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Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important arts because, as noted previously, from the
earliest times it has been necessary to mark boundaries and divide land.
Surveying has now become indispensable to our modern way of life. The results of today’s surveys are
used to
(1) map the Earth above and below sea level;
(2) prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land, and at sea;
(3) establish property boundaries of private and public lands;
(4) develop databanks of land-use and natural resource information that aid in managing our
environment;
(5) determine facts on the size, shape, gravity, and magnetic fields of the earth; and
(6) prepare charts of our moon and planets.

Definition of Surveying
Surveying (geomatics). has tradicionally been defined as the science, art, and technology of determining
the relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the Earth's surface, or of establishing such points.

 Surveying is the art of determining the positions of points on or near the earth's surface by
means of measurements in the three elements of space; namely, distance, direction and
elevation - Rayner and Schmidt

 Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distance between objects, of measuring
angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines. And the establishing points by
predetermined angular and linear measurements- Davis, Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail.

 Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above, on, or beneath
the Surface of the earth, or establishing such points - Brinker and Wolf.

 In a more general sense, however, surveying (geomatics) can be regarded as that discipline
which encompasses all methods for measuring and collecting information about the physical
earth and our environment, processing that information, and disseminating a variety of resulting
products to a wide range of clients.

Forest Surveying- is an art of measuring horizontal and vertical distance and angles in the forest land,
locating points and other details, natural or artificial marks for forest mapping

The work of the surveyor consists of 5 phases:

I. DECISION MAKING selecting method, equipment and final point locations.
2. FIELDWORK & DATA COLLECTION-making measurements and recording data in the field.
3. COMPUTING & DATA PROCESSING - preparing calculations based upon the recorded data to
determine locations in a useable form.
4. MAPPING OR DATA REPRESENTATION- plotting data to produce a map, plat, or chart in the proper
form.
5. STAKEOUT - locating and establishing monuments or stakes in the proper location in the field.

History of Surveying
1. Herodotus recorded that Sesostris (about 1400 BC)
divided the land of Fgypt into plots for the purpose of
taxation.
2. Greek Eratosthenes was among the first to compute
the true size and shape of the Earth in 200 BC.
3. Hero (Heron) in about 120 BC stands out prominently
for applying science to surveying by developing the
science of geometry.
4. Sextus Julius Frontinus in the It century AD was the
engineer of public works for Rome and his writings on
surveying was best-known during his time.
5. One of the oldest Latin manuscripts in existence is the
Codex Acerianus, written in about 6th century AD.
6. Von Piso (13th century AD) wrote Practica Geometria, which contained instructions on surveying. He
also authored Liber Quadratorum.
7. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the art of surveying advanced more rapidly. The need for maps and
locations of national boundaries caused England andFrance to make extensive surveys requiring
accurate triangulation; thus, geodetic surveying began.
8.The U.S. Coast Survey (now the National Geodetic Survey of the U.S. Department of Commerce) was
established by an act of Congress in 1807.
9. Developments in surveying and mapping equipment have now evolved to the point where the
traditional instruments that were used until about the 960sor 1970s-the transit, theodolite, dumpy
level, and steel tape-have now been almost completely replaced by an array of new "high-tech"
instruments.
General Classification of Surveying
Geodetic surveying-The type of surveying that takes into account the true shape of the earth. These
surveys are of high precision and extend over large areas.

2. Plane surveying -The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a
plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard to horizontal distances and directions.

types of Surveys

I. Cadastral Surveys
2 City Surveys
3. Construction Surveys
Forestry Surveys
5. Hydrographic Surveys
6. Industrial Surveys
7. Mine Surveys
8. Photogrammetric Surveys
9. Route Surveys
10. Topographic Surveys

Units of Measurements
 The Meter (Metric System) or SI
 The international unit of linear measure is the meter.
 Formulated on May 20, 1875
 I,650,763.73 wavelengths of red-orange light produced
by burning the element Krypton -86 (1960)
 Length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of l/299,792,458 of a second (1983)
 The English System- Effective January 1, 1983 the
English System was officially phased out in the
Philippines and only the modern metric system was
allowed to be used. Metric conversion or change-over
was signed into law on December 1978 by former
President Ferdinand E. Marcos

