MILK/Processing of Liquid Milk 3951
outbreaks caused by Campylobacter strains and Lis- Harding F (ed.) (1995) Milk Quality. London: Blackie
teria monoctyogenes have been traced to the con-
sumption of raw or improperly pasteurized milk.
0030 Human handlers of milk may cause problems if
they are clinically or subclinically infected with
Salmonella spp., particularly Salmonella typhi, or
Streptococcus pyogenes, and contaminate the milk
during the milking, storage, and transport process.
Heat treatment of the milk equivalent to pasteuriza-
tion will eliminate milk as a likely vehicle for food
poisoning by these organisms. Many health author-
ities recommend the scalding of raw milk by bringing
milk to the boil before consumption in the home. This
form of heat treatment kills microbes with the poten-
tial of causing disease and also increases the shelf-life
by killing many bacteria which will spoil the milk.
0031 Care needs to taken with the quality of feedstuffs,
including grains, to prevent the possibility of contam-
ination of the milk by aflatoxins.
Direct Sales from the Farm to the Public
0032 The practice of direct sales of nonheat-treated milk
from the farm to the public will depend upon the
country. In some countries direct sales are prohibited
while in other countries the practice may be permitted
if the farmer has the herd regularly checked by a
veterinarian for absence of specific diseases and
carries out strict hygienic practices during milking,
storage, and packaging. Some farmers may heat-treat
the milk using a batch or high-temperature, short-time
(HTST) pasteurization system, while other farmers
sell raw or unpasteurized milk. The degree of surveil-
lance by health authorities of farms that sell raw or
heat-treated milk for human consumption varies from
regular to no inspections or surveillance.
See also: Aflatoxins; Buffalo: Milk; Campylobacter:
Properties and Occurrence; Escherichia coli:
Occurrence; Listeria: Properties and Occurrence; Milk:
Processing of Liquid Milk; Physical and Chemical
Properties; Analysis; Dietary Importance; Mycobacteria;
Pasteurization: Principles; Sheep: Milk; Spoilage:
Bacterial Spoilage; Staphylococcus: Properties and
Occurrence
Further Reading
Banks W and Dalgleish DG (1990) Dairy Microbiology. In:
Robinson, RK (ed.) The Microbiology of Milk, 2nd edn.
pp. 1–36. London: Elsevier.
Bramley AJ and McKinnon CH (1990) The Microbiology
of Raw Milk. In: Robinson RK (ed.) The Microbiology
of Milk, 2nd edn, pp. 163–208. London: Elsevier.
Fox PF and McSweeny PLH (1998) Dairy Chemistry and
Biochemistry. London: Blackie Academic and Profes-
sional.
Academic and Professional.
IDF (1990) Milk Collection in Warm Developing Coun-
tries. Brussels: International Dairy Federation.
IDF (1994) The Significance of Pathogenic Microorganisms
in Raw Milk. Brussels: International Dairy Federation.
IDF (1995) Milk Payment System for ex Farm Milk, Anti-
biotic Testing, Mastitis Control. Bulletin 305. Brussels:
International Dairy Federation.
IDF (1996) Bacteriological Quality of Raw Milk. Brussels:
International Dairy Federation.
IDF (1997) Residues and Contaminants in Milk and Milk
Products. Brussels: International Dairy Federation.
La Fondation De Technologie Laitière du Quebec (1985)
Dairy Science and Technology. Quebec: Les Presses de
l’Université Laval.
Marth EH and Steele JL (eds) (1998) Applied Dairy Micro-
biology, pp. 1–64. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Varnam AH and Sutherland JP (1994) Milk and Milk Prod-
ucts Technology, Chemistry and Microbiology. London:
Chapman and Hall.
Walstra P, Geurts TJ, Noomen A et al. (1999) Dairy
Technology Principles of Milk Properties and Pro-
cesses, pp. 1–187. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Welch RAS, Burns SR, Davis SR et al. (eds) (1997) Milk
Composition, Production and Biotechnology. New
York: CAB International.
Wong NP (ed.) (1988) Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry,
3rd edn. New York: Van Nostrand.
