Name of group/student: : Chin Fu Ming 1602792 (Group 30)

Subject code and name: UEMX2513 HYDROLOGY

Title of Assignment: Assignment 1
Name of lecturer: Ir. Dr. Huang Yuk Feng
Assessment of Assignment 1
A. Overall presentation of report Score (See Scoring Rubric) Total
Title, aim(s), group members are included
Introduction: topic background information
Organisation of report; easy to read
and understand 4 3 2 1 0
Grammar, punctuation, spelling checked (x 1.5) /6
Sub-Total Average

B. Literature Review
Review on the relevant sub-topics 4 3 2 1 0
Organisation of literature review; easy to (x 2) /8
read and understand
Clear text, tables, figures
Summary of review
Originality/Avoid plagiarising
Appropriate citing of references

Sub-Total Average

C. Quality of the calculations/results/designs

Mathematical relationship/formula stated 4 3 2 1 0
Necessary formulae used (x 6) /24
Apply charts or/and tables
All steps mathematically correct and
calculated correctly
Presentation of results in diagram, table, etc.

Sub-Total Average

D. Discussion
Compare and discuss results 4 3 2 1 0
among works/designs
(x 2) /8
Sub-Total Average

E. Conclusion
Draw conclusion on the results 4 3 2 1 0
(x 1) /4
Sub-Total Average

Total possible points: /50

1
 Scoring rubric for Assignment 1
A. Overall presentation of report
Excellent: Level 4 (4 points)
Good: Level 3 (3 points)
Satisfactory: Level 2 (2 points) Title, aim(s), group members are not fully included; acceptable
Poor: Level 1 (1 point)
Very Poor: Level 0 (0 point)
B. Literature Review
Excellent: Level 4 (4 points)
Good: Level 3 (3 points)
Satisfactory: Level 2 (2 points)
Poor: Level 1 (1 point)
Very Poor: Level 0 (0 point)
C. Quality of the calculations/results/designs
Excellent: Level 4 (4 points)
Good: Level 3 (3 points)
Title, aim(s), group members are clearly and fully included;
comprehensive introduction on topic and background information;
report is uniquely well-organized and easy to read and understand; very
good grammar, punctuation, spelling checked
Title, aim(s), group members are included; reasonable introduction on
topic and background information; report is reasonable organized;
minimum grammar, punctuation, spelling error
introduction on topic and background information; report is acceptable
organized; acceptable grammar, punctuation, spelling error
Title, aim(s), group members are incorrect; minimum introduction on
topic and background information; report is not well organized;
unacceptable grammar, punctuation, spelling error
Title, aim(s), group members are not included; no introduction on topic
and background information; report is not organized; full of grammar,
punctuation, spelling error
Comprehensive review on the relevant sub-topics and organize the
literature review for easy reading and understanding; very clear text,
tables, figures; comprehensive summary of review; very high originality
of review /no plagiarising; comprehensive citing of references
Reasonable review on the relevant sub-topics and organize the literature
review for easy reading and understanding; clear text, tables, figures;
reasonable summary of review; high originality of review / minimum
plagiarising; reasonable citing of references
Acceptable review on the relevant sub-topics and organize the literature
review for easy reading and understanding; acceptable clear text, tables,
figures; acceptable summary of review; medium originality of review /
acceptable plagiarising; acceptable citing of references
Minimum review on the relevant sub-topics and organize the literature
review for easy reading and understanding; minimum clear text, tables,
figures; minimum summary of review; minimum originality of review /
unacceptable plagiarising; minimum citing of references
No review on the relevant sub-topics and organize the literature review
for easy reading and understanding; no clear text, tables, figures; no
summary of review; no originality of review / full plagiarising; no citing
of references
Mathematical relationship and all the necessary formulae used are
clearly defined and stated; applied charts or/and tables in calculations
and the steps were shown clearly; all steps mathematically correct and
calculated correctly with units; results are presented in diagram, table,
etc. without error and well-organised
Mathematical relationship/formula and all the necessary formulae used
are reasonable defined and stated; applied charts or/and tables in
calculations and the steps were reasonable shown; all steps
mathematically correct and calculated correctly without unit; results are
presented in diagram, table, etc. with minimum error
2
Satisfactory: Level 2 (2 points)
Poor: Level 1 (1 point)
Very Poor: Level 0 (0 point)
Mathematical relationship/formula and all the necessary formulae used
are acceptable defined and stated; applied charts or/and tables in
calculations and the steps were acceptable shown; most steps
mathematically correct and calculated correctly with minimum errors;
results are presented in diagram, table, etc. with acceptable error
Mathematical relationship/formula and all the necessary formulae used
are minimum defined and stated; not fully applied charts or/and tables in
calculations; some steps mathematically incorrect and calculated
incorrectly; results are presented in diagram, table, etc. with
unacceptable error
Mathematical relationship/formula and all the necessary formulae used
3