1 foot 12 inches
I yard = 3feet
1 inch = 2.54centimeters (basis of international foot)
1 meter = 39.37inches (basis of U.S. survey foot)
I rod=1 pole = l perch = 16.3 feet
1 vara = approximately 33 inches (old Spanish unit often encountered in the southwestern United States
1 Gunter's chain (ch) = 6feet = 100 links (lk) = 4rods
1 mile = 5280 feel = 80 Gunter's chains
I nautical mile = 6076.10 feet (nominal length of a minute of latitude, or of longtude at the equator)
1 fathom = 6 feet.

Field of survey party

1. Chief of Party
2. Assistant Chief of Party
3. Instrument man
4. Technician
5. Computer
6. Recorder
7. Head Tapeman
8. Rear Tapeman
9. Flagman
10. Rodman
11. Pacer
12. Axeman/Lineman
13. Aidman
14. Utilitymen

Error and Mistakes

Error
-is the difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity.
-is a deviation of observation or computation from the true value beyond the control of the one
performing the operation.
Mistakes
Are inaccuracies in measurements due to carelessness, inattention, poor judgment and improper
execution.
-It is also caused by misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience or indifference of the surveyor.
-Ex. Tape man may read number on tape as 6 when it should be 9 or 48.6 m reading and 46.8 was
recorded
Types and Sources of Errors
Systematic Error
-this type of error is one which always have the same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions
remain constant and unchanged.
-will repeat itself in other measurements, still maintaining the same sign and thus will accumulate.
-Also called cumulative error.
Accidental/ random errors
-these errors are purely accidental in character.

Sources of errors

1. Instrumental Error – these are errors due to imperfections in the instrument used either from faults
in their construction or from improper adjustments between different parts prior to their use.

Example:
a) Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
b) Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly
spaced
c) Sighting on the rod which is warped
d) Improper adjustment of plate bubbles of a transit or level.

2. Natural Errors – these are errors caused by variations in the

phenomena of nature such as changes in magnetic declination,
temperature, humidity, wind refraction, gravity and curvature of
the earth.

Example:
a) The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.
b) Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in magnetic declination.
c) Error of measurement of the line with a tape being blown sidewise by a strong wind.
d) Error in the measurement of horizontal distance due to slope or uneven ground.

3. Personal Errors – errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of sight, touch and hearing of
the human observer which are likely to be erroneous or inaccurate.

Accuracy – indicates how close a given measurement is to the

absolute or true value of the quantity measure
Precision – refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any physical measurement
is made. It is portrayed with the closeness to one another.
What is a triangle
▪ A triangle is a polygon with three edges and three vertices. It is one of the basic shapes in geometry.
▪ The sum of angles in any triangle is 180

Sample problem
The observed interior angles of a triangle are A= 35°14’37’’, B= 96°30’09’’, C=48°15’05’’. Determine the
discrepancy for the given observation and the most probable value of each angle.

Given:
A, B, and C = vertices of triangle ABC
n= 3 (number of observed angles)
Solution:
a) Determining the Correction to be applied.
Sum1= A + B+ C= 35°14’37’’ + 96°30’09’’+ 48°15’05’’
=179°59’51’’ (sum of the observed interior
angles of triangle ABC)
Sum2=(n-2) 180° = (3-2) 180°
= 180°00’00’’ (the correct sum for the interior angles of a three
sided figures)

Discrepancy= ± (sum2-sum1)
= ± (180°-179°59’51’’)
= +09’’ (discrepancy in the observation)

Corr= disc/n
= +09’’/3
= +03’’ (correction to be added to each observed angle)

b) Determining c) the Solution MPV Check:

A1= A ± Corr
A1 = 35°14’ 37’’ + 03’’
A1 =35°14’40’’ (most probable value of angle A) A1 + B1 + C1= Sum2
35°14’40’’ + B1 =96°30’12’’ + 48 °15’08’’ = 180°00’00’’
B1= B ± Corr= 180°00’00’’
80°00’00’’
B1 =96° 30’09’’(Note: Since the quantities
+ 03’’ solution is
are equal, the above
B1 =96°30’12’’ (most probable value correct)
assumed on an angle B)
 C1= C ± Corr
C1= 48 ° 15’ 05’’ + 03’’
C1 =48 °15’08’’ (most probable value on an angle C)

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

The accurate determination of the distance between points on any surface is one of the basic operations
in plane surveying.
There are several methods of determining distance. The choice depends on the purpose for which the
measurement is intended, the required precision, the cost and other conditions.

