for carrying rotor conductors, in the form of copper or aluminium bars. These solid
bars are short-circuited at both ends by end-rings of the same material. The
constructional details of squirrel cage rotor are shown in Fig. 3.44. As the rotor bars
are permanently short circuited by two-end rings, it is not possible to add any external
resistance in series with the rotor circuit for starting purpose. The rotor slots are
slightly skew, to make the motor run quitely by reducing the magnetic hum and for
reducing the locking tendency of the rotor. The motor with squirrel-cage rotor is
known as “Squirrel-cage Induction motor”.
Skewed
rotor slots
Rotor
bars Laminated
rotor core
Shaft
(a) Squirrel - Cage of Rotor (b) Squirrel - Cage Rotor
FIGURE 3.44 :
Phase-Wound Rotor : This type of rotor is wound with 3-phase insulated winding similar
to the stator winding and for the same number of poles as that of the stator. The rotor
winding is uniformly distributed and usually connected, in star. The three leads from the
star connection are then connected to three slip rings mounted on the same shaft, with
brushes resting on them. These three brushes are further externally connected to 3-phase
star-connected rheostats. This makes possible to introduce additional resistance in rotor
circuit during the starting period for increasing the starting torque of the motor. The slip-ring
rotor is shown in Fig. 3.45. At the time of starting, entire resistance is included in the rotor
circuit and this resistance is gradually cut out as rotor picks up the speed. The motor which
has wound rotor is known as “Slip-ring induction motor”.
Rotor
winding
Slip
rings
Shaft
FIGURE 3.45 : Slip-Ring (or) Phase-Wound Rotor

3.16.1 Comparisons Between Squirrel–Cage and Slip–Ring Induction Motors
S.No. Squirrel-cage induction motor Slip-ring induction motor
1. Simple and more economical in construction. Complex in construction and costlier than
squirrel-cage motor
2. More rugged and require less maintenance due Since it has brushes, and slip-rings, need more
to absence of brushes and slip rings. maintenance.
3. Starting torque is poor (1.5 times the full load Starting torque is very high
torque)
4. Addition of extra resistnace is not possible as rotor Addition of extra resistance inrotor circuit is
bars are permanently short ciruited. possibe.
5. It has squirrel-cage rotor It has wound rotor
6. Squirrel-cage rotor requires less conductor material Wound rotor requires more conductor, hence
so less I2 R losses and hence little more efficiency I2 R losses, the efficiency is some what less
than slip-ring motor.
7. Poor starting power factor High starting power factor.

3.17 STARTING OF INDUCTION MOTORS

The 3-phase induction motor is a self-starting motor. At the instant of starting with
short circuited secondary the motor takes high starting current, if started at full voltage.
Hence, in order to limit this high starting current to reasonable value, some methods
are adopted for the starting of 3-phase induction motors.
The commonly used methods for starting of squirrel-cage induction motor are.
1. Direct-on-line (DOl) starting
2. Rotor Resistance starter
3. Auto-transformer starter.
4. Star-delta starter.
3.17.1 Direct-on-Line (D.O.L) Starter
As the name implies, this method involves direct switching of polyphase stator on to the
supply. This method is used for the motor upto about 1.5 Kw rating. The D.O.L starter is
shown in Fig. 3.46.
3 - Phase Supply R
Y
B
T.P.S.T
Switch
Primary
Resistors
Stator
Rotor
FIGURE 3.46 :
The purpose of primary resistors is to drop some voltage. So that the voltage applied
acorss the motor will be reduced. This reduced voltage at starting, will reduce the starting
current drawn by the motor.
The reduced voltage starting has the advantage of reducing the starting current, but it
produces an objectionable reduction in the starting torques. As the torque varies square of
applied voltage, a reduction of 50% voltage will reduce 50% starting current, but torque is
reduced to 25% of the full voltage value.
3.17.2 Star–Delta Starter
This method of starting is used for motors which are designed to operate normally in
delta. The six terminals of 3-phase stator winding are connected as shown in Fig.3.47.
It consists of a two-way (T.P.D.T) switch, which connects the motor in star for starting
and then in delta for normal running, i.e., first the T.P.D.T switch is thrown in star, and
after steady-speed has reached, TPDT is thrown in delta.
1
When star-connected, the applied voltage across each winding is reduced to
3
i.e., 57.7% of the Line-to-Line voltages and hence the torque developed becomes
1/3 of that which would have been developed if motor directly connected in delta.
The line current is reduced to one-third of line current with direct switching and torque
developed also reduced to one-third of starting torque obtained by direct switching. In
this method no power is lost. This method is usually employed to squirrel cage. Induction
motor of rating between 4 Kw to 15 Kw.
3 - Phase Supply
R
Y
B
T.P.S.T
Switch
aI
Stator
a
b c
bI cI RUN
Rotor
T.P.D.T
Switch Start
FIGURE 3.47 :
3.18 FORWARD AND REVERSE RUNNING OF INDUCTION

