Agricultural Power and Energy Sources

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AE BOARD EXAM REVIEWER
AGRICULTURAL
POWER AND
ENERGY
SOURCES
by
Engr. Alexis T. Belonio

Department of Agricultural Engineering and
Environmental Management
College of Agriculture
Central Philipppine University
Iloilo City
TGIM Review Center

Institute of Agricultural Engineering
Manila
2004
Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

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OUTLINE
Units of Conversion
Introduction
Heat Engine
Internal Combustion Engine
External Combustion Engine
Agricultural Tractors
Fuel and Lubricants
Human Power
Animal Power
Biomass Energy
Solar Energy
Windpower
Hydro Power
UNITS OF CONVERSION
1 mi = 5280 ft 1 KW = 0.860 Kcal/hr
1 in = 2.54 cm 1 BTU = 252 Cal
1m =3.28 ft
1mi = 1.609km
1 kg =2.2 lb
1,000kg = 1ton
1N = 1 kg-m/s
1 hp = 746 Watts
= 33,000ft-lb/min
1W = 1J/s
= 3.413 Btu/h
1 hp-hr = 2545 BTU
1055 J = BTU
1 Cal = 4.19 J
1 ft-lb =1.36 J
1 kW-hr =3.6 MJ
1 gal = 3.785 li
Chapter I - INTRODUCTION
Energy – the capacity for doing work
Power – ability to act or produce an effect; capacity for being acted upon or undergoing an effect
Forms of Energy
1. Heat energy
2. Mechanical Energy
3. Electrical Energy
4. Chemical Energy
5. Sound Energy
Sources of Energy
1. Human Power (manpower)
2. Animal Power (Draft animals)
3. Heat Engine (Internal combustion engine and external combsution engine)
4. Biomass Energy (Direct combustion, gasification, carbonization, biofuel)
5. Wind energy (Windpump, wind turbine)
6. Hydro Energy (Micro, Mini)
7. Solar energy (Solar thermal, photovoltaic)
8. Geothermal
9. Ocean Thermal Energy
Chapter II - HEAT ENGINE

An engine that uses heat energy from fuel to generate mechanical power for any useful purposes such as
driving machines and for electrical power generation.
Major Classification
1. Internal – It burns fuel and air inside the cylinder of the engine
2. External – It burns the fuel and air outside the cylinder of the engine
Classifications of Internal Combustion Engine

1. Piston or Reciprocating
2. Rotary
3. Gas turbine
4. Jet Engine
5. Rocket Engine

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Classification of External Combustion Engine
1. Steam Engine (rotary, piston)
2. Stirling Engine
Classifications of Piston Engine

1. According to Ignition
a. Electric-Spark Ignition
b. Fuel Injection Ignition
2. According to Fuel
a. Gasoline Engine
b. Kerosene Engine
c. Heavy or Light Oil Engine
d. Gas Engine
3. According to Thermal Mechanics
a. Constant Volume Cycle – Otto cycle engine: combustion takes place by rapid
explosion of air fuel mixture within the cylinder when ignited by spark
b. Constant Pressure Cycle Engine –combustion takes place by slow burning when fuel
is injected into highly compresses and heated air contained in the cylinder
4. According to Practical Cycle
a. Four Stroke Cycle Engine– One power per two revolution of the crankshaft
b. Two-Stroke Cycle Engine – one power per revolution of the crankshaft
5. According to Numbers of Cylinders
a. One-Cylinder Engine – only one piston and cylinder
b. Two-Cylinder Engine – there are more than one piston and cylinders
6. According to the Direction of Cylinder
a. Horizontal Type Engine
b. Vertical Type Engine
7. According to Disposition or Arrangement of Cylinders
a. Linear Type Engine
b. Opposite Type Engine
c. V, W, X, H Type Engine
d. Star Type Engine
8. According to Cooling System
a. Water Cooled
b. Air Cooled
c. Water and Air Cooled
9. According to the Crankshaft Speed
a. Low Speed (800 rpm and below)
b. Medium Speed (700 to 2500 rpm)
c. High Speed (1000 rpm and above)
10. According to Action
a. Single Action
b. Double Action
11. According to Use
a. Farm
b. General land
c. Marine
d. Generator or Dynamo
Chapter III - INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

A heat engine that burns fuel and air inside a combustion chamber located within the engine proper.
A machine use to power tractors, combine harvesters, and other self-propelled equipment
Uses of ICE
1. provides power for mobile equipment such as tractors, power tillers, and self-propelled
equipment
2. provides power for stationary equipment such as pumps
3. provides power for gerators for the production of electricty in the farm
Classifications of ICE
1. According to Ignition of Fuel
a. Spark-Ignition Engine
(1) uses a spark to ignite fuel
(2) gasoline is use as fuel
b. Compression-Ignition Engine
(1) Uses high compression to raise the temperature of the air in a chamber and
ignites the injected fuel without spark
(2) Diesel is use as fuel
(3) Higher compression ratio and leaner combustion can deliver up to 40% better
fuel economy than similarly loaded SI engine
2. According to Number of Stroke
a. Two-Stroke Cycle Engine
i. Produces power in one revolution of the crankshaft
ii. Uses crankase as air pump to compress fuel
iii. No valves
iv. Engine lubricating oil is mixed with fuel

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v.High power to mass ratio
vi.Use for special application
vii.More difficult to start-up
viii.Erratic idling
ix.Poorer fuel economy
x.It uses mechnically drien blower to pressurized air in Ci engine which
enters the combustion chamber via slots in the cylinder wall
xi. Engines runs smoothly and efficiency as four cycle CI engines
xii. The added cost of blower is the only disadvantage
b. Four Stroke Cycle Engine
i. Produces power in two revolution of the crankshaft
ii. Has four piston strokes to completely produce one power
iii. Valves are provided for admitting air to CI engine, or airlfuel mixture to SI
engines, and for expelling gase.
4 Stroke 2 Stroke
Number of Explosion 1 for 2 revolution of 1 for 1 revolution of the
crankshaft crankshaft
Power for the same Small Large about 1.5 times of 4
cylinder volume stroke
Valve mechanism Present Absent
Constructio Complicated, expensive Simple, cheap
Fuel consumption Little Much about 15% loss
Wear Little Much because there are inlet
or exhaust opening in cylinder
wall and gas flows through
them
Durability good poor
3. According to Number of Cylinders
a. Single-Cylinder (One piston)
b. Multiple-Cylinder (More than one piston 3, 4, 6, 8, 12)
4. According to the Drive Shaft Position
a. Horizontal Drive Shaft – Drive shaft is in horizontal position while the piston is
upward position
b. Vertical shaft – The drive shaft is vertical position while the piston is in sideward
position
5. According to Crankshaft Speed
Ignition system Low Speed Middle Speed High Speed
spark Less than 800 r.p.m. 800 – 2,500 r.p.m. more than 2,500 r.p.m.
injection Less than 700 r.p.m. 700 – 1,000 r.p.m. more than 1,000 r.p.m.
6. According to Method of Cooling

a. Air cooled – for small single cylinder engine
b. Water cooled – large- multicylinder engines
Basic Component Parts of ICE

1. Cylinder Head – It houses the valves, spark plug or fuel injector, and serves as cover of the
cylinder block
2. Cylinder Block – It encloses the piston and confines the expanding gases
3. Valves – It allows the flow of fuel, air, or exhaust gases
4. Piston - It is a hollow cylinder with closed top upon which the expanding gases act and
transmit force to the crankshaft
5. Crankshaft – converts the reciprocating motion of the piton to rotary motion
6. Connecting rod – connects the piston from the crankshaft
7. Piston ring – lubricate and seal the piston (oil ring and compression ring)
8. Spark plug or fuel injector – provides ignition for gasoline engine or spray fuel for diesel
engine
9. Crankcase – encloses the crankshaft and the gear drives
10. Oil pan – contains the oil for lubricating the engine
11. Dip stick – used for measuring the amount of oil in the crankcase
12. Governor – automaticall controls engine speed
13. Flywheel – stores energy created by the piston needed for successive rotation of the
crankshaft
14. Carburator – mixes the right amount of fuel and air
15. Fuel Tanks – serves as fuel storage
16. Muffler – reduce the sound produced from the engine during combustion of fuel
17. etc
Engine Subsystems
1. Ignition System – responsible for supplying heat for combustion of fuel
2. Fuel System – responsible for supplying fuel in the combustion chamber
3. Starting System – responsible to starting-on the engine
4. Cooling System – responsible to keep the temperature of the engine lower
5. Exhaust System – responsible to discharge combustible gases from the combustion chamber
6. Transmission System – responsible for transfering the power generated from the combustion
chamber to the drive shaft

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Engine Terminology
1. Bore – size of the opening of the cylinder almost equal to the the diameter of the piston plus
the rings
2. Stroke – distance traveled by a piston from the TDC to the BDC
3. Top Dead Center (TDC) – the uppermost position of the piston during the compression and
exhaust stroke
4. Bottom Dead Center (BDC) – the lowest most position of the piston during the intake and
power stroke
5. Engine Displacement – voluem displaced by the piston in one stroke
6. Clearance volume – colume in the combustion chamber when the piston is at the TDC
position
7. Compression Ratio – ratio of the toral volule oto the clearance volume
8. Mean Effective Pressure – average amount of pressure genrated during the power stroke of the
piston.
9. Indicated Hrosepower - the power generated at the combustion chamber
10. Brake Horsepower – power available at the drive shaft or crankshaft of the engine
11. Friction horsepower – power loss due to frictio of the piston andother component parts fo the
machine
12. Rated horsepower – power specied by the manufacturer
13. Mechanical Efficiency – ratio of the brake horsepower to the indicated horsepower
14. Firing Order – sequence of delivering the power stroke by the piston in multi-cylinder engine
15. Specific fuel consumption – amount of fuel consumed per brake horsepower of the engine
Cycle of Events
1. Intake Stroke – fuel and air or air alone is suck in the combustion chamber as the piston moves
in downward direction
2. Compression Stroke – fuel and air or air is compressed by the piston as it moves in upward
direction
3. Power Stroke – fuel and air is ignited to produce power at the downward movement of the
piston and transmitted it into the crankshaft of the engine
4. Exhaust Stroke – burn fuel and gases is discharged from the combustion chamber
Four Stroke Gasoline Engine (Two crankshaft rotation to produce power)

Intake (Downward stroke) - fuel and air mixture enters
Compression (Upward stroke) - fuel and air is compressed
Power (Downward stroke) - spark plug ignites fuel and produced power
Exhaust (Upward stroke) - burned gases is discharged fro9m the cylinder
Four Stroke Diesel Engine (Two cranshaft rotation to produce power)

Intake (Doward stroke) - air enters the combustion chamber
Compression (Upward stroke) - air is compressed by the piston to raise its temperature
enough to burn the fuel
Power (Downward Stroke) - fuel is injected to produce power
Exhaust (Upwards stroke) - burned gases is discharge
Two Stroke Gasoline Engine (Only one rotation of the crankshaft to produce power)
Upward stroke - Compression
Downward stroke - Power, Exhaust, and Intake
Firing Order
It is the sequence of movement of the piston as it produces power
No. of Cylinder Order of Firing