Different Methods of Linear Measurement

1. Distance by Pacing
2. Distance by Taping
3. Distance by Tachymetry
4. Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Methods
5. Distance by Mechanical Devices
6. Distance by Photogrammetry

1. Distance by Pacing
 Pacing – method or process of counting the number of steps or paces in a required distance.
Suitable only in situations where low precision of measurement is sufficient. • Moving with
measured steps; and if the steps are counted, distances can be determined if the length of a
step is known
 Pace – defined as the length of a step-in walking, it may be measured from heel to heel or from
toe to toe.

Pace Factor – the length of one’s pace.

Formula: PF = MD/AP
where: PF = Pace factor
D = Measured Distance
AP = Average number of Paces
Ex. Line AB = 45 m
Trials = 6 times (50, 53, 51,53,52,53 paces)
AP = 52 paces
PF = 45 m / 52 paces
PF = 0.865 m/pace
Formula: PD = PF x AP
Where: PD – Paced Distance (m)
PF – Pace Factor (m/pace) Relative Precision
AP – Average number of paces RP = (MD-PD)/MD
Ex. Line CD is paced by Mr. Ramos Where: RP – Relative Precision
Trials = 6 times (771, 770, 768, 770, 772, 769 paces) MD – Measured distance (m)
AP = 770 paces PD – Paced Distance (m)
Ex. MD = 667.0 m
PD = 666.1 m
RP = (667.0 – 666.1)/667.0
= 0.9/667.0
RP = 1/741 say 1/700
PF = 0.865 m/pace
PD = 0.865 m/pace x 770 paces
PD = 666.05 m
2. Distance by Taping
 The most common method of measuring or laying our horizontal distances by the use of a
graduated tape.
 Consists of stretching a calibrated tape between two points and reading the distance indicated
on the tape
 Chainman – the person undertaking measurements.

3. Distance by Tachymetry
 An indirect method of measurement which is based on the optical geometry of the instruments
employed.
 Employs transit or a theodolite to determine subtended intervals and angles on a graduated rod.
 Distance are computed by trigonometry.
 Performed either by the stadia method or subtense bar method.

a. Stadia Method
• Introduced by James Watt of Scotland in 1771.
• Consists of a telescope with two horizontal hairs called stadia hairs and a graduated rod called a stadia
rod.

D = Ks + C
where: D – horizontal distance
K – stadia interval factor
s – stadia interval (difference bet upper and lower stadia hairs)

Example:
A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up at A.
the upper and lower stadia hair readings were observed as 1.300m and
0.900m, respectively. If the stadia interval factor (K) is 100, and the instrument constant (C) is zero,
determine the length of line AB.
D = Ks + C
= 100 (1.300-0.900) + 0.0
D = 40.0 m (length of AB)
b. Subtense Bar Method
 Subtense bar is a convenient and practical device used for quick and accurate measurement of
horizontal distances.

Tan (£/2) = (S/2) / D and D = (S/2)/Tan (£/2)

so, formula: D = 1 / Tan (£/2) where: D – horizontal distance
Example:
The following subtended angles were read on a 2-m long subtense bar using a theodolite: a.) 0°54’13”,
b.) 0°22’20”, c.) 0°32’05”, and d.) 0°19’46”. Compute the horizontal distance from the theodolite to each
position of the bar. Answer: a.)126.81 m b.) 307.86 m c.) 214.30 m d.) 347.83 m

4. Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Methods

 Unknown distances may be determined through their relationship with known distances
geometrically.
 A method widely employed in plane table surveys, and in triangulation work.