D. Discussion
Excellent: Level 4 (4 points)
Good: Level 3 (3 points)
Satisfactory: Level 2 (2 points)
Poor: Level 1 (1 point)
Very Poor: Level 0 (0 point)
E. Conclusion
Excellent: Level 4 (4 points)
Good: Level 3 (3 points)
Satisfactory: Level 2 (2 points)
Poor: Level 1 (1 point)
Very Poor: Level 0 (0 point)
are not stated; did not apply charts or/and tables in calculations; most
steps mathematically incorrect and calculated incorrectly; results are not
presented in diagram, table, etc.
Show complete understanding of topic/design, clearly comparison and
discussion of works/designs
Show reasonable understanding of topic/design, reasonable comparison
and discussion of works/designs
Show acceptable understanding of topic/design, acceptable comparison
and discussion of works/designs
Show minimum understanding of topic/design, minimum comparison
and discussion of works/designs
Did not show understanding of topic/design, did not show comparison
and discussion of works/designs
Draw a comprehensive conclusion.
Draw reasonable conclusion was drawn
Draw acceptable conclusion was drawn
Draw minimum conclusion was drawn
No conclusion was drawn
4
Table of Content

Content Pages

Introduction 6-7

Literature Review 8-11

Calculation 12-18

Discussion 18-22

Conclusion 22

References 23

5
Introduction

Our group consist of 5 members in this assignment and we are group 30. The main objective
of this assignment is to carry out hydrologic study for a pre and post development with
complies with Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia, which is also known as
MSMA. The main objective of this assignment 1 is to calculate the design rainstorms for a
minor stormwater drainage system. And thus, we need to show the temporal patterns for the
drainage system.

A stormwater system is a tool for managing the runoff from rainfall. Stormwater management
is essential to prevent erosion of agricultural land and flooding of inhabited urban or rural
areas. Both cases can cause severe damages and contamination of the environment if
sanitation facilities are flooded. This results in high costs and notably massive suffering for
the local communities. Main objective of stormwater management is to minimize the
catchment flow rates, runoff volumes, frequency of flooding and reduce the impact or change
on the land use. Stormwater system consists of drain, curb, gutter and lined channels are used
to transport the runoff through the catchment safely. Stormwater system can be separated into
two parts, which is minor system and major system.

Minor system is designed to control runoff that produced by low rainfall intensity and short
return period storm event by using gutters, pipes, on-site detention and so on and so forth. It
is intended to collect, manage and transport runoff from building, infrastructures and utilities
for low ARI storm event (lower than 10 years ARI) to avoid flooding. In a conventional
network, the minor drainage system is usually a pipeline with sufficient capacity to contain
the nuisance flows. These pipelines prevent stormwater damage to properties and also limit
the frequency and quantity of surface water to a level acceptable to the community. They're
usually designed to cater for flows with a five year average recurrence interval (ARI). The
pipelines don't always follow the natural drainage path and are usually aligned along property
boundaries and the roadway kerb and channels. (Melbourne Water Corporation ,2017)

6
Major system is designed to control runoff which produced by higher rainfall intensity and
longer return period storm event by using channels, ponds, lake and so on and so forth. The
major system collects the runoff from minor drainage system together and channel them out
safely. Major system must protect the community from the consequences of large and
reasonably rare storm events (generally up to 100 years ARI), which could cause severe
property damage, injury or loss of life.