2 1–2
3 1–2–3
4 1 – 2 – 4 – 3 and 1 – 3 – 4 - 2
6 1–5–3–6–2–4
Compression Ratio
1. Small gasoline engines usually have a compression ratio of 4:1
2. Most gasoline engine has compression ratio of 6:1
3. Genrally gasoline engine has lower compression ratio of about 3:1 to 7:1
4. Diesel engine has higher compresion ratio of 13:1 to 17:1
5. Actual operation of a diesel engine reaches a compressiion pressure of 410 psi and combustion
pressure of 925 psi and combustion temperature of 1280 C.
6. Small gasoline engine has a compression pressure of 75 to 125 psi.
Fuel Injection
A fuel feeding method for most diesel and newer models of gasoline engines where high-pressure
electric pump mixes precisely measured amount of filtered fuel and air. The mixture of fuel and
air is then sprayed into the cylinders by fuel injectors
b. Direct Fuel Injection
1. has about 8 to 10% better fuel economy the indirect fuel injection
2. commonly used in newer design of compression ignition engine
c. Indirect Fuel Injection

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1. more fuel tolerant which accommodates fuels with a wider range of viscosities and
cetane rating
d. Injection of diesel fuel usually starts at 28 deg BTDC and ends at 3 deg ATDC
Turbochargers
This uses heat from exhaust gases to power a turbine that forces additional air and fuel into the
cylinders when the engine is running at high speed providing a power boost of up to 30 percent. A
gate directs exhaust gases to the turbo charger when extra power is needed and away from the
turbo charger once maximum power has been achieved.
Supercharger
They do the same with the turbo charger except that they are engine driven rather than exhaust gas
driven.
Indicated Horsepower
IHP = (PLANn) / (33,000 c)
Where: IHP - indicated horsepower, hp
P - mean effective pressure, psi
L - length of stroke, in
A - area of cylinder, in2
N - crankshaft speed, rpm
n - number of cylinders
c - 2 for four stroke and 1 for two stroke engine
Piston Displacement
PD = [( π D2 )/4 ] L n
Where: PD - piston displacement, in3
D - piston diameter, in
L - length of stroke, in
n - number of cylinders
Compression Ratio
CR = (PD + CV) / CV
Where: CR - compression ratio
PD - piston displacement, in3
CV - clearance volume, in3
Brake Horsepower
BHP = IHP – FHP
= ξe IHP
where: BHP - brake horsepower, hp
IHP - indicated horsepower, hp
FHP - friction horsepower, hp
ξe - engine efficiency, decimal
Fuel Equivalent Power
Pfe = [Hf mf ] 3600
Where: Pfe - fuel equivalent power, kW
Hf - heating value of fuel, kJ/kg
Mf - rate of fuel consumption, kg/hr
Comparison of Properties of Common Engine Fuel
Fuel Density Higher Heating Stoich

Kg/liter Value kJ/kg Air-Fuel Ratio
Gasoline 0.735 47,600 15.2
No. 1 Diesel 0.832 45,700 15.0
No. 2 Diesel 0.834 45,500 15.0
Air Handling Capacity

Ma = 0.03 Ve Ne ρa ηv
Where: ma - air handling capacity, kg/hr
Ve - engine displacement, liters
Ne - engine speed, rpm
ρa - density of ambient air, 1.19 kg/me
ηv - air delivery ratio, 0.85 for naturally aspirate CI engine and wide open throttle
SI engine; 2.0 or more for turbo charge engine
Engine Specification
It gives the physical features and performance characteristics of an engine in terms of power, fuel
consumption, and efficiency
Brand ACME Ducati Honda Robin

Model AON 48W IS 7 GX 160 EY 15 D
Type 4-stroke vertical 4-cycle vertical 4-cycle air cooled, Air cooled, 4 cycle gasoline,
air cooled diesel air cooled gasoline horizontal horizontal, PTO shaft
shaft
Bore x Stroke 85 mm x 85 mm 75 mm x 78 mm 68 mm x 45 mm 63 mm x 46 mm
Displacement 482 cc 345 cc 163 cc 143 cc
Output Power 11.3 hp/3000 rpm 7.5 hp / 3200 rpm 5.3 hp/3600 rpm 3.5 hp/4000 rpm
Maximum 2.52 kg-m/2058 1.1 kg-m/2500 rpm 0.68 kg-m/2800 rpm
torque rpm

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Ignition system Direct injection Transistor
Maximum fuel 2.66 li/hr 193gts/hp-hr 240 g/hp-hr
consumption
Dry Weight 55 kg 48 kg 14 kg 13.2 kg
Engine Performance Curve

1. It gives the characteristics of an engine in terms of the power, fuel consumption, and torque
for a given operating speed
2. It is useful for the selection of engine and for choosing desireable operating points for an
engine.
3. can be useful in planning the installation and use of an engine
Brand and Made of Some Engines

Engine Made
ACME Engines ACME Motori S.PA 31049 Valdobbiadene, Travisoo, Italy
Honda Engines Honda Motor, Co. Ltd. Tokyo, Japan
Kohler Engines Kohler Co. Koohler, Wisconsin, 53044 USA
Kubota Engines Kubota, Ltd 2-47 Shikitsuhigashi 1- chome, Nanuaku, Osaka, Japan
MAG Kerosene Engine Motosacoche SA, Geneva, Switzerland
Mitsubishi Katsura Diesel Mitsubishi Heavy Ind., Ltd Taiwan, Republic of China
Engine
Robin Engines Fuji Heavy Industries LTd. Engine and Machinery Division, Subam Building 1-7-2
Nistru-Shinjuku-ku
Tokyo 160 Japan
Yanmar-Yeh Hsing Diesel Yanmar Group Yeh Shing Industrial Machinery Co., Ltd. No. 106 1-sec, Chung Hsiao,
Engine W. Road, Taipei
Ducati Air Cooled Diesel Ducati Meccanica S.P.A. VIA A.C. Ducati, 3 Borgo Panigele – 40100, Italy
Engine
Factors to Consider in Selecting Engine

1. CI engines are a good choice in situtation where the maintenance and repair infrastructure is
limited.
2. SI engine require more frequent tune-ups
3. CI engines canoperate for long periods witn minimsal maintenance beyond regular oil
changes and maintenance of fuel cleanliness.
4. Indirect injectio type engines tolerate wider variatio infuel viscosity and cetane rating the
direct injection CI engine
5. Air cooled CI eninge eliminates the maintenance required for liauid cooling systems
General Rule in Clearances in Engine Parts

1. Spark plug - 0.02 inch to 0.04 inch.
2. Compression Ring – 0.003 inch for every inch diameter of the cylinder bore
3. Oil Ring - 0.002 inch for every inch diameter of the cylinder bore
4. Piston to cylinder wall clearance – 0.001 for every inch diameter of piston
Chapter IV - EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Heat engines that burns the fuel outside the cylinder.
1. Steam Engine
a. They are heat engines that uses pressurized steam from a boiler to drive piston.
b. They convert heat energy from burning fuel into mechanical energy.
c. Pressurized steam from a heated boiler expands in the cylinder and forces the piston
to along the cylinders
d. A connecting rod and crank turn back and forth motion of the piston into a rotation
of a shaft.
2. Steam Turbine
a. A heat engine that uses expanding steam to make a shaft rotate at ah high speed.
b. It has the advantage over piston engines in that they produce rotational motion
directly rather than needing a connecting rod and crank to turn a shaft.
c. They runs more smoothly than piston engines and are more efficient and requires
lesser space at the same power
3. Stirling Engine
a. It is a perfectly balanced one-cylinder engine.
b. The working gas (e.g. hydrogen) heated by by an external source flows back and for
between the cold space and the hot space
c. The tandem displacer and the power pistons drives two yokes that are linked to twin
connecting rods which in turn drive two output shaft in opposite directions
d. The yoke-rod arrangement also regulates the stroke timing of the pistons.
Chapter V - AGRICULTURAL TRACTOR

Definition
1. A machine used primarily for traction or pulling an implement.
2. A versatile machine and a mobile power source for wide variety of agricultural task.
3. A machine that can deliver both stationary and mobile jobs.
5. A machine that can pull or tow implement through traction from the drive wheel and or pull
implement through the draft developed from its drawbar hitch or power implement through it
PTO drive.

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Functions of Tractors
1. Pulling machines behind it
2. Pushing machine in front of it
3. Operating machine mounted on it
3. Transmitting power to other machines through the PTO drive
4. Raising, lowering, and controlling machines and attachment by its hydraulic power
Advantages of Tractors
1. Can work continuously at heavy load
2. Not affected by bad weather
3. Adapted to draft, belt, and PTO work
4. Has considerable range of working speed
5. Little attendance required when not in use
5. Quickly available when needed in an emergency
6. Requires small storage space
Disadvantages of Tractors
1. Limited overload capacity
2. Requires cash expenditures for fuel and lubricants
3. Requires some mechanical skill for successful operation
4. Inflexibility of size of power unit for economical power production under some condition.
Classifications of Tractors
1. Use
a. Farm or Agricultural
b. Forestry
c. Earth working
d. Industrial
e. Military
2. Farm Tractor
a. Standard
b. General Purpose, All purpose, Utility, Row Crop
c. Special
d. Orchard, vineyard, Lawn
3. Running Gear
a. Wheel (Two wheel,Tricycle, Four Wheel)
b. Crawler, Track Layer
c. Semi Crawler, Half Track)
4. Type
a. Walking, Garden
b. Riding
c. Tool Carrier
d. Tandem
e. Two Way
f. Compact, mini
g. Large, Extra Large, super large
h. Frameless, Unit construction
i. Frame, chassis construction
5. Drive
a. Rear, wheel drive
b. Four wheel drive (unequal wheel, four even large wheel)
6. Steering
a. Front wheel
b. Rear wheel
c. Articulated frame
d. Four wheel
e. Crab
f. Front axle
g. Skid Steering
7. Engine
a. Diesel
b. Gasoline
Brief Description of Agricultural Tractors

1. Compact Tractor – A four-wheel tractor of less than 20 hp. They are used for landscaping and
gardening rather than massive agricultural task. They are equipped with single 12-in
moldboard plow and capable to plow 1 hectare for 11 to 14 hours.
2. Farm Tractor – A four-wheel tractor with no less than 20 brake horsepower. They are used for
massive agricultural tasks such as plowing, harrowing, seeding and planting, and other
operations.
Construction and Main System of Tractor

1. Engine
a. Cylinder, cylinder head
b. Piston, piston ring, piston pin
c. Connecting rod
d. Crank shaft, crank gear, timing gear, fly wheel

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e. Valve system (valve, cam gear, cam shaft, push rod, rocker arm fuel system (fuel
tank, fuel pipe line, fuel transfer
f. pump, fuel filter, injection pump, injection nozzle; for gasoline - carburetor, choke
valve, throttle valve)
g. Electric system (ignition system for gasoline engine, generating system, starting
system, battery and lighting system)
h. Cooling system (radiator, water pump, water jacket, fan, thermostat, pipe
connection)
i. Lubricating system (Oil pump, oil line, oil gauge, filter)
j. Governor system
(a) Centrifugal governor - controlled by centrifugal force on weight
(b) Hydraulic governor - controlled by hydraulic pressure from pump
(c) Pneumatic governor - controlled by negative air pressure in suction
(d) Electronic governor - controlled by electro-magnetic force.
Power Performance
Drawbar power = 0.75 to 0.81 x net engine power
= 0.92 to 0.93 x axle power
= 0.86 to 0.89 x power take off horsepower
Power take off power = 0.87 to 0.90 x net engine power
= 0.90 to 0.92 x transmission power
Axle power = 0.85 to 0.89 x transmission power
= 0.94 to 0.96 x power take off horsepower
Transmission power = 0.96 to 0.98 x net engine power
Turbo Charge of Tractor Engine