Formula: MS = MD/GD
where: MS – Map scale MD – Map distance GD – Ground distance
Example:
A map with a scale of 1:10,000 was used in delineation of a forest reserve. Based on the map, Point A
lies about 34 cm away from Point B. What is the actual distance of B from A?
Answer: 3,400 meters

5. Distance by Mechanical Devices

1. Odometer – a simple device that can be attached to a wheel for purposes of roughly measuring
surface distances.
2. Measuring wheel – more flexible and self-contained measuring device. Consists of a small
wheel attached to a rod handle, and can be pushed by an operator.
3. Optical rangefinder – a device usually hand-held or mounted on a small tripod, and used to
determine distance simply by focusing the lenses.

6. Distance by Photogrammetry
 It refers to the measurement of images on a photograph.
 Specialized photographs taken from aircraft with the axis of the camera pointed vertically
towards the terrain photographed.
 Precision of about 1/3000 to 1/5000
 Slope Taping

Example:
A measurement is made along a line that is inclined by a vertical angle of 15°25’ as measured using a
hand level and clinometer. The slope measurement is 756.52 m. what is the corresponding horizontal
distance?
Solution:
d = s Cos Ѳ
= 756.52 Cos (15°25’)
d = 729.30 m

Composition of Taping Party

• Head Tapeman – the person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear measurements
with the tape.
• Recorder – keeps record of all measurements, sketches , and observations taken during the
process of measurement.
• Flagman – the person whose duty is to hold the range pole at selected points.
• Rear Tapeman – the person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman during a taping
operation.

The Procedure of Taping

1. Aligning the Tape
2. Stretching the Tape
3. Plumbing
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths
5. Tallying Taped Measurements
6. Measuring Fractional Lengths
Breaking tape Slope taping

Example:
A measurement is made along a line that is inclined b a vertical angle of 15°25’ as measured
using a hand level and clinometer. The slope measurement is 756.52 m. what is the corresponding
horizontal distance?
Solution:
d = s Cos Ѳ = 756.52 Cos (15°25’) = 729.30 m

Corrections in Taping
Taping operations could either be of the following:
• Taping to determine an unknown length, or
• Taping for the purpose of laying out a required or specified length.
Regardless of which of these two categories is involved, there are some corrections which are applied to
the original measurements to determine the correct and more accurate length.
• Corrections to taping are applied by the use of the following rules:

Rule 1: When a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”, the corrections are applied to the
observed length by adding.
Rule 2: When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too long”, the
corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the corrected length to be laid out.
Rule 3: When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short”, the corrections are applied
opposite to those stated in the first two rules.

Equations
Corr = TL – NL
Cl= Corr (ML/NL)
CL= ML ± Cl
Where:
Cl= total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid out

ML= measured length or length to be laid out

NL= nominal length of tape
CL= corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out
Example:
The length of line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 465.285 m. When the tape is compared with
a standardized invar tape it is found to be 0.016 m too long in almost the same conditions of support,
tension, and temperature that existed during measurement of the line. Determine the correct length of
AB.

Given: NL = 50 m Solution: Cl= Corr (ML/NL)

ML = 465.285 m = 0.016 (465.285/50)
Corr= 0.016 m = 0.149 m
L= 465.285 + 0.149
= 465.434 m (correct length of AB)

Example #2

A rectangular lot was measured using a 50 m steel tape which was found to be 0.025 too short.
If the recorded length and width of the lot are 180.455m and 127.062 m respectively, determine the ff
a) Actual dimension of lot
b) Error in area introduced due to the erroneous length of the tape
Solution
Given: a) Determining Actual dimension of lot
NL= 50 m (nominal length of tape used) Cw= Corr (W/NL) = 0.025 m (127.062 m/50 m)
Corr= 0.025m (correction per tape, with tape being to Cw= 0.064 m (total correction applied to the width)
short) CL= Corr (L/NL) = 0.025 m (180.455 m/50 m)
W= 127.062 m (measured width of lot)
L= 180.455 m (measured length of lot) CL = 0.090 m (total correction applied to the length)
WI= W ± Cw = 127.062 m – 0.064 m
b) Determining Error in Area
WI= 126.998 m (correct width of lot)
AREA = L x W = 180.455 (127.062 m)
LI= L ± CL = 180.455 m -0.090 m
= 22,928.973 sq.m (area of the lot based on uncorrected
LI = 180.365 m (correct length of lot)
dimensions)
AREAI= LI X WI = 180.365 m (126.998 m)
= 22,905.994 sq.m (area of the lot based on corrected dimensions)
Error = AREA – AREAI
= 22,928.973 sq.m - 22,905.994 sq.m
Error= 22.979 sq.m (Error in the area introduced due to erroneous length of tape)