MOTOR
We already discussed in Art 3.17.1, that, when stator of 3-phase induction motor is fed from
a 3-phase supply, a magnetic field of constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed is
produced. This revolving flux induces an e.m.f in rotor circuit, which in turn circulate a
current in rotor circuit. Now the interaction between this rotor current and the field produces,
the turning moment (or torque), hence the rotor begins to rotate in the same direction of the
field.
Hence, the direction of speed of induction motor depends on magnetic field, which in turn
depends on the phase sequence (R, Y,B) of the 3-phase system. Change in the phase
sequence alters the direction of rotation of magnetic field of the machine and hence, the
direction of rotation of the rotor.
R
Y
B
Up
Two pole
Switch
DOWN
Stator
A B C
Winding
Rotor
FIGURE 3.48 : Reversing Scheme of I.M.

Thus in order to change the direction of rotation, one need only change the connection
of the stator to the mains. The change in connections for reversing a motor can easily be
achieved by means of a two-pole switch as shown in Fig. 3.49 For example if the two-
pole switch is in up position (Fig. 3.49), the motor rotates in forward direction, where as
if the switch is thrown to down position. The phase R connects to winding ‘B’ and phase
Y connects to winding A, which cause the motor to rotate in reverse direction. So by
changing any two phases of 3-phase induction motor, the direction of rotation of motor
can be reversed.
3.19 APPLICATIONS OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION

MOTORS
Applications of Squirrel-cage Induction Motors : For loads requiring low starting torque
and nearby constant speeds, squirrel cage induction motors are best choice.
Squirrel-cage motors may be designed with low rotor resistance or with high rotor resistance.
Case-1 : Squirrel-cage motors with low rotor resistance are used for fans, centrifugal
pumps, woodworking tools etc.
Case-2 : Squirrel-cage motors with high rotor resistance are used for compressors crushes,
Reciprocating pumps etc., still higher rotor-resistance are used for punching presses, shears,
hoists, elevators etc.,
Applications of slip-ring induction Motors : Slip-ring induction motors are suitable

for loads requiring high-starting torque and speed control. Hence, such motors are
used for hoists, cranes, lifts, driving line shafts, pumps, mills, winding, machines etc.,
3.20 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Introduction : There are many appliances in home, office, factory, work shop etc.,
which utilizes electricity only a single-phase a.c supply. Further more, there is usually
a need for small motors that will operate from a single-phase supply to drive various
electric appliances such as sewing machines, drills, vacuum cleaners, air conditioners,
mixers, electric irons etc., Most single phase motors are fractional-horse-power
motors i.e., motors of less than 1 h.p. Now-a-days single phase motors perform a
great variety of useful-services in all applications.
3.20.1 Working Principle of Single-Phase Induction Motor

Construction : The construction of single-phase induction motor is more or less
similar to that of Poly-phase induction motor. But the stator of a single-phase
motor is provided with a single-phase winding, and the rotor has a poly-phase
winding of either the squirrel-cage type orslip-ring type. In most applications the
rotor is of squirrel-cage type. A centrifugal switch is used in some types of motors
in order to cut out a starting winding from the supply when the motor reached to
70 to 80 per cent of its full-load speed.
Working Principle : When the motor is fed from a single-phase supply, the stator winding
produces an alternating flux, but it is not a synchronously revolving flux as in the case
of 3-phase induction Motor. This alternating flux cannot produce rotation. That is why
a single-phase motor is not self-starting. The induction motor with single phase stator
winding and a cage-rotor is shown in Fig. 3.49 (a).
Inorder to make the motor self-starting, it is temporarily converted into a two-phase

motor during starting period. For this purpose the stator is provided with an extra winding
called starting winding (or auxiliary) in addition to main (or running) winding. The two
windings are spaced 90o electrically apart and are connected in parallel across the supply
as shown in Fig. 3.49 (b). Now the motor behaves like a two-phase motor. These two
currents produce a revolving flux and hence make the motor self-starting.
Air - Gap Main Phase I.M.