Processing of Liquid Milk
J Manners, University of Melbourne, Parkville,
Victoria, Australia
H Craven, Food Science Australia, Werribee, Victoria,
Australia
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Background
Advances in technology and the demand by larger 0001
communities of people for a regular supply of various
types of milk have led to the development and appli-
cation of a range of processes for liquid milk. These
include a defined heat treatment to minimize changes
to the product while eliminating pathogenic bacteria
and extending shelf-life, addition of supplements to
improve nutritional value or flavor, and modification
of composition to standardize consistency or improve
dietary content.
Types of Products
Traditionally, the principal product sold as liquid 0002
milk was whole milk, heat-treated and packed in a
 3952 MILK/Processing of Liquid Milk
returnable container such as glass bottles. In recent
years, changes in customer demands and techno-
logical advances have increased the range of liquid
milk products available. Major types of liquid milk
range from skim or nonfat milk, reduced- or low-fat
milk, high-fat milk to reduced-fat, high-protein
products. These may be sold as natural-flavored
milk or with added flavors such as chocolate, coffee,
and strawberry. The products may be heat-treated
using conventional pasteurization or ultrahigh tem-
perature (UHT) processing. Flavored milk products
usually contain added sugar, coloring and flavoring
agents and additives such as stabilizers. The range
of flavors added to milk depend on the cultural
background of the market. Chocolate-flavored
milk is a popular product in many countries. Milks
mixed with fruit juice or fruit pulp have been
marketed successfully in some countries, while the
consumption of drinking yogurt is growing. The
typical compositions for different milk products are
compared in Table 1. (See Fermented Milks: Types
of Fermented Milks; Heat Treatment: Ultra-high
Temperature (UHT) Treatments; Stabilizers: Types
and Function.)
0003 Milks may be sold with added vitamins, such as
vitamins A and D, to increase the dietary intake of
essential nutrients. In recent years, with increased
awareness of the risks of osteoporosis, calcium has
been added to some milk products. Low-lactose
milk made by the addition of the enzyme, lactase,
to milk before or after heat treatment is gaining
a market share in markets with a large number
of lactose-intolerant consumers. (See Calcium: Pro-
perties and Determination; Cholecalciferol: Physi-
ology; Dairy Products – Nutritional Contribution;
Food Intolerance: Lactose Intolerance; Milk Allergy;
Lactose; Osteoporosis; Retinol: Physiology.)
0004 Other new products incorporate Lactobacillus
acidophilus and Bifidobacterium spp. in liquid
milk to assist those with sensitive gastrointestinal
tracts. In Australia, sales of pasteurized ultrafiltered
tbl0001 Table 1 Typical chemical composition (g per 100 g of product)
for different milk productsa
Product Fat Solids-nonfat
Whole milk 3.8–4.0 > 8.5
Skim milk 0.1 > 8.5
High-fat milk 5.0–6.9 > 8.5
Reduced-fat milk 1.0–2.0 > 8.5
Reduced-fat, 1.0–2.0 11.3
high-protein milk
a
Flavored milks may be made by adding sucrose, color, and flavors to the
typical formulations described.
low-fat milk have increased steadily since the
initial market launch. (See Acidophilus Milk;
Bifidobacteri in Foods; Lactic Acid Bacteria;
Membrane Techniques: Principles of Ultrafiltration;
Probiotics.)
In many countries, the new types of milk products 0005
have steadily eroded the market share of whole milk
over time to the situation in Canada and The Nether-
lands, where reduced-fat milk accounts for more than
half of the total milk sales.
Collection and Storage of Raw Milk
As many milk-processing dairies are located near the 0006
market in urban areas, the milk is transported in
large-capacity tankers to the processing dairy from
milk collection depots in the farming areas. The milk
is usually cooled at the depot before dispatch to the
processing dairy. Some processing dairies may receive
milk directly from farms.
On arrival at the milk-processing dairy, the milk is 0007
inspected for quality attributes such as temperature,
flavor, smell, and presence of extraneous matter and
volume. Samples of milk may be taken to determine
fat and solids-nonfat content, numbers of bacteria,
freezing point and presence of antibiotic residues. The
actual tests performed on incoming supplies of milk
depend on a company’s quality program for inspec-
tion of raw materials and the requirements of regula-
tory authorities. (See Milk: Liquid Milk for the
Consumer.)