7
Literature Review

Dimensioning of projects concerning hydraulic structures or water work projects implies the
cognisance of the design flood, such as the flood hydrograph associated with a return period
(frequency). In this case, there is a specific terms which is “Design Rainfall”. Design Rainfall
is a critical rainfall event which is used to sketch the flood hydrograph of a certain return
period. Design Rainfall is usually known as “Design Rainstorm” or “Design Storm”. It is
because the design rainfall is based to the rare frequencies of the rainfall, so when it has a
high values or amount of rainfall or intensity, it will be named as Design Storms.

In Design Rainstorm, it consists of few important elements,

• Depth P (mm);

• Duration of Rainfall, D (min), (hours);

𝑃
• Average Intensity imean = 𝐷 ,(mm/min), (mm/hour);

• Maximum intensities on different Δt time intervals, quoted :

• Time distribution of the intensities of rain i(t) which is also known as the "rainfall
intensity hyetograph".

In design rainstorm, a statistical procedure is applied on annual maximum values which is

“Partial Series” and afterwards pass on to the annual values. Due to this statistical procedure,
the probability of exceedance is converted into “Return Period T (years)” which can be
expressed as the frequency of the certain rain event would be exceeded. In design rainstorm,
the critical values for the rain event is not only refer to the intensity of rain, rain depth and its
duration, it also based on the time distribution of the quantity of rain (in terms of the intensity
or depth). However, when we assign a return period to a sequence of discrete values of
rainfall intensity throughout certain design storm duration, we will face some problems in

8
terms of probability. Some of the problems that we encountered when assigning a return
period including:

• What is the corresponding time distribution if the average intensity of the rainstormof
a certain probability is given?
• What is the corresponding average intensity of the rainstorm and its duration if the
maximum intensity on a certain Δt time interval of a given probability is considered?
• What is the effect of the rainstorm characteristics mentioned above when it occurs
once in T years.

Problems that encountered were stated, and there are some ways to solve these problems
above, the examples for the solution involved:

• We can neglect the influence of the variability of one or more characteristics that
define the rainstorm upon the rainfall-runoff model, or consider as real strong
relationships between some such defining elements such as the mean of the intensity-
duration. Both approaches belonging to the first way are simpler and lead to the
elaboration of a set of procedures named the "event simulation" that will be
considered further on.

• We can also simulate time series of rainfall in compliance with the statistical
behaviour of the effect of the defining elements. Then, a rainfall-runoff model is
applied to the simulated series of rainfall and is statistically processed. This approach
is more correct from conceptual point of view, but it demands reliable data on long
time series of rainfall.

For small basins, the most used method for estimating the quartile of the maximum annual
discharge starting from the rainfall intensity is the "Rational Method" (Mulvaney, 1881).
According to this formula, the rainfall intensity is considered for a duration that is at least
equal to the time of concentration of the basin. This means that for punctual rainstorms a
relationship between the IDF was established. The problem becomes more complicated when
the engineering practice demands the flood hydrograph. As a projected rainfall defined by the
ensemble of characteristics as specified above has to be considered in a hydrological rainfall-
runoff model. The determination of such project rainfall implies the use of the IDF curves in
9
spite of two facts. First, a projected rainfall that is assessed based on the IDF curves is very
often different from the observed rainfall having the same frequency and duration. Second,
rainfall with a certain frequency does not lead to a flood hydrograph having the same
probability of occurrence, as the initial soil moisture prior to the moment of the start of
triggering rainfall might be different from an event to another. However, in the hydrological
practice (particularly in the USA and Canada) one uses the so-called "synthetic hyetographs"
that are derived from an analysis of many observed time distribution rainstorms.