A.C. Field
(φ)
Cage Rotor
Single - Rotor
phase Supply
Stator
Stator
Starting
Winding
Winding
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.49 :
3.21 TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION

MOTORS
The construction of single-phase induction motors are more or less similar to 3-phase
motors. As already discussed the single-phase induction are not self-starting and
therefore, some means is required for making it self-starting.
Depending on their construction and method of starting, single-phase induction motors

are broadly classified.
Types of Single Phase Induction Motors :

Single Phase Induction Motor
Induction Motors Commutator Motors Synchronous Motors
A.C Series Motors

Split-Phase Motors
Reluctance Motors
Universal Motors (a.c/d.c)
Shaded Pole Motors
Repulsion Motors Hysterisis Motors
Capacitor Motors
Repulsion-Induction Motors
Capacitor-Star Motors Capacitor Star-and-Run Motors

3.22 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION

MOTORS
1. Split - Phase Induction Motors :
I m Main Winding 1
PH
IS
Starting
Winding Starting
Single Phase Winding
Supply 2I
2
Rotor
Centrifugal S
1I
Switch
Running Winding
N
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.50 : Circuit Diagram of Split-phase Induction Motor
2. Shaded - Pole Motor :
Field
Shaded winding
coil
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.51 : Shaded-Pole Single-phase Induction Motor

3. Capacitor - Start Motors :
Running or Main Winding Capacitor
c
Im
PH
IS
PH S
Starting Winding
Single - Phase 1 – φ A.C. Supply

Supply C
S N Rotor
Rotor
N Base
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.52 : Capacitor-Start Induction-Run ‘Motor’

4. Capacitor-Start And Run Motors :
Running or Main Winding c
Capacitor
PH
PH
Starting Winding
Single - Phase 1– φ
Supply A.C. Supply
N Rotor
C Rotor
N Base
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.53 : Capacitor-Start and Run Motor
5. A.C. Series Motors :
PH
PH
A
FF F Series A
Motor F
Single - Phase Single - Phase FF Series
A.C. Supply AA A.C. Supply Series Field Motor
Series Field
Winding AA
Winding
N N
Compensating
Winding Compensating
Winding
(a) Conductively - Compensated Motor (b) Inductively - Compensated Motor
FIGURE 3.54 : A.C. Series Motor

6. Universal Motor (A.C./D.C) :
L1
Stator
Field Winding
A A
L1
Magnetic
Poles Rotor
Rotor
D.C. (or)
A.C. Supply
AA AA
L2 Field Winding
Stator L2
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.55 : Universal Motor

7. Repulsion Motors :
L1 Poles
Field Winding
x
N E.M.F
x Short Circuited
Current Brushes
A.C. L1
x
Supply Rotor Single - Phase
A.C. Supply Squirrel - Cage
x Winding
L2 Commutator
S x
Winding
x
L2
Main Pole
(a) Repulsion Motor (b) Repulsion - Induction Motor
FIGURE 3.56 :
8. Reluctance-Motor :
Teeth
Rotor
Shaft
FIGURE 3.58 : Reluctance Motor Roto (4-pole)

9. Hysteresis Motor :
Hardened Magnet - Steel
or Chrome - Steel
Magnetic Pole
Ushading Coil Shading Coil
Motor Shaft
Rotor
Exciting Coil
FIGURE 3.59 : Hysteresis Motor
3.23 FORWARD AND REVERSE RUNNING OF SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION

MOTOR
We know that, to make single-phase induction motor self-starting, it is temporarily converted
into a two-phase motor during starting period. When this motor is fed from single-phase
supply it rotates in forward directions. Now if we want to reverse the rotation of this
motors, different motors employing different methods, which are discussed below.
Split-phase and Capacitor Motors :
The direction of rotation of these motors can be reversed simply by reversing the line
connections of either the main winding or auxiliary winding. This will produce a ‘two-
phase’ rotating field in the opposite direction. But this reverse can be made from stand-
still, but not while running because the single phase torque is greater than the split-field
torque.
Shaded Pole Motor :
The rotor of shaded-pole motor rotates in the direction from unshaded part to the shaded
part. The direction of rotation depends upon the position of the shading coil on the pole i.e,
which portion of the pole is encircled by the shading coil. So by changing this shading portion
of the pole, the motor can be reversed.
A.C. Series Motor and Universal Motor :