After the tanker load has been accepted for use, 0008
the milk is pumped into a storage vessel designated
for raw milk. The milk may be filtered during the
pumping process to reduce the level of extraneous
matter. It may be necessary to cool the incoming
milk to 5
C to minimize the growth of contaminating
microorganisms. Plate heat exchangers are com-
monly used to cool the milk before storage. In many
countries, the temperature of milk during storage and
the allowed time for storage before pasteurization are
limited by regulatory requirements. However, storage
conditions of less than 5
C and 48 h maximum are
generally accepted as good manufacturing practice by
the industry across the world. Storage of milk above
5
C and extended times of storage encourage the
Total solids growth of psychrotrophic bacteria, which may cause
organoleptic defects.
> 12.3
The milk in the storage vessels must be agitated 0009
> 8.6
> 13.5 slowly to prevent the separation of fat. Mechanical
> 9.5 agitation or passage of compressed air through the
12.3–13.3 milk is commonly used by the dairy industry. Care
must be taken during agitation to minimize the possi-
bility of lipolysis caused by disruption of the milk fat
globules.

Preparation
0010 Before heat treatment and packaging, it may be
necessary to prepare the raw milk for processing.
Regulatory authorities in some countries permit the
milk depot to standardize the milk to desired fat and
solids level before dispatch to the processing dairies.
In other countries, this form of preparation is not
permitted. For skim milk, the fat is removed through
the separation process while low-fat, high-solids
products may require separation and the addition of
milk solids in the form of skim milk powder or skim
milk concentrate. In the preparation of flavored milk,
sugar, flavors, colors, and other additives are added to
the milk in the desired quantities. Often, these ingre-
dients are purchased in a dry, premixed form, and
blended with a small quantity of milk or water before
mixing with the raw milk. Sometimes, the syrup mix-
ture may be injected into the milk after pasteuriza-
tion.
Recombination
0011 Where the supply of raw milk fluctuates or is insuffi-
cient to meet the market needs, milk fat in the form of
butter oil and milk solids in the form of full cream or
skim milk powder may be used to prepare reconsti-
tuted or recombined milk. Recombination may also
be used where the available milk supply has a high
fat content. The butter, unsalted butter, and milk
powders must be selected carefully and stored to
ensure proper mixing of the materials and an absence
of undesirable flavors in the finished product. The
added water must be of a drinkable quality. In some
countries, vegetable fats may be used instead of milk
fat to prepare recombined milk. (See Recombined and
Filled Milks.)
Heat Treatment
0012 Milk is heat-treated to kill many of the microorgan-
isms present in raw milk. The heat treatment makes
the milk safe to drink and extends the potential
shelf-life. Several different forms of heat treatment
are used. These are pasteurization, UHT, and in-
container sterilization. Pasteurization is the most
commonly used form of heat treatment. The shelf-
life of the milk depends on the heat treatment used
in the process. (See Heat Transfer Methods; Heat
Treatment: Ultra-high Temperature (UHT) Treat-
ments; Pasteurization: Pasteurization of Liquid Prod-
ucts; Sterilization of Foods.)
Pasteurization
0013 This form of heat treatment evolved from Pasteur’s
discovery that heating wines to 50–60
C destroyed
MILK/Processing of Liquid Milk 3953
many of the organisms responsible for spoilage. With
milk, a temperature–time combination sufficient to
kill the organism, Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
without adversely affecting the flavor, color, and
nutritional value is used. (See Mycobacteria.)
The two principal forms of pasteurization now 0014
used by industry throughout the world are batch
pasteurization, where milk is held at a determined
temperature for a long time, and high-temperature,
short-time (HTST) pasteurization using a higher
temperature for a relatively short period. Typical tem-
perature–time combinations are 62–63
C for 30–
35 min for batch pasteurization and 72
C for 15 s
for HTST pasteurization. The temperature–time
combination may need to be increased for effective
pasteurization of products such as flavored milk with
higher levels of solids, or reduced for skim milk to
minimize damage to flavor and color. After heating,
the milk is cooled immediately to 5
C or lower.