Increases the output of the tractor engine by about 20%.
Functions of Power Transmission and Power Take-off System

1. transmit engine power to the wheel axle and PTO shaft
2. change the engine torque and speed into high torque and low speed required by wheels and
PTO shaft
Clutch - drive used to contact and disconnects the tractor engine from its power train so that the gear can be
shifted or the tractor can be stopped without stopping the engine
Differential - special arrangement of gears so that it will permit one driving member to rotate slower or
faster than the other and permit operation of driving wheels at different speed for easy turn
Differential lock - improve its traction and to keeps it direction stable during running condition
Final drive - gear reduction located in the power train between the differential and the driving wheels and
transmits power of low speed and large torque to the rear axle and wheels
Power Take-Off Shaft (PTO)

- used for driving field machines such as rotary tiller, hay baler, corn picker, and in stationary
position such as self-unloading forage wagon, irrigation pumps and others
- PTO standards
PTO Shaft Speed Spline Shaft Diameter Number of Splines
(Rpm) (mm)
540 35 6
1000 35 21
1000 45 20
Classifications of Hitch System and Controls

1. Drawbar hitch type - for large, heavy implement or trailers
a. fixed type
b. swinging drawbar
c. link drawbar
2. Semi-mounted type - for planter, cultivator, etc.
3. Direct mounted or integral type - three point hitch system
4. Direct connected type - for rotary tiller
Wheel Type
1. Rubber tire - pneumatic tire or solid tire
2. Steel wheel - lug wheel, cage wheel
3. Auxiliary - strike, girdle, half track, float lug, additional wheel, wheel weight
4. Drive - rear wheel, four wheel drive
Inflation pressure of tractor tire ranged from 1.5 to 2 kg/cm2 for front tire and 0.8 to 1.3 kg/cm2 for rear
tire.
Drawbar Pull
- one of the most important factors in the performance of the tractor
- plowing and other land preparation, and transport operations are affected by the drawbar
performance of the tractor.

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- affected by the wheel slip and the engine power
- affected by the tractor weight and type, the type and shape of the running gears or wheel, condition
of the ground surface, inflation pressure of tires, and others.
Coefficient of traction ranged from 32-75% depending on the condition of the ground
while wheel slip ranged from 5 to 16%
Running Resistance
- sum total of all the resistance acting on the tractor
- includes the rolling resistance for the soil surface, air resistance, acceleration resistance, slope
resistance, etc.
R = Cr x W
where: R - rolling resistance, kgf
Cr - coefficient of rolling resistance, 0.01 to 0.4 for wheel type and
0.05 to 0.12 for crawler type
W - weight of tractor, kgf
Engine output, axle power, PTO power and mechanical efficiency of tractors
Pw = ξm Pe
PPTO = ξm Pe
where: Pe - engine power, kw
Pw - wheel axle power, kw
PPTO - PTO power, kw
ξm - mechanical efficiency, 0.75 to 0.95
Wheel axle torque, thrust, drawbar pull, and rolling resistance of tractors
T = 1000 N / 2π n
where: T - wheel axle torque, N-m
n - rpm of wheel axle, rpm
N - wheel axle power, kw
Wheel axle power, wheel axle power, and traction efficiency of tractors
Pd = Pw - Pl = Pw - (Ps + Pr)
where: Pd - drawbar power or effective power, kw
Pl - lost power, kw
Ps - lost power by slip of wheel, kw
Pr - lost power by rolling resistance, kw
Traction efficiency, ξd
ξd = Pd/ Pw
where: ξd - traction efficiency
Pd - drawbar power, kw
Tractor Standard Specification

1. Tractor Model
2. Transmission
3. Engine
a. Bore and stroke
b. No. of cylinders
c. Displacement
d. Speed Rpm
e. Compression Ratio
4. Chassis
a. Type
b. Tire size (front and rear
c. Weight Tested
Tractor Size
1. Weight – The heavier the tractor the bigger is its capacity.
2. Horsepower – Higher tractor horsepower, the bigger is its size and can be capable to do wider
operation.
3. Implement Capacity – The more the tractor can draw implement, the bigger is its size and the
faster it can finish the operation.
Chapter VI - FUEL AND LUBRICANTS
Fuels used in agricultural engines are made from crude oils.

Crude oils are composed of hydrogen and carbon and are called hydrocarbons. Each hydrocarbon has
definite specific gravity and boiling point.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

1. LPG consists of propane or butane
2. Properties of LPG Fuel
Substance Density Boiling Temp. Octane Member
(g/cm3) (°C) (Research)
Methane - -125 110
Ethane 0.374 -53 104
Propane 0.508 -8 100

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Butane 0.584 0 92
Pentane 0.631 36 61
3. LPG is used as engine fuel but the fuel supply system for LPG engines differs from that of the
gasoline engine.
Liquefied Natural Gas

1. Natural gas is used directly as it comes from the oil well without being subjected to any
complex refining or purifying process. It consists largely of methane and other hydrocarbon
gases.
Gasoline
1. Gasoline is a product of distillation of crude oil.
2. Classification
a. Natural gas gasoline - is manufactured from the gas that issues from oil well or is
obtained in the distillation of the crude oil.
b. Straight-run gasoline or raw gasoline - is produced by the distillation of crude oil.
c. Cracked gasoline - is manufactured from heavier distillation particularly gas oil.
d. Blended gasoline - consists of all types of natural raw or cracked gasoline and are
mixed together in the refining process.
Properties of Gasoline and Engine Performance
1. Volatility
2. Antiknock property (octane number) - index to resist detonation during combustion.
3. High octane number is necessary for high compression ratio and high performance engines.
4. With a gasoline engine, raising the octane number improves engine performance by allowing
the compression ratio to increase, thereby increasing the power and efficiency of the engine.
5. Tetraethylead compound is an additive used to raise octane number and is the most popular
gasoline knock suppressor. The amount added to gasoline is less than 0.3 m/li.
6. Corrosion - Sulfur compounds are corrosive to metals.
7. Existent gum - Fuels have a tendency to form viscous liquids or solids called gum. The
presence of large quantities of gum usually causes intake valve sticking and heavy intake
manifold deposits.
8. Gravity - The gravity of a fuel is usually expressed in API (American Petroleum Institute)
degrees.
API = (141.5 / Specific gravity at 15 C) - 131.5
(Specific gravity of gasoline is 0.69-0.77)
Fuel for Two-Cycle Gasoline Engine

1. The fuel for two-cycle gasoline engine is a mixture of the gasoline and lubricating oil (ratio
approximately 15-20 gasoline: 1 lubricating oil).
Kerosene
1. Kerosene is a heavier product of the distillation of crude oil than gasoline.
2. Density = 0.78 - 0.84 g/m3
3. Octane Number = 30 - 40
4. Spark ignition engine cannot start by only a kerosene fuel because the initial point of kerosene
is higher than gasoline.
5. Gasoline is used as a start up fuel for kerosene engine.
Gas Oil or Diesel Fuel

1. Diesel fuel includes the heaviest oils used in internal combustion engine.
2. Density = 0.82 - 0.89 g/cc
3. Ignition characteristics (cetane number) takes place in three stages: i.e., ignition lag, burning
during injection, and burning after injection. Excessive ignition lag results in the accumulation
of unburned fuel which when subjected to high pressure and temperature may detonate giving
rise to the diesel knock.
4. In the diesel engine, the desirable value of cetane number is necessary to obtain a good ignition
quality of fuel. High cetane fuel permits an engine to be started at lower temperature.
5. Relative high viscosity is important for diesel fuel because it must furnish the lubrication for
the injection pump and injection pump and injector.
6. The lowest temperature at which the fuel ceases to flow is known as pour point.
Lubricants
1. The primary purpose of lubrication is to reduce friction and wear between metal surfaces.
Other functions are for cooling, sealing, and cleaning.
Engine Oil (Motor Oil)

1. The most important physical property of lubricating oil is the viscosity. It is the internal
resistance of fluid as one layer is moved in relation to another layer.
2. Lubricating oil is classified in two ways.
(a) SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) - constitute a classification for lubricating
oil in terms of viscosity only.
(b) Based on equality
(1) Viscosity Index - Viscosity of oil varies inversely with temperature. It is
express as the variation in viscosity with a change in temperature of oil at
which the vapor flashes momentarily is called the flash point and that
which a flame constitute for approximately 5 seconds is called the fire
point.

12
(2) Flash and fire point - When an oil is heated, vapor is given off fast enough
to burn if contact with a spark or flame. The temperature of oil at which the
vapor flashes momentarily is called the flash point and that which a flame
constitute for approximately 5 seconds is called the fire point. In general,
oil having the high flash and fire points have high boiling points. Flash
points of engine oils are 120 - 350 °C.
(3)Carbon residue - A lubricating oil often has a tendency to form carbon
deposit in the engine.
Additives
1. The properties of lubricating oils ca be altered by the use of additives.
Principal Additives and their Action

Antioxidants Organic compounds increase the resistance of an oil to oxidation and thereby
reduce the formation of certain acidic products that may cause the corrosion of
certain types of bearing.
Anticorrosives Certain compound containing sulfur, phosphorous, or nitrogen may be added to
an oil for the purpose of forming a protective film on the bearing surfaces thus
preventing corrosion from any acids present in the oil
Detergents Certain compounds prevents the building up of carbons and gummy or
carbonaceous deposits on the piston and under the rings or on other engine
parts.
Dispersants Certain chemicals cause any finely divided insoluble particles of carbon to
remain in suspension in the oil rather than to separate out and form sludge
deposits.
Extreme pressure Under certain conditions of high pressure and temperature, an ordinary lubricant
agents even with high viscosity will not provide sufficient oil film between the metals
surfaces to control wear.
Form inhibitors Some types of engine oils have a tendency to absorb air when agitated
vigorously, this forming a form. Certain chemicals accelerated the rate of
breakdown of the form but may not actually prevent forming.
Pour point Certain chemicals improve their pour point characteristics, even though the
depressants lubricant has not been fully dewaxed in the refining process.
Viscosity index Under certain conditions it is found desirable to use oil whose viscosity does not
improvers increase excessively at low temperatures. Chemicals have been found which aid
in retarding the tendency to thicken as the temperature drops.
Engine oil should be purified mineral oil or oil containing additives and having
suitable quality as lubricating oils.
The API Service Classification for Diesel Engine

Classification Definition
CA Light-duty diesel engine service
Service typical of diesel engines operated in mid to moderate duty quality fuels.
CB Moderate-duty diesel engine service
Service typical of diesel engines operated in mild to moderate duty with lower
quality fuel which necessitate more protection from wear and deposits.
CC Moderate-duty diesel and gasoline engine service
Service typical lightly supercharged diesel engines operated in moderate to
severe duty.
CD Severe-duty diesel engine service
Service typical of supercharged diesel engines in high-speed, high-output duty
requiring highly effective control of wear and deposit.
Gear Oil
1. Gear oil is used for gear transmission lubrication.
2. The viscosity number for gear oils are as follows:
SAE Viscosity Number Kinematic Viscosity (100°C) mm2/s