The direction of rotation of these motors can be reversed by reversing the current flow in
either the field or armature circuit (but notboth, other wise the motor rotates in same
direction).
Universal motors are sensitive to brush position and severe arcing occures at brushes, if
the direction of rotation is reversed without shifting the brushes to the neutral plane.
Hence, universal motors are usually wound for operation in only one direction.
Repulsion Motors : The direction of rotation of repulsion motor depends upon the position
of brushes with respect to the field axis. So rotation can be reversed by shifting the
brushes, round the commutator, on the other side of the field axis. The motor can be
reversed even while the motor is running.
Reluctance and Hysterisis Motor : The direction of rotation of reluctance motor can be
reversed as in the case of any single-phase. Induction motor. But the reverse of direction
of rotation of hystereses motor is same as shaded pole motor.
3.24 APPLICATIONS OF SINGLE–PHASE INDUCTION

MOTORS
The applications of various single-phase induction motors depends on their operating
characteristics. A table of applications of all single-phase induction motors is given
below.
S.No. Type of Single-phase Motor Applications
1. Split-phase motors Fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, separators,

washing machines, small Machine tools, domestic refrigerators, oil burners etc.,
2. Shaded-pole motors Small fans, toys, instruments, hair dryers, ventilators,

circulators, electric clocks etc.,
3. Capacitor-start motors Compressors, conveyors, pumps, fans, blowers,

centrifugal pumps, oil burners etc.,
4. Capacitor start and run motors Compressors, stockers, conveyors, pumps, high
torque and high power factor loads etc..,
5. A.C. Series motors Vacuum cleaners, Snow blowers, mixers etc.,
6. Universal motors Sewing machines, fans, portable hand tools,

electric shavers, Food mixers, Cameras etc.,
7. Repulsion motors Refrigerators, compressors, hoists, gasoline pumps

etc.,
8. Reluctanc motor Timing devices, signalling devices, recording

instruments, phonograph time tables etc.,
9. Hysterisis motors Electric clocks, tape-decks, turntable, precision

audio-equipment, timing devices etc.,
KEY CONCEPTS
1. One complete set of all positive and negative values of an alternating quantity (voltage
or current) is known as “cycle”.
2. The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one full cycle is called “time period”.
3. The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity in one second is called “frequency”.
4. The value of alternating quantity at any instant of time is called “Instantaneous value”.
5. The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity either in positive or negative

direction is called “Amplitude or peak value” of an alternating quantity.
6. R.M.S value is also known as effective value of virtual value.
7. In order to calculate the average value for symmetrical wave forms only half-cycle
is considered but for unsymmetrical wave form the whole time period is considered.
8. When A.C. is applied to pure resistor the current through the circuit is inphase with voltage.
9. In a pure inductance circuit the current lags voltage by an angle of 90 o
10. In a pure capacitance circuit the current leads voltage by an angle of 90 o
11. The power consumed by pure inductance or pure capacitive circuit is zero.
12. In R-L circuit the phase angle is always lies between ‘o’ and 90 o.
13. In R-L-C series circuit the current either lags or leads the voltage which depends on
the values of ‘L’ and ‘C’. If X L > X C the circuit is inductive in nature,
if X C > X C , the circuit is capacitive in nature.
14. Poly-phase means poly (i.e., numerous or many) and phase (i.e., winding or circuit).
360 electrical degrees

15. In poly phase circuit the electrical displacement =
Number of phases
16. In 3-phase the three phases are displaced by 120 electrical degrees.
17. The three windings are generally interconnected either in star or wye connection or
Delta or Mesh connection.
18. The principle of operation of Alternator (or A.C Generator) is same as that of D.C.
Generator except that in D.C Generator Armature is rotating but field is stationary
but in alternator it is reverse.
19. The two main ports of alternator are (i) Stator and (ii) Rotor.
20. The rotor of alternator may be salient-pole type or smooth-cylindrical type.
21. Salient-pole rotor used for low and medium speed and smooth-cylindrical rotor for high speeds.
22. Transformer works on mutual induction principle and the rating of transformer is always
in KVA but not in KW.
23. The ratio of secondary voltage to the primary voltage is known as Transformation ratio (K).
24. The starting torque of squirrel-cage induction motor is less than that of slip-ring (phase-
wounds) induction motor.
25. Generally D.O.L and Star-delta starters used for starting of squirrel-cage I.M but rotor
rheostat starter is used for Slip-ring Induction Motor.
26. The single-phase induction motor is not self-starting.
28. To change the direction of rotation of single phase induction motor either starting or
running winding connections are to be changed.
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
1. In mid-ordinate method the R.M.S. value of alternating current,
i12 + i22 + i32 + ................ +i 2