Among the different methods of assessing the projected rainfall those deriving from the IDF
curves and having a uniform time distribution will be further considered. Then, the composed
rainfall and the rainstorm of "Chicago type" will be tackled on. In continuation, a method for
deriving the time distribution of a rainfall based upon the analysis of observed significant
rainfalls will be considered. A mean structure of the precipitation will be then discussed and
the Australian method (Cordery and Pilgrim, 1984) that has a widespread use will be
presented. The method for assessing the maximum probable rainfall both at a point and over a
certain area that is deducted from the outstanding observed rainstorm would be considered.
Finally, the Spatio-temporal method developed by Diaconu (1988) for assessing the
quantities of the rainfall depth across a certain area would complete the horizon of
achievements in the domain of the projected rainfall.

Stormwater drainage design is an integral component of both site and overall stormwater
management design. Good drainage design must strive to maintain compatibility and
minimize interference with existing drainage patterns; control flooding of property, structures,
and roadways for design flood events; and minimize potential environmental impacts on
stormwater runoff. Stormwater collection systems must be designed to provide adequate
surface drainage while at the same time meeting other storms water management goals such
as water quality, streambank channel protection, habitat protection, and groundwater recharge.

In every location, there are two stormwater drainage systems, the minor system, and the
major system. Three considerations largely shape the design of these systems: flooding,
public safety, and water quality. The minor drainage system is designed to remove
stormwater from areas such as streets and sidewalks for public safety reasons. The minor
drainage system consists of inlets, street and roadway gutters, roadside ditches, small
channels and swales, and small underground pipe systems which collect stormwater runoff
and transport it to structural control facilities, pervious areas and/or the major drainage
10
system (i.e., natural waterways, large man-made conduits, and large water impoundments).
The major/minor concept may be described as a system within a system for it comprises two
distinct but conjunctive drainage networks. The major and minor systems are closely
interrelated, and their design needs to be done in tandem and conjunction with the design of
structural stormwater controls and the overall stormwater management concept and plan.

11
Calculation

Diagram of the pre and post developed catchment area

- Orange box is the catchment area for the pre and post development uses to construct
bungalow.

- Purple color area will be the drainage system installed for post development and
there is no drainage system for pre-development.
- Red circle will be the highest and lowest elevation point for pre-development.
- Blue circle will be the highest and lowest elevation point for post-development.

Calculation for time of concentration

Pre-Develop
Assume pre-developed is average grass and open spaces area.

The elevation of the right bottom of the pre-developed site is 35.89m

The elevation of the left top of the pre-developed site is 33.51m.

12
The flow is assumed to flow from the right bottom of pre-developed site to the left top as the
right bottom site has higher elevation compare to left top. The distance between the right
bottom and left top of the pre-developed site is L=174.0198m.

By taking the Pythagoras method to find the distance length between highest and lowest
elevation;

174.0198m

84.617m

152.062m
Slope of the overland surface,
35.89𝑚−33.51𝑚
S= x100%
174.0198

= 1.40156% < 5% ( moderate slope )

33.51m 174.0198m 35.89m

By referring table 2.1 in MSMA,

L= 100m (maximum distance for moderate slope)

13
Time of concentration:
1
107(𝑛∗ )(𝐿3 )
𝑡𝑜 = 1 ; Horton’s Roughness, n*= 0.045(average grass)
𝑆5
1
107(0.045)(1003 )
𝑡𝑜 = 1 = 20.9 minutes =tc
1.401565

Post-Develop

Assume post-developed is paved and bungalow housing area with smooth finish concrete
drainage system.

The elevation of the right of the post-developed site is 34.200

The elevation of the left of the post-developed site is 34.000m.

The flow is assumed to flow from the right of post-developed site to the left as the right site
has higher elevation compare to left top. The direct runoff will flow from right to the left and
go into the smooth finish concrete drainage system. The distance between the right bottom
and left top of the pre-developed site is L=152.062m.