Min Max
70W 4.1 -
75W 4.1 -
80W 7.0 -
85W 11.0 -
90 13.5 2.0
140 24.0 41.0
250 41.0 -
3. The API Service classification for gear are as follows:

GL-1 Low load and speed, moderate condition
GL-2 Service condition
GL-3 Heavy condition, transmission gear
GL-4 High torque, hypoid gear
GL-5 High speed, severe condition, automotive transmission

13
Hydraulic Oil (Working Oil)
1. Fluids which are in the hydraulic lifting devices and hydrostatic transmission of tractors and
other agricultural vehicles are the petroleum base oils. In general, lubricating oils, particularly
turbine oils and gear oils usually having viscosity range varying from SAE 5W to 20W are
used.
2. Properties commonly used hydraulic oils are:
Density (15 C) 0.865 - 0.885 g/cm3
Bulk modulus 1300 - 1700 Mpa
Flash point 200 - 260 C
Kinematic viscosity 322 - 36 mm2/s
(38 C)
Kinematic viscosity 5 - 5 mm2/s
(100 C)
Viscosity index 100 - 110
Specific heat 1.84 - 1.93 kJ/kg-K
Factors that Causes Deterioration of Oils

1. Airborne matter - some dust reaches the oil in the oil reservoir from air cleaner and crankcase
breather
2. Products of combustion - These substances include water, acids, and carbon.
3. Products of corrosion - Corrosive attacks on metal parts by the acids of combustion may cause
rust deposits to enter the oil.
4. Unburned fuel - This is due to incomplete combustion.
5. Metallic particles - This is as the result of wear.
Greases
1. Greases are semifluid or semisolid lubricants and are used primarily for moving parts when
pressure are high and for parts that are concealed or inaccessible such as wheel, bearings,
spring shackles, axle bearings, universal joints, and water pumps.
2. Grease is a mixture of a metallic soap and mineral oil. Certain chemicals maybe added to
provide stabilization, oxidation resistance, rust prevention, and other desirable characteristics.
3. Grease may be classified as follows:
Class Common Name Characteristics/Uses
Calcium Cup grease General purpose greases at temperature below 80 °C
and are water resistant at low temperature
Sodium Fiber grease Fibrous and well used to high speed and temperature.
Non water resistant and are used for wheel bearings
and universal joint.
Aluminum Motor or chassis grease Used for high speed gear lubrication
Lithium Multi-purpose grease
Chapter VIII- HUMAN POWER

Power Output
1. Human can develop a total power of 0.5 hp from the food he eats.
2. 0.1 Hp is available for useful work and the remaining is use for body functions.
3. Man at 20 years of age can generate 15% more power and less by 20% at 60 years of age.
Energy Requirement and Efficiency

1. Minimum energy requirement is 2000 cal per day.
2. Conversion efficiency is 25%.
3. Working efficiency decreases under hot and humid climate and effective to work under normal
condition.
Power Formula
Pg = 0.35 – 0.092 log t
Where: Pg - gnerated power, hp
T - time, min
Advantage and Disadvantages

1. Intelligence
2. Decision making
3. Manual dexterity
4. Low power available
5. Not competitive to animals
6. No much to engine as source of power
7. Not suitable as power source for repetitive jobs

14
Man-Hour Requirement per Hectare of Various Agricultural Operations
Operation Person-hr/ha
Tillage with hoe 100 – 300
Water buffalo plowing flooded soil 30 – 60
Water buffalo comb harrowing 40 – 60
5 hp power tiller plowing wet woil 20 – 40
Broadcasting 3.3
Hand weeding transplanted rice 120 - 320
Harvesting rice with sickle 60 -80
Number of Pesons Needed for Operation

No of person = Man-hour per ha x No. of hectares (ha) / Operating time (hr)
Time to Finish Work
Time (hr) = No. of persons / [Man-hour per ha x No. of Hectares]
Area Covered
No. of Hectares = [No. of Persons x operating time in hours]/ [Man-hour per ha]
Chaper VIII - DRAFT ANIMALS
Advantages
1. Great reserve power for emergencies and temporary loads.
2. Use feed that is largely produced in the farm.
3. Flexible in size of power unit.
4. Practically adapted to all draft work.
5. Fairly good traction in wet or loose ground.
6. Can be produced in the farm.
7. Provide a relatively deep cheap type of power in area where there are surplus of both grain
and roughages.
Disadvantages
1. Require feed and care when not working.
2. Work at heavy load limited to short period.
3. Require frequent resting period.
4. Cannot work efficiently in hot weather.
5. Working speed is limited and relatively low.
6. Not efficient for stationary work.
7. Require a relatively large amount of time for feeding, harnessing, and care.
Draft Animals
1. Draft animals are large domesticated four-footed animal that is used for power in agriculture.
2. Primary draft animals includes:
a. Oxen
b. Water Buffalo
c. Horses
d. Mule
e. Camels
f. Donkey
Animal Ave. Weight Approx Pull Ave Speed Power Developed

(kg) (kg) (m/s) (hp)
Light Horse 400-700 60-80 1.0 1.0
Bullock 500-900 60-80 0.60-0.85 0.75
Buffaloes 400-900 50-80 0.80-0.90 0.75
Cows 400-600 50-60 0.70 0.45
Mules 350-500 50-60 0.90-1.00 0.70
Donkeys 200-300 30-40 0.70 0.35
Advantages of Draft Animals Compared to Tractor

1. They can feed itself
2. They can maintain itself
3. They can be trained for automatic control
4. They can reproduce by itself
Animals Performance Efficiency

1. Animal’s performance efficiency varies from 9-10% for bovines and 10-12% for horse
family.
2. Generally draft animal force is approximately 10% of the body weight.
3. Of all the draft animal, horse has the highest output.
4. Animals can work varies within 8 to 10 hours for horse and5 to 8 hours for adult oxen.
Uses of Animals
1. Land preparation such as plowing and harrowing
2. Pumping of water for irrigation
3. Transport such as hauling
4. Milling operation

15
Characteristics Affecting the Performance of Animals
1. Breed
2. Weight
3. Sex
4. Age
5. Health
6. Training
7. Quality of Feed
Draft Power Mechanics

1. A draft animal supplies useful power by exerting a pull at a certain speed.
2. The Magnitude of pull exerted by the animal depend on the load and the method of attaching
the animal of animals to the load.
3. The maximum pulling capacity of the animal depends on the several factors such as the breed,
sex, age, health, nutrition, training, ground condition, etc.
Pull Formula
P = [WL1u] / [(L+h2u) cos θ + L2 u sin θ ]
Where: P - pull, kg
W - weight of animals acting at CG, kg
θ - angle of line of pull, deg
L - horizontal distance between front and rear foot, m
L1 - hporizontal distance between front foot and CG of the animals, m
L2 - horizontal distance of the neck load point from the front foot, m
H2 - height of the neck load point from the ground, m
u - coefficient of friction between the hoof and ground surface
Power Formula
DHP = F V / 76.2
Where: DHP - draft horsepower, hp
F - draft, kg
V - animal speed, m/s
Harnessing Animals
1. Animals are harnessed singly or in multiple numbers to match the pulling capacity or load.
2. Generally, pulling efficiency decreases with the number of animals harnessed together.
3. Horses are harnessed in several numbers while oxen are mostly harnessed in pairs.
4. A poorly designed or ill-fitting harness reduces the power available from the animals and
make it suffer physically.
Harnessing Factor
No. of Animals Factor
1 1.0
2 1.9
3 2.5
4 3.1
5 3.5
6 3.8
Animal Draft
Draft = No. of animals x specific draft x harnessing factor
Chapter IX - BIOMASS ENERGY

Conversion Proceses
1. Direct combustion
2. Carbonization
3. Gasification
4. Digestion
5. Alcohol Production
Direct Combustion
Cookstoves
1. Improved Cookstove – pertains to the solid biomass fuel burning system in which heat is
produced by combustion for immediate use in domestic cooking.
2. Improved Stove – pertains to a solid biomass fuel burning system which can be used for
numerous application such as cooking, food preservation/drying, domestic heating, and other
heating operations.
3. Biomass Fuel – denotes solid biomass either in a straw or processed form that includes
fuelwood, charcoal, agri-residues, briquettes, and others.
Uses of Biomass Stove

1. Boiling – It is the process of raising the temperature of the mixture of food in water at 100 C
and then allowed to simmer until the exothermic reaction in the food is completed.
2. Frying – It is a short duration high power input process generally between 200-300 C using
cooking oil.

16
3. Baking – It is the process which is accomplished in an oven or in an open pan at a relatively
high temperature of about 130ºC through convection and radiation from the oven wall or by
conduction in an open pan.
4. Grilling – It is the mode of cooking where heat is transferred to the food primarily through
radiation from the charcoal fuel or heated metal plate and to some extent through convection.
5. Steaming – It is a process where the operating temperature during cooking process is nearly
to boiling temperature.
6. Presure Cooking – It is similar to boiling except that the temperature is considerably above
the boiling point of water.
Classifications
1. According to Function
a. Mono Function – It can be used for one purpose only.
b. Multi-Function Stove – It can be used for several applications such as broiling,
steaming, grilling, etc.
2. According to Number of Burners
a. Single-Burner Stove – One burner with one fire box
b. Double-Burner Stove – Two burners with one fire box
c. Triple-Burner Stove – Three burners with one fire box
3. According to Materials of Construction
a. Metal Stove – This is fabricated using surplus steel material. Other are prefabricated
by casting metal.
b. Fired-Clay Stove – This is made of clay stove that is fired in the clean.
c. Clay Stove – This is made of clay and not fired from a kiln. Stove is hardened
naturally during operation.
d. Brick Stove – This is made primarily from brick material and are usually stationary
of fixed type.
e. Cement Stove – This is constructed from locally formulated refractory cement which
is a mixture of cement, sand, and rice husk ash.
4. According to Portability
a. Fixed Stove – They are usually big in sizes and heavy in construction. This kind of
stove has several numbers of burners and one fire box.
b. Portable Stove – They are small in size and light in weight
5. According to Fuel
a. Wood Fuel Stove – Uses dried wood as fuel
b. Charcoal Stove – Uses wood charcoal as fuel.
c. Granular Agri-waste Stove – Uses husk, pods, shells as fuel.
d. Dung Fueled Stove – Uses animal dung such as carabao, cow, and similar material as
fuel.
e. Briquette Stove – Uses briquetted agro-waste as fuel.
Fuel Heating Value

Fuel Heating Value
Bagasses 19.37 – 19.50 MJ/kg
Coconut Shell 8,6630 BTU/lb
Corn Cob 15.23 – 15.58 MJ/kg
Cotton Stalk 17.85 – 18.26 MJ/kg
Peanut Hull 7,378 BTU/lb
Rice Husk 13.24 – 13.26 MJ/kg
Wood 15,500 KJ/kg
Wood Charcoal 11,786 BTU/lb
6. According to Type of Grate

a. Flat-Grate
b. Step-Grate
c. Center-Tube
d. Conical Grate
7. According to Method of Supplying Air

a. Natural
b. Chimney
c. Force Fan or Blower
Basic Component Parts of Stove

1. Fire Box – It is here the combustion of fuel take place. This should be optimized to
accommodate fuel with minimal heat loss.
2. Pot Hole or Rim It is where the pots are positioned in the stove. For multi-burner stove, well
fitted rim should be provided to minimize draft loss.
3. Chimney – It serves as the suction device for the stove. The bigger and higher the chimney
the greater is the suction.
4. Baffles – It is an obstruction introduce in the flow passage below the second, third, or fourth
burner to divert the flow of heat directly to the bottom of the pot.
5. Connecting Tunnel – It is a passage or duct that connects the different pot holes. The size
and shape of these tunnels have a great influence on the combustion process.
6. Damper – It is used to control the flow passage of air supply and power output of the stove.
Usually, they are placed at the mouth of the fire box or at the bottom of the chimney.