The batch pasteurization process is carried out 0015
using slow agitation of milk in a jacketed vat, which
can be heated and cooled. The cost of the equipment
is relatively low, but the labor and energy costs are
higher compared with the HTST system.
In the modern processing dairy with a large 0016
throughput, the HTST pasteurization process is
favored, as the throughput can be as high as 50 000 l
h1, and energy costs are reduced by using the heated
milk to warm incoming milk in the regeneration
section of the pasteurizer. The heated milk is cooled
after pasteurization in the regeneration section.
The plate heat exchanger has historically been used 0017
for HTST pasteurization (Figure 1). The plate design
offers a large surface area for heat transfer in a rela-
tively compact area. Once the milk reaches the de-
sired temperature of 72
C, it enters a holding tube
designed to ensure that all milk particles reside in the
tube for at least 15 s. A temperature probe is located
at the end of the holding tube. If the temperature falls
below the desired temperature, a flow diversion valve
is opened, which directs underprocessed milk back
into the balance tank. The pasteurizers need to be
checked regularly to ensure that there is no risk of
raw milk contaminating the pasteurized product.
Heat exchangers designed using a tubular system 0018
have become increasingly popular in recent years.
The heat is transferred from heated outer tubes to
product in inner tubes. The tubular system is con-
sidered to be cheaper to maintain and can handle
products with a higher viscosity compared with a
plate heat exchanger.
In recent years, the design of pasteurizers and con- 0019
trol systems used on pasteurizers has been improved
in response to public health problems thought to be
caused by inadequate pasteurization of milk.
 3954 MILK/Processing of Liquid Milk
Cooling
Co
ld l
iqu
id
Raw milk
HOLDING TUBE
Flow diversion to THERMOMETER
raw milk line
if not heated to
pasteurization temperature
fig0001 Figure 1 Schematic diagram of a plate heat exhanger pasteurizer showing milk flow.
0020 Some processors use microfiltration in combin-
ation with pasteurization to extend milk shelf-life.
The skim milk fraction is filtered to remove bacteria,
sterile cream is added to adjust the fat content, and
then the product is pasteurized. Microfiltration re-
duces levels of spoilage bacteria while avoiding flavor
defects caused by high heat treatment of skim milk.
Cream is not as susceptible to this problem. Canadian
experience has demonstrated that the shelf-life of
pasteurized milk can be extended from 12–18 to 32
days by using microfiltration.
UHT
0021 The UHT treatment was developed to minimize
damage to milk components caused by in-container
sterilization while killing or inactivating all microor-
ganisms, so there is little likelihood of microorganisms
spoiling the product during storage and transport.
The product is said to be ‘commercially sterile.’ The
term ‘UHT’ may stand for ultraheat treatment or
ultrahigh temperature.
0022 UHT processing is being used increasingly for heat-
treating milk, as the shelf-life is extended from days to
months, and UHT milk can be stored and transported
without refrigeration. The use of UHT treatment varies
around the world. In Germany, France, and Spain,
more than 50% of liquid milk is consumed in UHT
form, whereas the process is rarely used in the USA.
0023 The taste and appearance of UHT-treated milk are
different from those of pasteurized milk. The milk
Pasteurized milk
Regeneration HOMOGENIZER
Hot liquid
Heating
may taste cooked or burnt to some consumers, be-
cause of the development of a sulfurous flavor during
the heat treatment. The form of heat treatment used
influences the intensity of the sulfurous flavor. How-
ever, the flavor has generally dissipated by the time of
consumption, and the milk has a slightly brown color.
In some countries, the temperature and time condi- 0024
tions for UHT treatment are specified by regulation.
Typical temperature–time conditions for UHT treat-
ment of milk are 130–150
C for 1–3 s. Products with
increased solids will require a higher temperature or
longer time to ensure effective heat treatment.
UHT treatment can be carried out using a number 0025
of different systems. These include direct means of
heat treatment such as injection of steam into milk
and infusion of milk into a steam chamber or indirect
means using heat exchangers where the milk is separ-
ated from the heating medium. Scraped-surface heat
exchangers may be necessary for UHT treatment of
viscous products or products containing particulate
matter. When steam is used for direct heat treatment,
care must be taken to ensure that there is no dilution
of the milk. The steam must also be suitable for
contact with food products. All UHT equipment
must be sterile to prevent recontamination of the
milk with microorganisms. Products that have been
UHT-treated must be packed aseptically to ensure
optimum shelf-life.