Slope of the overland surface,

34.200𝑚−34.000𝑚
S= x 100%
152.062𝑚

= 0.131525% < 1% ( Mild Slope )

152.062m 34.200m
34.000m

L = 152.062m

14
Time of concentration:

𝑡𝐶 = 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑡𝑑
1
107(𝑛∗ )(𝐿3 )
𝑡𝑜 = 1 ; Horton’s Roughness, n*= 0.015 (paved)
𝑆5
1
107(0.015)(152.0623 )
𝑡𝑜 = 1
0.1315255

= 12.85 minutes

(𝑛)(𝐿)
𝑡𝑑 = 2 1
60 ( 𝑅 3) (𝑆 2 )

Manning’s roughness coefficient, n= 0.015 (smooth finish concrete).

Length of reach, L = (87.412m+22.212m) =109.354m

Slope friction, S =

0.95m

109.354m

S= 0.95/109.364 =0.008687 (The elevation of the drainage system assumed to be 0.95m)

Hydraulic radius =

5m 5m

7.62m

15
 𝐴
R=
𝑃

5 𝑋 7.62
R=
5+7.62+5

R = 2.1623m

(0.015)(109.354)
𝑡𝑑 = 2 1 = 0.18 minutes
60 ( 2.16233 ) (0.0086872 )

𝑡𝑑 = 12.85 + 0.18 = 13.03 minutes

Calculation for temporal pattern

Based on the Table 1: Quantity Design Storm ARIs, we chose bungalow for our post-
development construction. The ARI for minor is 5years and major is 50 years. For this
assignment, we assume storm duration, d is the same for both minor and major system which
is 30min or 0.5hours.

By referring MSMA, our station ID is 3217004 which is located at Kg. Kuala Seleh, H. Klg,
the constant value for λ, κ, θ, η is 61.516, 0.139, 0.183 and 0.837 respectively. (Table 2.B1)

For 5 years ARI

λTK
Average rainfall, i =
( 𝑑+ 𝜃)𝑛

(61.516)(5)0.139
=
( 0.5+0.183)0.837

= 105.86 mm/hr

Rainfall depth = i*d

= 105.86 * 0.5.

= 52.931 mm

16
 Rainfall interval Storm duration Depth Intensity
(mins) ( 30 mins ) (mm) ( mm/hr)
0-5 0.097 5.13 61.56
5-10 0.161 8.52 102.24
10-15 0.400 21.17 254.04
15-20 0.164 8.68 104.16
20-25 0.106 5.61 67.32
25-30 0.072 3.81 45.72

Sample calculation:
Depth = 52.931 * 0.097 = 5.13 mm

5.13𝑚𝑚
Intensity = 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 hr = 61.56mm/hr
60𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠

Rainfall Intensity Hyetograph for 5years ARI

300

254.04
250

200
Itensity(mm/hr)

150

102.24 104.16
100
67.32
61.56
45.72
50

0
5 10 15 20 25 30

Time(mins)

17
 Rainfall Depth Hyetograph for 5years ARI
25

21.17

20
Rainfall Depth ( mm )

15

10 8.52 8.68

5.13 5.61
5 3.81

0
5 10 15 20 25 30

Time(mins)

Discussion

In this assignment, the concentration time which is tc represent the time needed for a particle
of water to flow from the most hydraulically remote point in the watershed to the outflow
point. After the research for this project, we found that the tc for the post development is
lower than the pre-development. There are some major causes that will affect the tc in this
project such as channel shape and flow pattern and surface roughness.

First and foremost, we will discuss about how the channel shape and flow pattern affect the
tc for both the development. In small, pre-developed watersheds, much of the travel time
results from overland flow in upstream area. The post development reduces the overland flow
lengths as it conveys the storm runoff into a channel as soon as possible. In this project, the

18
channel design has efficient hydraulic characteristics, so when the velocity of runoff flow
decreases, the travel time decreases for the post development.

Second, the surface roughness also play an important role in the determination of the
concentration time. The surface roughness lowers the retardance to flow make the velocities
of the flow become higher. This is a significant effect of urbanization for the development on
overland flow. In the pre-development area, the overland flow is very slow and narrow
through the vegetation as It affected by the urban development. Hence, the streets, storm
sewers and gutters will receive the flow that transport runoff downstream rapidly. This causes
the travel time through the watershed decreased.

likely to happen once in longer period with huge amount of rainfall compare to lower return
period.