17
Stove Efficiency
Stove Efficiency (%)
Wood Stove
Open Fire 3 - 11
Improved 11 – 30
Charcoal Stove
Unimproved 2– 9
Improved 4 – 12
Specific Energy Consumption Data

Paddy parboiling 0.4 kg of rice / 0.32 rice husk
Tobacco curing 5.0-7.0 kg straw / kg of process leaves;
6.6-8.7 kg fuel wood / kg of processed
leaves
Tea leaves processing 8.5 kg wood / kg dry leaves; 2 kg wood /
kg leaves
Bakeries 1.0-1.25 kg fuel wood / kg flour
Bricks 65-92 tons mixed fuel / 1,000,000 bricks
depending on size of wood
Pottery 0.7-1.0 kg fuel / kg of products
Lime 1.25 kg / kg of lime
Soap 1.0 kg / kg of soap
Smithies 1.1-1.5 kg / kg metal
Energy Requirement for Cooking

Food Specific Heat Temperature Total Cooking
(kJ/kg-C) (ºC) Energy
(kJ/kg)
Rice 1.76 – 1.84 80 330
Flour 1.80 – 1.88 80 330
Lentils 1.84 80 330
Meat 2.01 – 3.89 80 160-310
Potatoes 3.51 80 280
Vegetables 3.89 80 310
Combustion Process (Fuel, air, and heat are the factors that influences combustion. No burning of fuel will
occur if one is absent)
Factors Affecting Combustion of Fuel

1. Physical and chemical properties of the fuel
2. Fuel/air ratio – excess air of 1.5 to 2.0 is generally recommended
3. Temperature of the flame/envelope
4. Mode of fuel supply
5. Primary and secondary air supplies
Factors Responsible for the Higher Energy Requirement of Stove

1. Heat loss from stove body and flue gases due to inefficient heat recovery
2. Incomplete combustion
3. Large excess of air
4. More moisture in the fuel
5. Inappropriate size of the fuel
6. Lack temperature control
Factors Affecting the Rate of Fuel Consumed by the Stove

1. Type of fuel
2. Moisture contents in the fuel
3. Conversion efficiency of the stove
4. Type of the raw material to be processed
5. Quality and quantity of the product
6. Mode of operation
Design Power
Pd = 0.70 (PC + Pv)
Where: Pd - design power, KCal/hr
Pc - fuel power, KCal/hr
Pv - volatile power, Kcal/hr
Power Density
PD = FCR/Ag
Where: DP - power dentisty, kg/m2-hr
FCR - fuel consumption rate, kg/hr
Ag - grate are, m2
Flame Height
Hf = C P0.4
Where: Hf - flame height, mm

18
C - constant, 75 mm/KW with fire grate and 110 mm/KW without fire grate
P - power output, KW
Cooking Time
Tc = 550 Mf
Where: Tc - cooking time, sec
Mf - mass of food, kg
Overall Theraml Efficiency

ξo = [mcp(Tf-Ti) + We Hfg] 100 / [Wf HVF]
where: ξo - overall thermal efficiency, %
m - mass of water, kg
cp - specific heat of water, 1Kcal/kg-C
Tf - final temprature of water, C
Ti - initial temperature of water, C
We - weight of water evaporated, kg
Hfg - heat of vaporization of water, 540 KCal/kg
Wg - weight of fuel used, kg
HVF - heating value of fuel, Kcal/kg
Measuring Stove Performance

1. It permits comparison of various design features and technical aspect of the stove
2. It also provides the extent where modification should be made.
3. It provides understanding on how the stove and fire works.
4. It also stimulates design ideas and improvement needed.
Furnace
Uses - As source of heat for thermal systems:
1. Grain drying
2. Fruit dehydration
3. Fish drying
4. Kiln firing
5. Steaming
6. Water heating
Classifications of Biomass Furnaces

1. Flat Grate Furnace
2. Step-Grate Furnace
3. Center-Tube Furnace
4. Cyclone Furnace
5. Spouted Bed Furnace
6. Fluidized bed Furnace
Fuel for Biomass Furnace

1. Wood and Forest Residues (Twigs, bark, peat, sawdust, wood shavings, etc)
2. Agricultural Residues (Rice husk, sugar cane bagasse, etc)
Efficiencies of Various Biomass Furnaces

1. Incomplete combustion will produce significant amount of carbon in the fuel and will produce
high percentage of CO instead of CO2.
2. Production of carbon during combustion reduces the amount of heat produced and may cause
emission of toxic gases which is hazardous to health and in the environment.
3. Combustion process of fuel in the furnace requires an excess amount of oxygen to completely
burn the fuel within the reasonable period.
4. Preheating of combustion air can reduce fuel consumption.
Combustion and Stoichiometry

1. Combustion – It is a chemecal process to which one of the reactants is oxygen from the air
and the other is a fuel.
2. Complete Combustion – This is when all the combustible components are gasified and all the
carbon is burned to carbon dioxide, all the hydrogen is converted to water, and sulfur to sulfur
dioxide.
3. Stoichiometric Air – It is the theoretical amount of air required to burn a fuel completely to
product with no dissociation.
4. Percent Excess Air – It is the additional amount of air needed to achieve complete combustion
of fuel. It can be determined by the actual amount of air used minus the stoichiometric air. In
general, excess air of about 65-75% of the theoretical air is needed for complete combustion.
For biomass fuel, maximum excess is required.
5. Percent Theoretical Air – It is the amount of air actually used divided by stoichiometric air.

19
Stoichiometric Air Requirement of Some Biomass Fuel
Biomass Stoichiometric Air Requirement
Carbon (pure) 11.58 kg air per kg fuel
Corn Cobs 5.7 kg air per kg fuel
Corn Strover 4.0 kg air per kg fuel
Peat 7.3 kg air per kg fuel
Rice Husk 4.7 kg air per kg fuel
Wood 6.2 kg air per kg fuel
Classification of Air for Combustion

1. Primary Air – It is the air admitted to or with the fuel. In the case of solid fuel, air is pass
through the fuel bed while for gas or liquid, air is admitted and mixed the fuel prior to
combustion.
2. Secondary Air – It is the air fed into the furnace system which does not pass through the fuel
bed. Instead, it is use to further or completely burn volatile combustible gases. Excessive
amount of secondary air may dilutes air necessary for combustion and reduces heat transfer
efficiency.
Properties of Biomass Fuel

1. Bulk Density – It is the mass of loosely packed specified volume of biomass material. This is
important in the cost of transport and storage, and design of handling and conveying of furnace
systems. It is also a factor to take account in the design of combustion chamber.
2. Moisture Content – This is the amount of water contained in the fuel. Free moisture in the fuel
influences performance of the furnace. It must be taken into account in the design of the
combustion equipment to ensure that combustion chamber temperature are maintain within
limits at which combustion can take place without causing ash fusion and fouling
3. Proximate analysis
4. Ultimate analysis
5. Calorific Value
6. Ash Properties
7. Size
Properties of Some Biomass Fuel

Property Wood Rice husk Sugar cane bagasse
Volatile matter (%) 77.5 64.4 82.4

Fixed carbon (%) 17.5 12.6 15.5
Ash content (%) 2.0 20.5 2.1
Gross calorific 6710 64666 7930
value (BTU/1b)
Component Parts of a Furnace System

1. Fuel Storage
2. Feeding Mechanism
3. Combustion System
a. Combustion chamber
b. Fuel Stoker
c. Ash removal
4. Heat Exchanger
5. Flue Gas Outlet
Types of Combustor
1. Fluidized Bed – This system are suited for burning both large and small particulates wood waste and
agricultural residue and can operate with these fuel at relatively high moisture content. The system
comprise a combustion chamber containing a sand bed acting as the heat transfer medium. Particulate
biomass is introduced into the hot bed where it undergoes combustion.
2. Cyclonic – These are suitable to burn particulate waste wood and agricultural residues typically of
regular size and shape and relatively at low moisture content. The system comprises a cylindrical
chamber where the combustion air is introduce tangentially. The cyclonic regime of the combustion
promotes intimate mixing of suspended particulate residue allowing efficient combustion.
3. Grate – This is the most commonly used method. They are suitable for burning a wide range of biomass
material. The grate is designed to support the biomass fuel and allows air to circulate freely through it.
Important Factors to Consider in Biomass Furnace Design

1. Physical Properties of Fuel – This includes the bulk density, porosity, angle of repose, and
coefficient of friction of the fuel.
2. Fuel-Bed Temperature – Continuous burning of fuel in the furnace can be sustained when the
temperature at the bed approximates the kindling temperature of about 300 to 400 C.
3. Volume Change-Temperature-Time Relationship –It determines how long does the firing
chamber can hold the fuel for burning at a specified temperature. The rate of burning should
not be too short to cause consolidation of fuel or arching of material or too long to cause an
obstruction for airflow. Rice husk burn with about 60% of its volume remain in the form of
char or ash. Coconut husk and sawdust can be reduced to 25 to 28% of the original volume.
4. Air Requirement for Combustion – The chemical composition of the fuel directly related to
the amount of air required for combustion and the amount of product of combustion.