Exercise #1
A steel tape whose nominal length is supposed to be 30 m long was found to be 30.02m long
when compared with an invar tape during standardization. If the rectangular lot measured with that
tape was recorded to be 220 m by 450 m, what is the actual dimension of the lot? Determine the error
in square meters.
Surveys with Tape

1. Erecting Perpendicular To Line

a. Chord-Bisection Method b. 3:4:5 Method

2. Measuring Angles With Tape

3. Laying Off Angles With Tape

4. Determining Obstructed Distances

The use of tape is not necessarily limited to the measurement of

distances…
◦ Erecting perpendicular to a line
◦ Measuring angles
◦ Laying off angles
◦ Determining obstructed distances
◦ Locating irregular boundaries, and
◦ Determining areas of different shapes.

What is an Angle?
An angle is defined as the difference in direction between two convergent lines.
A horizontal angle is formed by the directions to two objects in a horizontal plane.
 A vertical angle is formed by two intersecting lines in a vertical plane, one of these lines horizontal.
A zenith angle is the complementary angle to the vertical angle and is formed by two intersecting lines
in a vertical plane, one of these lines directed toward the zenith.
Meridians
 The direction of a line is usually defined by the horizontal angle it makes with a fixed reference
line or direction.
 In surveying, this is done with reference to a meridian which lies in a vertical plane passing
through a fixed point of reference and through the observer’s position.
 There are four types of meridians: true, magnetic, grid and assumed.

True Meridian
 Known as the astronomic or geographic meridian.
 It is the generally adapted reference line in surveying practice.
 It is a line that passes through the geographic north and south
poles of the earth and the observer’s position.
 Not parallel with each other…
 Remains permanent and unchanged regardless of time…
 This meridian is used for marking the boundaries of land.
 True North

Magnetic Meridian
 Is a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the magnetic
lines of force of the earth.
 Its direction is defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle of
a compass held at the observer’s position.
 Not parallel with true meridians…
 Not permanent and not fixed…
 Employed only on rough surveys where a magnetic compass is
used for determining directions.
 Magnetic North

Grid Meridians
 Is a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a
system of plane rectangular coordinates.
 One central meridian is selected…
 Applicable only on plane surveys of limited extent.
 Assumed that all measurements are all projected to a horizontal
plane and that meridians are parallel lines.
 Grid North

Assumed Meridian
 Is an arbitrary chosen fixed line of reference which is taken for convenience.
 Usually the direction from a survey station to an adjoining station or some well defined and
permanent point.
 Difficult to re-establish if the original reference points are lost or obliterated…
 Assumed North
Units of Angular Measurement
1. Degree – the sexagesimal system is used in which the circumference of a circle is divided into 360
parts or degrees…
2. Grad – is the unit of measure in the centesimal system in which the circumference of a circle is
divided into 400 parts called grads.
3. Mil – the circumference is divided into 6400 parts called mils, or 1600 mils equals to 90 degrees.
4. Radian – another measure of angles used frequently for a host of calculations.
Circumference is equal to 2π Rad

Examples:

1. Conversion of an angle to decimal degrees. Convert the angle 238°25’50” into its equivalent decimal
degrees.
2. Conversion of an angle to degree, minutes, and seconds. Convert to degrees minutes and seconds the
decimal angle 325.7541667 degrees.
3. Conversion from degrees to grads, mils and radians. Convert 270° into its equivalent value in grads,
mils, and radians.