“Time of concentration, tc is the time required for an entire watershed to contribute to

runoff at the point of interest for hydraulic design; this time is calculated as the time for
runoff to flow from the most hydraulically remote point of the drainage area to the point
under investigation. Travel time and tc are functions of length and velocity for a particular
watercourse. A long but steep flow path with a high velocity may actually have a shorter
travel time than a short but relatively flat flow path. There may be multiple paths to consider
in determining the longest travel time. The designer must identify the flow path along which
the longest travel time is likely to occur. There is some other special method to calculate the
time of concentration which is Kerby-Kirpich Method. In general, Kirpich-inclusive
approaches and particularly the Kerby-Kirpich approach, for estimating watershed time of
concentration are preferable. The Kerby-Kirpich approach requires comparatively few input
parameters, is straightforward to apply, and produces readily interpretable results. The Kerby-
Kirpich approach produces time of concentration estimates consistent with watershed time
values independently derived from real-world storms and runoff hydrographs. Similar to
other methods for calculation of tc, the total time of concentration is obtained by adding the
overland flow time (Kerby) and the channel flow time (Kirpich):

𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑜𝑣 + 𝑡𝑐ℎ

Where,

19
𝑡𝑜𝑣 = overland flow time 𝑡𝑐ℎ = channel flow time

The Kerby-Kirpich method for estimating tc is applicable to watersheds ranging from

0.25 square miles to 150 square miles, main channel lengths between 1 and 50 miles, and
main channel slopes between 0.002 ft and 0.02 ft. Main channel slope is computed as the
change in elevation from the watershed divide to the watershed outlet divided by the
curvilinear distance of the main channel (primary flow path) between the watershed divide
and the outlet. No watersheds with low topographic slopes are available in the underlying
database. Therefore, the Kerby and Kerpich methods are not usually applicable to watersheds
with limited topographic slope”, as stated by Hydraulic Designn Manual.(2016).

In the other hand, there are some methods that can design the storm water drainage
system. For instance, average recurrence interval (ARI), design rainfall estimates, time of
concentration and rainfall intensity. From the topography of the proposed site, the rainfall and
runoff will channel down through the slope due to discrepancy in elevation in the period of
pre-development. On the other hand, the value of overland, curb cutter and drain flow will
affect the flow and direction of the runoff of the rainfall in the post-development.

“An increase in storm water volume and flow rate as a result of development can
have a range of effects including increasing in flood risk to downstream infrastructure due to
increase peak flow rate or volume in larger storms, increasing stream erosion as a result of
more frequent storms and increased discharge volume, effects on stream ecology for example
increasing the rate of sediment discharges, reductions in base flows, as well as changes to
habitat resulting from erosion or flow increases and reducing the groundwater recharge.

The following are some matters to consider when designing a development, or when
writing rules for storm water management,

• Will increased runoff volume coupled with flow peak attenuation cause increased
coincidence of peaks from different sub catchments? It may be that the post-
development peak from a sub catchment needs to be set lower than the pre-
development peak.
• Will increased frequency and volume of runoff result in increased energy expended
on the downstream waterways, increasing erosion? This might need retention/soakage
and extended detention, plus peak flow attenuation throughout the full range of storm

20
 events. Channel form downstream for example a small permanent channel with a
wide floodplain can also assist in addressing erosion risk.
Will increased impervious area and reduced discharge to ground result in reduced stream
base flow, affecting stream ecology? Some form of retention and discharge to ground is
likely needed”, as stated by WATER NEW ZEALAND. (2016).