20
Fuel Consumption Rate
FCR = 100 Qt / [HVF ξs]
Where: FCR -amount of fuel consumed, kg/hr
Qt - total heat required for the system, KCal
HVF - heating value of fuel, Kcal/kg
ξs - overall thermal efficiency, %
Airflow Requirment
AFR = FCR SAR
Where: AFR - airflow rate required, kg air /hr
FCR - fuel consumption rate, kg fuel/hr
SAR - stoichiometric air requirment, kg air / kg fuel
Performance Evaluation
1. Heat output - It is the amount of heat energy that the furnace can deliver.
2. Fuel consumption rate – It is the amount of fuel that can be burned per unit time.
3. Furnace efficiency – It is the of heat energy that can be utilized from energy available from
the fuel.
4. Burning Efficiency- it is the amount of energy that is still available from the ash of from the
fuel that is burned.
5. Man-power requirement
6. Temperature at the inlet , chamber, and exhaust location.
Gasifier
1. It is the process of converting a solid carbon into combustible carbon monoxide by thermo-
chemical reaction of a fuel.
2. In complete combustion, the process takes place with excess air while in gasification, the
process takes place with excess carbon.
3. Gasification of solid fuel containing carbon is accomplished in an air sealed, close chamber
under slight suction or pressure relative to ambient pressure.
Composition of Producers Gas

Carbon monoxide (CO) 15 - 30%
Hydrogen (H2) 12 - 20 %
Methane (CH4) 0.5 – 7 %
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 3 – 15%
Notrogen (N2) 50 - 58
Principle of Gasification
1. Limited amount of air is introduced to the reactor of the gasifier and it passes through the fuel
column.
2. As the air passes through the column of fuel, thermo-chemical reaction takes place to produce
combustible gases.
3. The oxygen and the carbonized solid fuel reacts to produce carbon dioxide and heat.
Chemistry of Gasification
CO2 + C = 2 CO – 172,600 KJ Boudouard Reaction
CO2 + H2 = H2O + 41,200 KJ Water Shift Reaction
C + 2 H2 = CH4 + 75,000 KJ Methane Production
Gasification Process
1. Drying zone
2. Pyrolysis or distillation zone
3. Reduction or gasification zone
4. Oxidation or combustion zone
Equivalence Ratio – it is the ration of the amount of stoichiometric air needed to gasify fuel usually at the
range of 0.2 to 0.4
Applications of Gasifiers
1. Heat Application – Biomass fuel is converted to combustible gas and is consequently used as
source of heat for drying, kiln firing, etc.
2. Mechanical Power Generation for Steady Load – Biomass fuel is converted to combustible
gas, clean, and fed to internal combustion engine to run stationary pumps, rice mill,
generator, etc.
3. Mechanical Power Generation for Unsteady Load – Similarly, this convert biomass fuel in to
gas to fuel internal combustion engine to run vehicles such as trucks and tractors.
Types of Gasifier
1. Fixed Bed
a. Updraft – The gas stream flows in parallel direction with the fire zone. It has the
higher efficiency because the hot gas passes through the entire fuel bed and leaves
the gas producer at a low temperature.
b. Downdraft – The gas flow in opposite direction with the fire zone causing the
burning of tars before it leaves the reactor.
c. Cross-draft – The flow of the gas stream crosses the fuel bed and the direction of the
fire zone.
2. Fluidized Bed

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a. Bubbling – the solid particles behave like a boiling fluid but not trnasported by air
stream
b. Circulating – the gas velocity is higher and therefore part of the bed material leaves
the reactor vessel and tranported back to the reactor vessel via a cyclone and return
pipe
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Different Types of Gasifier

Type Advantages Disadvantages
Updraft Suitable for many biomass fuel Generate large amount of tar
Can gasify wet fuel Very large unit
Does not require any specific fuel
size
Downdraft Generates little amount of tar Require special device
Can be built very compact Cannot be built over 200 KW
Can be built for a very small gas electric output
output Fuel need to be well size
Crossdraft Very compact Sutiable for charcoal only
Highly suitable for small power Only for special prepared fuel
output Cannot gasifiy wet fuel
Good for changing load
Fluidized Highest gasificatio rate per m2 grate Generates tar
Bed area Only for small fuel particles
Ideal for small fuel particles Not well developed technology
Fuels for Gasifier
1. Wood Chips
2. Wood Charcoal
3. Agri-Residues
a. Rice Hull
b. Coconut shell
c. Peanut hull
d. Corn cobs
e. etc.
Fuel Factor Influencing Gasification

1. Energy content of fuel
2. Fuel moisture content
3. Size and form in which the fuel is gasified
4. Size distribution of the fuel
5. Bulk density of fuel
6. Volatile matter content of fuel
7. Ash content and chemical composition
8. Ultimate analysis of fuel
Basic Component Parts of Gasifier

1. Heat Application
a. Fuel Feeding System
b. Gas Reactor
c. Blower
d. Gas-Air Mixing Device
e. Burner
2. Power Generation
a. Fuel Feeding System
b. Gas Reactor
c. Gas Cleaning Train
d. Gas Cooling Component
e. Gas-Air Mixing Device
f. Internal Combustion Engine
g. Automatic Speed Engine Regulator
h. Alternator/Generator
i. Switch Board
Fuel Energy Requiremt, Kcal/hr

Qf = 100 Qd / ξg
Where: Qf - fuel energy required for gasification, Kcal/hr
Qd - energy demand for gaasification, kCal/hr
ξg - gasifier efficiency, usually 20%
Fuel Energy Required for Gasification for Power Generation
Qf = 100 Qd / ξg ξc]
Where: Qf - fuel energy reuired for gasification
Qd - energy demand for gasification, Kcal/hr
ξg - gasifier efficiency, usually20%
ξe - engine efficiency, 80-90% for diesel
N - engine efficincy, 80-90 % for diesel an50-70% for gasoline fuel
Diametre of Gasifier Reator
Dr = [ 1.27 Wf / SGR ]
Where: Dr - reactor diameter, m

22
Wf - weight of fuel, kg/hr
SGR - specific gasification rate, kg/m2-hr , 110-210 kg/m2-hr
Height of Gasifier Reactor
Hr = [To x FZR ] / 100
Where: Hr - height of the gasifier reactor, m
To - operating time, min
FZR - fire zone rate, 0.6 to 1.5 cm/min
Air Required for Gasification
Va = Wf SA
Where: Va - volume of air required for gasificatio
Wf - weight of fuel needed, kg/hr
SA - stoichiometric air, kg air/kg fuel
ε - equivalence ratio, 0.2 to 0.4
Conditioning Producer Gas

1. The gas leaving the producer gas consists of combustible and non-combustible gases.
2. Gases including tar from the reactor are corrosive and produces pollutants which may
seriously interfere the operation of a burner or an internal combustion engine.
3. Gases and other pollutants from the gasifier includes: (a) Sulphur compounds, (b) Nitrogen
Compounds, (c) Dusts, (d) moisture, and (e) tars or hydro carbons.
Cleaning Units for Gasifiers

1. Cyclone Separator – It is a dust collector without moving parts wherein the velocity of the
inlet stream is transformed into a confined vortex and separates the dust from the gas.
2. Scrubber - It cools and separates pollutants and the solid particles while it passes through a
spray liquid droplets.
3. Water or Oil Bath – It removes dust and particulates by allowing it to pass through the bed of
water or oil. The degree of removalis usually limited by oressure drop through the system.
4. Fabric Filter – It removes dust and particulates through mechanical screening using a cloth of
fabric material
Rules and guidelines in Using Gasifier for ICE

1. All three types of engine (gas, gasoline, and diesel) can be fueled with gasifier.
2. All diesel engine cannot operate on gasifier alone but must be mixed with diesel oil.
3. Due to the part behavior of a diesel engine, only 50 to 70% of the diesel oil can only be replaced by
gasifier.
4. The efficiency of ICE will not be changed much when fueled with gas.
5. The power output of the engine fueled with gasifier at an arbitrary rpm will decrease by 10 to20%
for dual fed diesel engine, and 30 to 50% for gasoline engine.
6. High speed engines are not as suitable with low speed engine.
7. In some cases such as charcoal gasifier engine system, it is advisable to advance the ignition of
engine to 15 – 30% before the top dead center
8. The choice of proper engine oil is important but not close opinion exist which oil is most suitable.
One can expect to have engine oil change as twice as often for engine fuel with gasifier.
9. In case of gasifier, it is advantageous to use slow speed engines with a high internal inertia
10. Engine with cas iron sleeve are more suitable since the sleeve when scratched can be replace easily.
Biogas
Biogas is a gas produced by putrefactive bacteria that breaks down organic material under airless condition.
Biogas consists of:
1. Methane (CH4)
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
3. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
4. Nitrogen (N2)
5. Carbon Monoxide (CO)
6. Oxygen (O2)
Biogas is combustible when higher amount of methane is available as compared with carbon dioxide (60%
to 40%)
Benefits of Biogas
1. Savings in fuel cost – The gas produced can be used as fuel for domestic cooking, lighting,
refrigeration, and etc.
2. Increase in crop yield – Slurry can be a good source of bio fertilizer to increase crop yield.
3. Improvement in health – Waste can be properly disposed inside the digester hence
minimizing the spread of infectious diseases.
4. Pollution control – Emission of odor and other harmful gases into the atmosphere can be
minimized.
Process of Generating Biogas

1. First stage - substrate are converted into soluble monomers by enzymatic hydrolysis
2. Second Stage – soluble organic compound are converted into organic acids primarily acetic acid
3. Final stage of decomposition by methanogenic bacteria to produce primarily of methane and
carbon dioxide
Definitions
1. Substrate – It is an organic material used to produce biogas.
2. Slurry – It is a mixture of manure and water.

23
3. Scum – A layer of floating fibrous material on the slurry.
4. Sludge – A settled portion or precipitate of the slurry. A mud-like, semi-solid mass.
5. Effluent – A residue that comes out at the outlet after the substrate is digested/processed inside the
digester.
Basic Component Parts of Biogas Plant

1. Collecting Tank – It is a holding tank where manure and water are collected stored and separated
from heavy and non-biodegradable materials before feeding them into the digester.
2. Digester – It is a bio-rreactor. It’s a water and air tight container designed for the process and
anaerobic microbial degradation of organic matter into which the slurry is introduced for digestion
and methanization.
3. Gas Chamber – It is a space inside or outside the digester for the collection of storage of biogas.
4. Inlet Pipe – It seves as conveyor of the manure-water misture or slurry from the mixing tank to the
digester.
5. Outlet Pipe – It serves as conveyor where the effluent or the slurry is forced out.
6. Stirrer – It is a mechanical device inside the digester used to mix slurry thereby destroying the
formation of scum.
7. Gasholder Retainer – It is a cantilever beam that hold the gasholder/movable cover imposition at
the desired biogas pressure.
Categories of Digestion
Psychrophilic 10 - 20ºC digester Retention time over
Digestion temperature 100 days
Mesophilic 20 - 35ºC digester Retention time over 20
Digestion temperature days
Thermophilic 50 - 60ºC digester Retention time over 80
Digestion temperature days
Characteristics of Biogas
1. It is a flammable, colorless, tasteless, and odorous gas
2. Difficult to liquefy at ambient temperature
3. Lighter than air (density 0.940 kg/m3)
4. Ignition temperature is approximately 700C
5. Flame temperature is 870 C
6. Composition is 60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide
7.
Heat content is 6000 kCal/m3
8. Combustion speed is 40 cm/sec
9. Air required for combustion is 5.7 m3 of air/m3 of gas
Sources of Feed Material for Biogas Plant

1. Poultry Manure
2. Piggery Manure
3. Cattle Manure
4. Agri-Plant Residue
Estimated Daily Quantity of Available Manure

Animal Manure Available
(kg/day/animal)
Pigs 2.20 – 8.00
Cow 7.50 – 14.00
Buffalo 8.00 – 14.00
Horses 7.75 – 13.50
chicken 0.025 – 0.075
Gas Production Potential of Various Types of Manure (m3/kg)

Manure Retention Period
25 days 30 days 35 days 50 days
Pig 0.058 0.063 0.064 0.077
Cow 0.030 0.034 0.037 0.043
Buffalo 0.030 0.034 0.037 0.043
Horse 0.045 0.051 0.56 0.065
Chicken 0.060 0.065 0.069 0.078
Classifications of Biogas Plant

1. Batch Plant – The plant is filled completely and then emptied completely after a fixed retention
time. Fermentation material to be used must be suitable for batch filling. Large gas holder or a
number of digesters are required for uniform supply from batch plant.
2. Continuous Plant – The plant is filled and emptied regularly – normally daily. It is suited for
continuous operation and the feed material must be flowable and uniform.
Factors Affecting Biogas Production