Solutions
1. Angle = 238°25’50” (Where Deg = 238°, Min = 25’, and Sec = 50”)
Decimal Equivalent
= Deg + Min/60 + Sec/3600
= 238° + 25’/60 + 50”3600
= 238° + 0.4167° + 0.0139°
= 238.4306°

2. a) Deg = 325.7541667° (decimal degree)

D= 325° (Integral portion of the angle in degrees)
b) Min = (Deg-D)(60’/deg)
= (325.7541667°-325°)(60’/deg)
= 45.250002’ (decimal minutes)
M= 45’
c) Sec = (Min-M)(60”/min)
= (45.250002-45)(60”/min)
= 15.00012”
S= 15”
Therefore: 325°45’15”

3.a) Angle in Grads = 270°(400g/360°) = 300g

b) Angle in Mils = 270°(6400mils/360°) = 4800mils
c) Angle in Radians = 270° (2 π rad/360°) = 4.7124 radians
Types of Measured Angles
➢ Measuring distances alone in surveying does not establish the location of an object. We need to
locate the object in 3 dimensions. To accomplish that we need:

❖Horizontal length (distance)

❖Difference in height (elevation)
❖Angular direction.

➢ In surveying practice, angles are measured as:

❖Interior/Exterior angles
❖Deflection angles
❖Angles to the right/left

Interior Angles
 The angles between adjacent lines in a closed polygon are called interior angles…
 When value is greater than 180 degrees, it is referred to as a re-entrant angle…
 In closed polygon, the sum of interior angle is equal to (n-2) 180°, where n is the number of sides.

Deflection Angles
 Angle between the line and the prolongation of the preceding line.
 Maybe turned to the right (clockwise) or to the left (counter clockwise) and it is always necessary to
append the letters R and L to the numerical value to define the direction in which the angle has been
turned.
◦ Right deflection (R or +)/Deflection angle to the right
◦ Left Deflection (L or -)/Deflection angle to the left
 In a closed polygon, the algebraic sum of deflection angles should always equal to 360°

Angles to the Right

 Angles that are measured clockwise from the preceding line to the succeeding line…
 Also referred to as azimuths from back line…

Direction of Line
 Direction of a line is defined as the horizontal angle the line makes with an established line or
reference.
 It is read either as:
◦ Bearing
◦ Azimuth

Bearing
 Is the acute horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the line…
 It never exceeds 90°
 The direction of any line measured in degrees from the North or South towards East or West
 Either N or S precedes the bearing angle followed by E or W after the given value of angle. It can’t be
done the other way around.

Quadrantal System

➢ For defining bearing

➢ Used to specify bearings such a line may fall under one of the following quadrants; NE, SE, NW, and
SW.
➢Each quadrant is numbered 0 to90 degrees from either north or south end of the meridian to the east
or west of the reference parallel.

When the bearing of a line is observed in the direction in which the survey progresses, it is
referred to as forward bearing; if the bearing of the same line is observed in an opposite direction, it is
called the back bearing

Azimuth
 Is the horizontal angle measured from the meridian to the line.
 The azimuth of the line is its direction as given by the angle between the meridian and the line
measured in a clockwise direction from either the north or South branch of the meridian. It may range
from 0 to 360 degrees and letters are not required to identify quadrants.
 Zero azimuth is either always north or always south

 In practice, azimuths are generally measured from the north branch of the reference meridian for
ordinary plane surveys. For large scale geodetic surveys, azimuths are measured from the south branch
of the meridian.
Any line established on the earth’s surface has two azimuths – forward and back azimuth. Depending on
which end of the line is considered, these directions differ by 180 degrees from each other since the
back azimuth is the exact reverse of the forward azimuth.
Rules in determining back azimuth from forward azimuth
 Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180 degrees, subtract 180 degrees to obtain
the back azimuth. ( If FA >180 – 180 = BA)
 Rule 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180 degrees, add 180 degrees to determine
the back azimuth. (If FA <180 + 180 = BA)

