PAST METHODS AND APPROACHES

TPR (Total Physical Response)

Basic Definition

a methodology/approach in which students respond to instructions/language with action (in order to mediate / reinforce
learning)

Further Point

 progresses from observation, to listen and respond, to speaking

 students are under no pressure to speak / a silent period is allowed
 based on theories of how children learn L1
 reception comes before production
 often associated with lower levels / young learners / kinaesthetic learners
 developed by Asher / in 1970’s
 associated with comprehensible input / comprehension approach (Krashen)
 informed by / shares principles with the natural approach (NOT the same as)

Example

The teacher says ‘jump’ and students jump, then students say ‘jump’ (if they’re ready) and other students jump.

direct method
Basic definition

A method in which grammar rules are not taught / only the target language is used in the classroom / translation is avoided at all
costs

Further point

 pure inductive approach

 emerged in late 19th century
 there is no tolerance of error
 use of real objects, pictures, dialogues, demonstration, synonyms, antonyms, definitions to convey meaning
 writing and reading taught only after speaking / focus on speaking and listening
 developments from direct method include audiolingualism / situational language teaching / strong focus on structure /
pattern practice
 came after the Grammar–Translation approach

Example

• Berlitz Method / Situational Language Teaching / Callan method / teacher - learner Q & A in L2 / extended teacher – learner
conversation in L2 / any other appropriate example
 METHOD/TECHNIQUE
Top-down processing
Basic Definition

using [either pre-existing] knowledge/information/experience [or of discourse or topic/culture/social norms] to understand

(reading/listening) texts

Further Point

 mention of ‘activating schemata’ or ‘schema theory’

 contrast to bottom-up processing (where the reader is decoding the language itself)
 most researchers regard reading/listening as a combination of bottom-up and top-down processing
 modern coursebooks make use of/develop/practise top-down processing through visuals, prediction activities, etc.

Example

when reading a text about New York, the reader creates a mental picture/brainstorms/thinks of related ideas before reading the
text e.g. yellow cabs, The Statue of Liberty, crowds of people /any valid example

Jigsaw reading
Basic Definition

An activity where learners read different texts/parts of texts and then exchange/compare/share the information they have read

Further Point

 Often used in communicative language teaching/learning

 A task is used to encourage students to share the information they have
 Creates a communicative purpose for reading the text(s)/an information gap
 Allows for the integration of skills

Example

The same news item from different newspapers which learners compare / a story divided into parts – learners exchange
information to make sense of the whole

SYLLABUSES

Notional syllabus
Basic Definition

a syllabus organised around (abstract) concepts/meanings/ideas AND the exponents used to express them

Further Point
  associated with a communicative language syllabus/CLT
 often combined with functional syllabus / functional syllabus more common
 notions are similar to functions but more general in nature (telling the time vs. time)
 associated with Wilkins (1970s)

Example

headings in this syllabus would be: duration; location; degree; direction; the past; age; ability; possibility; permission; degree