“When rain or snow falls onto the earth, it just doesn't sit there, it starts moving according
to the laws of gravity. A portion of the precipitation seeps into the ground to replenish Earth's
groundwater. Most of it flows downhill as runoff. Runoff is extremely important in that not
only does it keep rivers and lakes full of water, but it also changes the landscape by the action
of erosion. Flowing water has tremendous power. It can move boulders and carve out
canyons. Runoff of course occurs during storms, and much more water flows in rivers during
storms. For example, in 2001 during a major storm at Peachtree Creek in Atlanta, Georgia,
the amount of water that flowed in the river in one day was 7 percent of all the streamflow for
the year. A significant portion of rainfall in forested watersheds before development is
absorbed into soils which is infiltration, is stored as groundwater, and is slowly discharged to
streams through seeps and springs. Flooding is less significant in these more natural
conditions because some of the runoff during a storm is absorbed into the ground, thus
lessening the amount of runoff into a stream during the storm. As watersheds are urbanized,
much of the vegetation is replaced by impervious surfaces, thus reducing the area where
infiltration to groundwater can occur. Thus, more storm water runoff occurs, runoff that must
be collected by extensive drainage systems that combine curbs, storm sewers and ditches to
carry storm water runoff directly to streams. More simply, in a developed watershed, much
more water arrives into a stream much more quickly, resulting in an increased likelihood of
more frequent and more severe flooding”, as stated by The USGS Water Science School.
(2016).

“The water vapor that feeds precipitation comes from two sources. One study concludes
that about 60 percent of the rain and snow that falls over land comes from moisture
originating from the oceans, and the other 40 percent is “recycled” over the continents. China,
for example, gets most of its rain and snow from evaporation over Eurasia. As the
atmosphere gets warmer, it can hold more moisture. The intensity of downpours and
therefore the risk of floods depends in part on how much water the air can hold at a given
time. The rate of evaporation from the ocean is increasing as the world warms. Think about

21
heating a large pot of water on your stove – the higher you turn the dial, the faster the water
evaporates. Pretty much the same thing happens with the planet, and globally, this higher rate
of evaporation contributes to more extreme rain and snow events. The condition is exactly
showing the picture before the development and also after the development. As we can see,
the increase the rate of evaporation, the increase the flow rate and therefore it leads the flood
risks to downstream. We know that the water catchment area has been decreased and it will
increase the runoff volume”, as citated by Climate Reality Project. (2018).

Conculsion

In conclusion, the time of concentration for pre-development will be higher compare topost-
development because pre-development land having with grass, tress that allow that waterflow
slowly to watershed outflow point due to the losses such as infiltration, transpiration,
evaporation and interception but post-development which is bungalow is paved and having
drainage system that causing more surface runoff and water flow faster in drainage system to
watershed outflow point. In this assignment 1, it is necessary to determine the time of
concentration of the catchment area because it is important to know the total time to allow all
water to flow to the catchment outlet point. Besides, it is necessary to determine the average
depth and intensity of the rainfall in 5 years because it is important to know how much of the
depth and intensity of the rainfall will occurs once in that period with 30minutes store
duration.

22
References

1. Government of Malaysia DID. (2012). Urban Stormwater Management Manual for

Malaysia (MSMA 2nd Edition)

2. Melbourne Water Corporation. (2017). General approach to drainage systems.

Available at https://www.melbournewater.com.au/planning-and-building/developer-
guides-and-resources/standards-and-specifications/general-approach. Accessed on 17
August 2019, 4:30 p.m.
3. Hydraulic Designn Manual. (2016). Section 11: Time of Concentration. Available at
http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/hyd/time_of_concentration.htm.
Accessed on 17 August 2019, 5:40 p.m.
4. Climate Reality Project.(2018).CLIMATE 101: WHY DOES CLIMATE CHANGE
INCREASE RAINFALL?. Available at
https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/climate-101-why-does-climate-change-
increase-rainfall. Accessed on 18 August 2019, 12:50 p.m.
5. The USGS Water Science School. (2016). Runoff (surface water runoff). Available at
https://water.usgs.gov/edu/runoff.html. Accessed on 18 August 2019, 6:10 p.m.

6. WATER NEW ZEALAND. (2016). Runoff: rules plus reason Why attenuate, retain
or detain?. Available at
https://www.waternz.org.nz/Attachment?Action=Download&Attachment_id=474.
Accessed on 18 August 2019 , 7:20 p.m.

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