1. Feed Material
2. Temperature
3. pH of Substrate

24
4. Hydraulic Retention Time
5. Amount and Concentration of Organic Material
6. Feed Material to Water Ratio
7. Mixing of Substrate
C/N Ratio and Nitrogen Content of Animal Dung and Household Waste
Material N (%) C/N
Animal Dung
- Hog 2.8 13.70
- Carabao 1.6 23.10
- Cow 1.8 19.90
- chicken 3.7 9.96
- Duck 0.8 27.40
- Pugo 5.0 6.74
Household Waste
- Night Soil 7.1 6.72
- Kitchen Waste 1.9 28.00
C/N Ratio and Nitrogen Content of Some Crop Residues and Others
Material N (%) C/N
Crop Residues (Air Dry)
- Corn Stalks 1.2 56.6
- Rice Straw 0.7 51.0
- Corn Cobs 1.0 49.9
- Peanut Hulls 1.7 31.0
- Cogon 1.07 -
- Bagasse 0.40 -
Others
- Kangkong 4.3 7.9
- Water Lily 2.9 11.4
Retention Time for Animal Manure for Mesophilic Temperature Range

Substrate Retention Time
(days)
Liquid pig manure 15 – 25
Liquid cow/carabao manure 20 – 30
Liquid chicken manure 20 – 40
Animal manure mixed with plant 50 – 80
material
Some Designs of Biogas Plants

1. Square / Rectangular Fixed Dome Digester
2. Two Chamber Rectangular Digester with Floating Gas Chamber
3. Fixed dome Plant CAMARTEC Design
4. Fixed dome Plant Deenhandhu Design
5. Square Fixed Dome Digester
6. Fixed dome Digester with Separate Gas Holder
7. Large Scale Biogas Plant in China
8. Large Scale Biogas Plant in China
Biogas Appliances
1. Gas Cooker/Stove
d. It is just a burner.
e. It require purposive installation with adequate protection from wind.
f. It must be carefully adjusted for compact, bluish kind of flame. It should be self-
stabilizing, i.e. flameless zone must be re-ignite automatically within 2-3 sec.
g. Efficiency of gas burner typically range from 60 to 80%.
2. Biogas Lamp
a. The maximum light-flux values that can be achieved with biogas lamps are
comparable to those of normal 25 to 75 watt light bulb
b. Performance is dependent on optimal tuning of the gas mantle and the shape of flame
at the nozzle
c. It is controlled by adjusting the supply of gas and the primary air
3. Radiant Heater
a. Radiant heater usingsinglebiogas develops infrrared thermal radiation via ceramic
body that is heated to 600-800 C
b. Temperature requirement for piglets begins at 30-35 C and gradually drops to 18 to
23 C in the 4th and 5th week
c. Biogas fuelled radiant heater should always be equipped with safety pilot and an air
filter to sustain operatio in dusty atmosphere.
4. Incubators
a. Indirect warm-water-heater incubators are usually operated using biogas
b. A biogas burner heats the water in the heating element of the incubator for
circulation inside the incubator box

25
c. Temperature of about 37.5 C is usually required for incubator for various eggs.
5. Refrigerators
a. Absorption-type refrigerating machine operating on ammonia and water and
equipped for automatic thermosiphon circulation are usually used for biogas
b. Whenever a refrigerator is converted for operating on biogas, care must be taken to
ensure that all safety features function properly
6. Internal Combustion Engine
a. Engine suited for biogas are four-stroke cycle diesel engine or gasoline engine
b. As much as 80% of the diesel fuel can be replaced by biogas
c. Converting a spark-ignition engine will results in a loss of performance as much as
30%
d. Engine speed should be limited up to 3000 rpm to prevent overheating of the exhaust
valve.
Gas Requirements for Some Appliances

Appliances Type Gas Requirment
(m3/hr)
Gas Burner (5 cm to 14 cm) Non-continuous 0.226 – 0.42
Mantle lamp (ordinary to 60 watts) Non-continuous 0.071 – 0.195
Gas Refrigerator (0.01 to 0.225 m3) Continuous 0.053 – 0.078
Incubator (per m3 capacity) Continuous 0.600
Gasoline Engine (per KW output) Non-continuous 0.69
Diesel Engine (per KW output) Non-continuous 0.70
Weight of Daily AvailableFormula

Wfm = NA Sp
= Wpr Sp
Where: Wfm - weight of feed material, kg/day
NA - number of heads of animals
Wpr - weight of plant residue, kg/day
Sp - specific gas production, kg/animal or plant residue
Volumetric Rate of Feed Material

Vfm = Wfm / ρm
Where: Vfm - volume of feed material, m3/day
Wfm - weight of feed material, kg/day
ρm - density of feed material, kg/m3
Volumr Flow Rate pf Slurry Needed

Vfr = Vfm WR
Where: Vfr - volume of slurry, m3/day
Vfm - volume of feed material, m3/day
WR - water ratio, 1 to 2
Volume of Feed Slurry

Vfs = Vfr RT
Where: Vfs - volume of feeld slurry for the digester, m3
Vfr - volumetric flow rate of slurry, m3/day
RT - design retention time, days
Chapter X - SOLAR ENERGY

1. The approximate solar radiation reaching the earth surface is 1 KW/m2. Power density of the
solar radiation entering the earth atmosphere is 1.355 KW/m2 (solar constant). The average
power density of the solar radiation striking the earth surface is 0.89 KW/m2
2. The intensity of solar radiation decreases as the distance from the equator increases
3. Average annual globa raditio is 800-2600 KWh/m2
4. Annual sunshine duration is 1000-4000 hours
5. The global radition on the earth surface consist of: (a) direct radiation, and (2) diffuse
radiation
6. The absolute values of solar radiatio on a given surfade vary considerably depending on (a)
season and time of day, (b) locatio of the solar installation, and (c) angle of inclinatio of the
absorber surface
Classifications
1. Solar Thermal system
2. Photvoltaic system
Components of Solar Thermal System

1. Heat source
2. Heat store
3. Heat transmission
4. Consumer
Principle of Solar Thermal system

1. Solar radiation is converted into heat by means of absorber
2. absorbing surface combines both the high absorption coefficient with low emmission,
reflection, and transmission coefficient

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3. Surfaces treated with carbon black or black paints have high emmisivity in the infrared range
which can absorb up to 90-97% of the solar radiation. Losses can be reduce by the application
of selective coatings.
4. Emmission losss from absorbers cn be reduced by covering them with glass ortransparent
film.
5. In order to increase the radiation density on the absorber surfaces, either lflat mirror reflectors
or concentrating reflectors and lenses should be employed.
6. Reflecting surface should have high reflectio coefficient, good mechanical, thermal and
chemical resistance and be inexpensive.
High Reflection Materials
Electroplated silver 0.96

Mirror Glass 0.88
Aluminum foil 0.86
Aluminized C-Mylar 0.76
Classifications of Solar Thermal System

1. Low temperature system
a. Operates at a temperature is less than 100 C
b. uses a flat plate collector
c. utilize both the direct and the diffuse portion of global radiatio
d. operates even durig the period of dull weather and at large angle of solar radiation
e. Decentralized system for water heating, space heating, and centralized for water
distillation, cooking, and baking
2. High Temperature system
a. Temperature is greater than 100 C
b. uses a concentratig type collector
c. utilize direct radiation
Technical Characteristics of Solar Thermal system
1. System Employing Flat-plate collector
2. System Employing Concentrating collector
Photovoltaic Solar System

1. generates electricity direct from sunlight by means of a solar cell
2. the generator is the connectio of any number of solar modules also called panels
3. a standard module consists of 36 solar cells
4. use to for water pumping, refrigerators for health centers, power communication, etc.
Advantages of the PV Solar System

1. it utilize a widely available and non-exhaustible energy source
2. they are decentralize hence the owner has a perfect control over his system and doen’st
depend onpolitical decisions, tariffs or fuel supply problem
3. they are modular technology consisting of small units that can be combined to have exactly
the right number to suit the demand
4. it requires less maintenance and are easier to operate and more reliable
5. more economical than conventional gnerators for low consumption. Running cost is very
low. Life time ofmodules is more than 20 years
6. environment friendly and utilize indigenous local power source
7. supplies energy 24 hours a day
Diadvantages of the PV Solar System
1. not well known. Know-how, experience, spare parts are scarce
2. comparatively high initial cost
3. small economy of scale. Energy cost hardly decrease for bigger plant
4. requires a battery for most applicatio which are short-live and expensive
5. limited energy output compared with gensets which can be adapted to increasing demand and
longer running time
The Solar Cell
1. consist of a thin (approx 0.3 mm) chip made of a very pure silicon
2. silicon crystals are doped with boro atoms to make it a possitive conductor (absence of
electron)
3. thin layer of negative conductor made of phosphorus or arsenic is applied to one side of the
silicon chip
4. between the p+ and the n- section a space charge region is formed
5. if diode is exposed to light electron is release and separate charge carriers to gnerates voltage
between the top and bottomof the diode to produce electric current
6. a lighted silicon solar cell produces a maximum DC voltage of 0.5 V depending on size
7. within a modul several cells are connected in series to build up a rated voltage of 12 V
8. solar modules are rated in peak watts (50Wp). A module of 50 Wp can be expected to supply
power of 50 W in full sunshine with sun directly above the module plane. Tolerance is + or –
10%.
Types of Silicon Cells

1. Mono crystalline – has the highest efficiency of 12 to 18%
2. Poly-crystalline –less efficient (10-14%) but can be produce at a lower cost
3. Amorphous silicon – commonly used for consumers product such as calciulators, watches,
etc. effiiency is about 4-8%

27
Factors Affecting the Performance of Solar module
1. Irradiance – the power is nearly proportional to irradiance of the module
2. Temperature – with every degree of increasing cell temperature the power will decline by
about 0.4%
3. Voltage – the voltage at which the solar module operates depends on the load or control unit
of the system. Depending on the module type, the voltage at the maximum power point ranges
between 15 to 18 volt and the maximum power poiunt shifts to lower voltages at highe
temperature
Photovoltaic System Components
1. The generator or the module – used to produce the DC current
a. 12 volt system
b. 24 volt system
2. The Battery – used to store the energy produce by the module especiall during daytime
a. Automotive battery
i. Regular type and commonly used on cars
ii. Very short service life, medium to high maintenance demand, only shallow
charging or no deep charging is required
iii. Very low price
b. Solar battery
i. Best suited for photovoltaic system
ii. No deep charging
iii. better service life
iv. Limited maintenance demand
v. About 2 to 3 times more expensive that car battery
c. Stand-by Batteries
i. Used for uninterrupted power supply or isolated stations
ii. No deep charging
iii. About 4 to 6 times more expensive than car battery
iv. Low maintenance demand
v. High service life
d. Traction batteries
i. About 4 to 6 times more expensive than a car battery
ii. High self-discharge
iii. Limited maintenance demand
e. Deep-cycle batteries
i. About 4 to 6 times more expensive
ii. High service life
iii. Low maintenance demand
3. The Controller –used to protect the battery from over and under charging. It also used to
avoid gassing (production of hyrogen and oxygen) effect on battery
4. The Inverter – used to transform low-voltage DC supplied by a solar system into hig voltage
AC.
5. Wiring – use to deliver the current at a given voltage
6. The Appliances
a. Lighting (incandescent, halogen, flourescent, compact lamp, etc)
b. Audio and Video Devices
c. Water Pump
d. Refrigerators
Chapter XI - WIND ENERGY