Irms = n
n
Imax
2. In analytical method the R.M.S value of alternating current, I rms = = Imax 0. 707
2
i1 + i 2 i 3 + ..... + in
3. In mid-ordinate method average value of alternating current, I av =
n
2 Im
4. In analytical method average value of alternating current, I av = = I m × 0.636
π
R.M.S value
5. Form-factor = = 1.11 (for sinusoidal wave form).
Average value
Maximum value
6. Peak-factor = = 1.414 (for sinusoidal wave).
R.M.S value
7. Instantaneous value of current i = I m sin wt.
8. Inductive reactance, X L = 2 π fL ( Ω )
9. Capacitive reactance, X C = 1 2π f C ( Ω )
V V
10. In a pure inductance circuit I = and in a pure capacitive circuit, I =
XL XC
V
11. In R-L circuit impedance, Z = R 2 + X L 2 and I =
Z
R KW
12. Power factor, Cos φ = =
Z KVA
⎛XL ⎞
13. Phase difference θ = Tan –1 ⎜ ⎟ for R-L circuit
⎝ R ⎠
⎛XC ⎞
θ = Tan –1 ⎜ ⎟ for R-C circuit
⎝ R ⎠
14. Active power P = VI Cos φ ; Reactive power = VI sin φ
Apparent power = VI.
15. In a transformer E 1 = 4.44 f φ m N 1 volts and E2 = 4.44 f φ m N 2 volt
V2 N 2 I1
16. Transformation ratio, K = = =
V1 N 1 I2
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define
(i) Amplitude (ii) Cycle (ii) Time period
(iv) Frequency (v) Instantaneous value (vi) Average value (Oct. 2012)
(vii) R.M.S value and (viii) Form factor of an alternating quantity.
(Oct/Nov. 2015 ; 2013, 2011, 2009 2008, 2007, 2010 ; March/April. 2007)
2. Define the terms (March/April. 2016)
(a) RMS Value (b) Form factor
3. Explain the term power factor and its significant. (Oct/Nov. 2011)
4. Define phase and phase difference. (March/April. 2016)
5. Draw the phasor and vector diagrams of R, L, C, R, L-R-C and R-L-C circuits.
6. State the merits of poly-phase system over single-phase system.

(Oct/Nov. 2013, 2007)
7. State the relation between phase and line values of voltage and current in three-phase star
connected circuit. (Oct/Nov. 2015)
8. Explain the working principle of Alternator. (Oct/Nov. 2015 ; 2009, 2008, 2007)
9. Explain the constructional features of an Alternator. (Oct/Nov. 2015, 2012)

10. State the relation between frequency and speed of an a.c. Alternator.
(Oct/Nov. 2015)
11. Explain working principle of a Transformer with neat sketch.

(Oct/Nov. 2015 ; March/April. 2008, 2007, Oct/Nov. 2007)
12. Explain why the rating of transformer always expressed in KVA.
13. Define turns ratio, voltage transformation ratio of a transformer. (Oct/Nov. 2009)
14. Describe the welding transformer with a neat sketch.

(Oct/Nov. 2015 ; 2013, March/April. 2007)
15. Explain the working principle of three-phase induction motor.

(Oct/Nov. 2013 ; March/April. 2007)
16. Explain the working principle of three phase squirrel cage induction motor.
(Oct/Nov. 2015)
17. Explain the constructional features of squirrel-cage Induction-motor and slip-ring induction
motor.
18. With a neat sketch describe D.O.L, star-delta and rotor-resistance starters.
19. Explain how can you rotate the 3-phase induction in reverse direction? Draw suitable
connection diagram of above.
20. Give the applications of 3-phase induction motors.

(March/April. 2016, 2009, 2008, 2007 ; Oct/Nov. 2010. 2012)
21. List the applications of 1- φ inducation motors. (Oct/Nov. 2015 ; 2013, 2009)
22. Explain the working principle of Singe-phase induction motor.

(Oct/Nov. 2012, 2006)
23. Classify the Single-phase induction motors.
24. Draw the circuit diagram of each Single-phase induction motor.
25. Can you rotate Single phase Induction motor in reverse direction? Explain how?
26. List any 3 Single-phase Induction motor.