Compass
 a hand-held instrument for determining the horizontal direction of a line with reference to the
magnetic meridian. It is constructed to allow a magnetized needle to swing freely on a pivot at
the center of a graduated circle and point toward magnetic north.
 has been widely used for navigation for many centuries
 the only practical instrument in measuring directions and horizontal distances in the earlier land
surveys prior to the invention of transit
 no longer used on surveys that requires higher degree of precision since accurate
measurements cannot be expected from it, however, it is still employed in reconnaissance and
preliminary surveys, in timber cruising and exploratory surveys, etc. because of its portability

Essential features of a compass:

❖ Compass Box - has a horizontal circle which graduated from 0 to 90 degrees in each quadrant. Index
marks are placed at the North and South markings and the 90-degree marks at the East and West
markings on the circle.
❖ Line of Sight - fixed along the index mark on the north graduation of the circle.
❖ Magnetic Needle - made of magnetized tempered steel balanced at its center on a jeweled pivot so
that it swings freely in horizontal position. An arrow is usually marked on the north end of the needle
and its south end often has an adjustable small counterweight made of fine wire.
Types of Compasses:
1. Brunton Compass – one of the most versatile and widely used; it combines the main features of a
prismatic compass, sighting compass, hand level, and clinometer. When used, such can be mounted on a
tripod or Jacob staff or just held on one’s hand.
2. Lensatic compass – its name is derived from the magnifying lens which is mounted in the eyepiece;
the lensatic compass was designed for military use whose north point on its magnetic needle is
luminous. Cardinal points (N, S, E, & W) and other markings on the begel crystal are also luminous for
reading in darkness.
3. Surveyor’s compass - popularly used earlier for runninglimited plane surveys or reasonable accuracy.
It is now commonly used for forest surveys, in retracing old land surveys, and in geological explorations.
Can be mounted on a light tripod or a Jacob staff.
4. Plain pocket compass – this type of compass is similar to the surveyors’ compass, except that it has
no sight vanes. It is a small hand instrument used for obtaining roughly the bearing of a line.
5. Prismatic compass – with this type of compass, graduations are found on a rotating card instead of
being on the compass box. Some prismatic compasses are filled with liquid and hence are referred to as
liquid compasses. Liquid prismatic compasses have been widely used by sailors for navigation at sea.
6. Forester’s compass – made of aluminum or some type of metal which does not affect the free
movement and positioning of the magnetic needle. It may be hand-held or supported on a staff or tripod
when used in the field. Such type of compass is best suited for forestry surveys as well as for geological
and other similar exploratory surveys.
7. Transit compass – the engineer’s transit has a compass box which is similar in construction to
surveyor’s compass. This box is mounted on the upper plate of the transit and often used to check
horizontal angles and directions measured or laidoff during surveys.

Magnetic Declination
❖ Magnetic poles are not points but oval areas located about 2,000 km away from the actual location of
the geographic poles of the earth.
❖ These areas are not fixed…
❖ The horizontal angle and direction by which the needle of a compass deflects from the true meridian
at any particular locality is called the Magnetic Declination

Compass Surveys
The method of compass surveying is one of the most basic and widely practiced methods of
determining the relative location of points where a high degree of precision is not required. Such
surveys, which employ a magnetic compass, are performed by traversing.
Common terms in compass surveys:
 Traverse – a series of lines connecting successive points whose lengths and directions have
been determined from the field measurements.
 Traversing – a process of measuring the lengths and directions of the lines of a traverse for
the purpose of locating the position of certain points.
 Traverse station – any temporary or permanent point of reference over which the instrument
is set up. It is usually marked by a peg or hub driven flush with the ground and identified by
consecutive letters or numbers as the survey progresses. Traverse stations are sometimes
called angle points because an angle is usually measured at such stations.
 Traverse lines – are lines connecting traverse stations whose lengths and directions were
determined.

Types of Compass Surveys

1. Open Compass Traverse – consists of a series of lines of known lengths and magnetic bearings which
are continuous but do not return to the starting point or close upon a point of known position.
2. Closed Compass Traverse – consists of a series of lines of known lengths and magnetic bearings which
forms a closed loop, or begin and end at points whose positions have been fixed by other surveys of
higher precision.