1. It is a secondary form of solar energy
2. It is derived from the kinetic energy of moving air that is converted to mechanical power
through a mechanism called rotor
Principal Sources of Wind in the Philippines
1. Northeast Monsoon - originates from northern Asiatic land mass and reaches Philippines in
late October to April
2. Southwest Monsoon - originates from Indian ocean starting mid-June to September
Basic Principle
1. The kinetic energy of the wind in a unit time increases with the cube of the wind speed
2. Doubling the wind speed increases the power output be eight times
3. Doubling the rotor diameter will increase the available power by four times
4. Generally wind machines can only extract about 59% of the wind kinetic energy (Betz
coefficient)
5. Actual performance of the wind machine varies from 10 to 50% depending on the rotor.
6. Slow running multi-bladed rotor has lower efficiency compared to fast running two or three
bladed rotor.
7. Multi-bladed rotor are slow speed high torque wind machines and are suitable for mechanical
water pumping and grain milling
8. Few bladed rotor are fast running and produces low torque and are suitable for power
generation and consequently for running electric motors
Advantages
1. Environment free technology
2. Abundant source of wind and the supply is available throughout the year
3. No fuel cost and minimum very usually no labor is required to operate
Limitations
1. Site specific
2. It requires to water reservoir to store water or batteries to store electricity

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3. It requires back-up system for areas where wind supply is low
4. High initial cost
Applications
1. Pumping water (domestic water supply, village water system, crop irrigation, water supply for
poultry and livestock farm, bottling plants, gasoline stations
2. Power generation (individual household, village electric supply, supply to grid)
3. Compressed Air Generation - for driving lift pump, compressors, pneumatic control devices,
etc
4. Driving Mechanical Machines - milling grains, low lift pumping for salt puns, drainage of
water, etc
Classifications of Wind Energy Converters
1. Vertical-Axis Rotor - the axis of rotation of the rotor is perpendicular to the wind direction
a. no need of turning the machine with the wind
b. has lower efficiency compared to horizontal-axis rotor
c. requires more material to produce the same power output that of the horizontal-axis
wind machine
d. generally needs high starting wind velocity
e. hardly utilize lift except for darrieus rotor
2. Head-On Horizontal Axis Rotor - the axis of rotation of the rotor is parallel with the wind
direction.
a. high rotational speed and more power output especially the few bladed rotors
b. high torque for multi-bladed rotors
c. more effic9ient compared with vertical-axis rotor
d. requires less material per unit power output
3. Crosswind Horizontal Axis Rotor - the rotation of the rotor is both horizontal to the surface of
the earth and perpendicular to the direction of the wind stream.
a. not effective since it is a system that is dependent with the wind direction
b. complicated design
c. low efficiency
d. no significant advantage over head-on horizontal axis and vertical axis rotors
Wind Power - it is the amount of energy available from the wind within a unit of time expressed in watts
Pw = 1/2 ρa Ar V 3
Where: Pw - wind power, watts
ρa - air density, 1.25 kg/m3
Ar - area of the rotor, m2
V - wind velocity, m/s
Performance coefficient - ratio between the mechanical power actually attained directly at the rotor and the
wind power
Cp = Ps / Pw
Where: Cp - performance coefficient
Ps - shaft power, w
Pw - wind power, w
Rotor Cp
Horizontal Axis
Two bladed 0.47
Farm 0.30
Modern Propeller 0.47
Dutch four arm type 0.17
Vertical Axis
Darrieus 0.35
Savoinius 0.23
Torque Coefficient - ratio of the torque at the rotor to the reference torque
Tip-Speed Ratio - ratio of the circumferential velocity at the tip of the rotor to the velocity of the incoming
wind
λ = [2 π R N] / Vw
where: λ - tip speed ratio, dmls
R - rotor radius, m
N - rotor speed, rps
V - wind velocity, m/s
λ Number of Blades
1 6 - 20
2 4-12
3 3-6
4 2-4
5-8 2-3
8 - 15 1 -2
Airfoil - it is the surface of the blade over which air flows. Lift is the force measured perpendicular to the
airflow while drag is measured parallel to the flow. The lower the ratio of the drag to lift the better the
airfoil.
Angle of Attack - it is an angle required to lift an airfoil. Angle of attack ranged from 2 to 14 degrees.
Airfoil Cd/Cl Angle of Attack

29
(deg)
Sail and Pole 0.1 5
Flat steel sheet 0.1 4
Arched steel plate 0.02 3-4
Arch steel plate with tube on 0.05 4-5
concave side
Arched steel plate on convex 0.2 14
side
Sail wing 0.05 2
Solidity - it is the ratio of the projected are to the swept area of the rotor. For farm windmill, the solidity is
0.7 while for high-speed lift type propeller the solidity is 0.01 to 0.1
Overall system efficiency - it is the ratio of thee power output of the machine to the power input. Typical
efficiency for wind generators is about 20% and for windpump is 10%
Power Output - it is the power delivered by lifting a given rate of water from a certain head or the power
generated by the generator for a given voltage and current delivered.
Ph = ρw g Q H
Where: Ph - hydraulic power, watts
ρw - water density, 1000 kg/m3
g - gravitational acceleration, 9.8 m/s2
Q - water flow, m3/s
H - lifting head, m
Pg = VI cos θ
Where: Pg - generated power, watts
V - voltage, volt
I - current, amp
Cos θ - power factor, 1
Cut-In Wind Speed - it is the speed of the wind required to start the rotor.
Cut-Out wind speed - It is the speed of the wind required to stop the rotor.
Rated Speed - the speed of the wind recommended by the manufacturer to optimally operate the wind
machine
Component Parts of Wind Machines

1. Windpump
a. Rotor
b. Tail vane and Side vane
c. Head
d. Transmission and Push rod
e. Pump
f. Tower
g. Tank
h. Well
2. Wind Turbine
a. Wind Generating System
(1) Rotor and blades
(2) Generator
(3) Tail vane
(4) Wind control devices
(5) Tower
b. Battery Storage System
(1) Control panel
(2) Battery bank
(3) Inverter
(4) Fuse box
c. Utility -Connected System
(1) Control panel
(2) Synchronous inverter
(3) Fuse box
(4) Utility meter
(5) Transformer
Chapter XII - HYDRO-POWER

1. It the power generated from the pressure of a falling water from higher to lower elevation
Classifications
1. Micro-hydro generates power up to 100 KW
2. Mini-hydro generates power between 100 KW to 10 MW
3. Hydro-power generates power more than 10 MW
Advantages of Micro-Hydro Power
1. power is continuously available as long as there is water available
2. concentrated energy resource when there is a reasonable head
3. energy available is predictable
4. no import fuel is required
5. low investment and maintenance cost
6. minimum technical skills is required too design and install
7. manufacturing of the system can be done in backyard shop

30
8. long lasting and robust technology
Disadvantages of Micro-Hydro Power
1. Site specific technology
2. There is a need for a maximum useful power
3. Fluctuation on water available limits the power output
General Principle
1. if water can be piped from a certain level to a lower level, the resulting water pressure can be
used to do work
2. if water pressure is allowed to move a mechanical component then the movement involves the
conversion of the water energy into mechanical energy
3. hydro turbine converts water pressure into mechanical shaft power which can drive electric
generator, grain mil, and other useful devices
Hydro Power
Ph = 9810 K Q H
Where: Ph - hydro power, watts
K - turbine efficiencies, decimal
Q - water flow rate, m3/sec
H - head, m
Efficiencies of Hydro System
Device Efficiencies (Shaft Power)
Undershoot water wheel 0.25 - 0.40
Overshoot waterwheel 0.50 - 0.70
Breast wheel 0.50 - 0.60
Poncelet waterwheel 0.40 - 0.60
Vertical Shaft water mill 0.20 - 0.35
Impulse turbine 0.79 - 0.87
Crossflow turbine 0.60 - 0.80
Reaction turbine 0.65 - 0.90
Turbine
1. the kind of turbine that is appropriate for different purposes depends on the flow and head
2. there are types of turbine at is suited for low head or high heads
3. the speed of any type of of turbine tends to decline in proportion to the head, hence low head
sites need turbine that are inherently faster under a given operating condition
4. more flow is needed at low heads to achieve a given power output
5. low head turbines need to pass a much greater flow than a high-head turbines
Classifications of Turbines
1. Impulse turbine - pressurized water is converted into a high speed jet by passing it throough a
nozzles
2. Reaction turbine - the turbine is runs completely filed with water and the flow of water
through the rotor is deflected in such a way that it creates pressure differences across the
blades which cause them to rotate.
Water Wheel - they rotate much more slowly compared to turbine and it needs a large and expensive speed-
increasing mechanism to drive an alternator at the required speed of about 1500 rpm
1. Undershoot - water passes underneath the wheel
2. Overshoot - water falls into buckets on the rim of the wheel
3. Breast wheel - less efficient version of the overshoot
4. Poncelet - refined version of the overshoot
Component System of Micro-Hydro System
1. Weir
2. Canal
3. Forebay
4. Spillway
5. Penstock
6. Power house
a. turbine
b. power transmission drive
c. generator
d. control panel
e. etc
7. Tailrace

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1

AE BOARD EXAM REVIEWER

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio

TGIM Review Center

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Chapter II - HEAT ENGINE

Classifications of Internal Combustion Engine

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Classifications of Piston Engine

Chapter III - INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

6. According to Method of Cooling

Basic Component Parts of ICE

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Four Stroke Gasoline Engine (Two crankshaft rotation to produce power)

Four Stroke Diesel Engine (Two cranshaft rotation to produce power)

No. of Cylinder Order of Firing

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Comparison of Properties of Common Engine Fuel

Fuel Density Higher Heating Stoich

Air Handling Capacity

Brand ACME Ducati Honda Robin

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Engine Performance Curve

Brand and Made of Some Engines

Factors to Consider in Selecting Engine

General Rule in Clearances in Engine Parts

Chapter IV - EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Chapter V - AGRICULTURAL TRACTOR

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Brief Description of Agricultural Tractors

Construction and Main System of Tractor

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Turbo Charge of Tractor Engine

Functions of Power Transmission and Power Take-off System

Power Take-Off Shaft (PTO)

Classifications of Hitch System and Controls

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Tractor Standard Specification

Chapter VI - FUEL AND LUBRICANTS

Fuels used in agricultural engines are made from crude oils.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Liquefied Natural Gas

Fuel for Two-Cycle Gasoline Engine

Gas Oil or Diesel Fuel

Engine Oil (Motor Oil)

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Principal Additives and their Action

The API Service Classification for Diesel Engine

SAE Viscosity Number Kinematic Viscosity (100°C) mm2/s

3. The API Service classification for gear are as follows:

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005

Factors that Causes Deterioration of Oils

Chapter VIII- HUMAN POWER

Energy Requirement and Efficiency

Advantage and Disadvantages

Engr. Alexis Belonio/Dept. of Ag. Engineering, CPU Iloilo City 7/3/2005