(Oct/Nov. 2015 ; 2010, March/April. 2007)
27. State the relation between phase values and line values of voltage and current in case of
(i) Start and (ii) Delta connections. (Oct/Nov. 2009)
28. Describe the star-Delta starter with a neat sketch. (Oct/Nov. 2013, 2009)
29. State the advantages of polyphase system over single phase system.
(Oct/Nov. 2015 ; 2010)
30. Explain the principle of working of single phase transformer with a neat sketch.
(Oct/Nov. 2015 ; 2011)
31. Define average value. (Oct/Nov. 2012)
32. State any three applications of a 3-phase Induction motor. (Oct/Nov. 2012)
33. A circuit consists of 12 Ω resistance is series with a capacitance of 100 μF . It is connected

across a supply of 230V, 50 Hz. Find ___ (Oct/Nov. 2012)
(a) Reactance, (b) Impedance (c) Current

(d) Power factor (e) Power
34. Explain the working principle of transformer. (Oct/Nov. 2012)
35. An inductive circuit has a resistance of 10 ohms in series with an inductance of 0.03 H.
Calculate the current and power factor, when connected across 230V, 50 Hz supply.
(Oct/Nov. 2013)
ROUGH NOTES

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BASICELECTRICALANDELECTRONICSENGINEE

By definition, the two amounts of heat produced should be equal

⎡i12 + i22 + i32 +...... +i 2

⎡i12 + i22 + i32 +...... +i 2

i12 + i22 + i32 +...... +i 2

i = I m Sin ω t (or) i = I max Sin θ

(i) Mid-ordinate method

∴ The average value of the alternating current

i1 + i2 +i 3 +......i n FIGURE 3.4 :

∴ E average = 0.637 E max

(i) Phase : Phase of an alternating quantity depends

have been zero. FIGURE 3.5 :

and is called phase difference. It is measured V i

Vmax Imax Vmax Imax

i = Imax sinwt ................. (5)

2. The phase difference ‘ φ ’ = 0

3. Power factor, Cos φ = 1 (Unity)

4. Average power, P = V I watts

f = 60 Hz; e = 5 V; t = 0.003 sec; V m =?

Using the relation, e = V m sin wt

In a pure resistance circuit, the instantaneous voltage and current

Determine (i) Peak Power (ii) Average Power

Instantaneous Current, i = 10 sin wt

∴ Maximum value of voltage, V max = 250 volt.

Similarly Imax = 10 Amper

(i) Peak Power, P = V max Imax = 250 × 10 = 2500 watt

Vmax Imax 250 × 10

V 250 (b) Phasor Diagram

Peak value of applied voltage, Vmax = 2 V rms = 2 × 250 = 353.6 Volt.

Peak value of current, I max = 2 Irms = 2 × 12.5 = 17.68 Amp.

∴Expression for voltage, V = V max sin wt = V max sin 2π ft .

V = 353.6 sin 314 t volt.

Expression for Current, i = I max sin wt = 17.68 sin 2π × 50 × t

v = V max sin wt ............ (1)

Vmax (− Cos wt ) − Vmax

i = I max sin (wt – π/ 2) ................. (5)

3.10 (c) 3.10 (d)

∴Instantaneous Power, P = v. i = (V max Sin wt) (I max Sin (wt – π/ 2)).

= V max Imax Sin wt (– Cos wt) = – V max Imax Sin wt Cos wt

Supply voltage V = 230 volt

Current flowing through Inductance, I = 10 Amp. 10 A L

(iii) Power Absorbed in pure inductance circuit, P = 0 watt

X L = 2π × 50× 0.014 = 4.4 Ω

(ii) Current flowing through the coil,

(iii) Power consumed by the coil, P = 0 (zero) watt.

Let the instantaneous value of alternating voltage is given by

Let q – be the charge on plates at the given instant. 90 o

where C - is the capacitance.

Substituting the value of ‘q’ from Equation (2), in Equation (3)

i = Imax sin (wt + π/ 2) ................. (5)

between the two quantities is π/ 2 with π/2 t

∴Instantaneous power, P = vi = V max sin wt I max sin (wt + π/ 2)

The maximum value of instantaneous power,

A 318 μ F capacitor is connected to 200 volt, 50 Hz supply.

(i) Maximum current

Instantaneous value of voltage,V = 200 sin 314 t

= 0.707 × 7.85 = 5.54 Amp

Instantaneous value of alternating current, i = max