The raw milk to be used for UHT treatment must 0026
be selected carefully to ensure that there is minimal

chance of heat-stable indigenous or microbial enzymes
present causing gelation in the stored products.
0027 Some dairies use equipment designed for UHT
treatment to heat the product to 120–130
C without
a holding time. This is claimed to double the shelf-life
of product packed under nonaseptic conditions com-
pared with normal pasteurized milk.
In-container sterilization
0028 The consumption of in-container sterilized milk has
declined with the introduction of UHT processing and
improved storage and distribution systems for pas-
teurized milk. The term ‘sterilized’ is used to describe
milk that has been packed in airtight containers and
subjected to temperatures in excess of 100
C. The
severe heat treatment of the milk results in a caramel-
ized, burnt flavor and a brown color. The product is
usually packed before heat treatment. If it is packed
after heat treatment, the containers must be sterilized
before use and then filled under aseptic conditions.
Typical heating parameters for packaged sterlized
milk are 115–120
C for 10–20 min. The tempera-
ture–time conditions applied depend on the compos-
ition of the product, the type and dimensions of the
package, and the desired degree of caramelization.
Homogenization
0029 Many liquid milks need to be homogenized to prevent
the separation of fat during storage and distribution.
The large fat globules are broken up to form small
globules that do not aggregate and rise to the surface.
Homogenization also improves the mouth-feel of
many products.
0030 The homogenization step normally takes place after
the preheat treatment in the pasteurizer. The normal
temperature of milk required for effective homogeniza-
tion is 60–70
C. Heating the milk prior to homogeniza-
tion helps to break up the fat globules and inactivates
milk lipase that may act on the disrupted fat. The hom-
ogenization process is normally in two stages with
14 000–20 000 kPa pressure for the first stage to reduce
the size of the fat globules and 3500 kPa for the second
stage to disrupt and prevent the reformation of fat glob-
ules into large clumps. UHT milk may be homogenized
before or after heating, although it is said that
homogenization after UHT treatment gives a more
stable product. (See Homogenization.)
Packaging
0031 After heat treatment, liquid milk products are packed
with minimal time delay. This helps reduce the
likelihood of postpasteurization contamination that
may affect the shelf-life.
MILK/Processing of Liquid Milk 3955
Historically, returnable glass bottles were the con- 0032
tainers commonly used, but technological advances
have seen the introduction and regular use of card-
board cartons, plastic bottles and sachets, and lamin-
ates of foil, plastic, and cardboard. Many of these
containers are single-trip and thus do not require spe-
cialized cleaning and sterilizing equipment in the dairy.
Selection of the type of package and packaging 0033
method requires consideration of many factors. The
principal objective of packaging a product is to main-
tain the nutritional properties and quality of the
product during storage, transport, and distribution
to the consumer. Other factors to be considered
when selecting packaging material include the safety
of the packaging materials, compatibility of the prod-
uct and package, hygiene, accuracy and mechanical
efficiency of the packaging process, hygienic design
of packaging equipment, marketing and promotion
functions, consumer acceptance, energy consump-
tion, environmental impact, and economics.
The sterilization of the packaging material and 0034
filling equipment for pasteurized products extends
the shelf-life of the pasteurized milk product com-
pared with the shelf-life of pasteurized milk packed
under normal conditions.
When packaging UHT products, the equipment 0035
and packaging material must be sterilized to ensure
that no microorganisms enter the product. This re-
quires stringent cleaning and sanitation procedures
and quality control checks. (See Packaging: Pack-
aging of Liquids; Plant Design: Designing for Hy-
gienic Operation.)
Storage and Distribution
This step is very important in the chain of events from 0036
raw materials to consumers, but its importance is
often overlooked. In many countries, regulations
may prescribe conditions for the temperature of the
product during storage and distribution and for
hygienic conditions in the storerooms and transport
vehicles.
A major factor influencing the shelf-life of pasteur- 0037
ized milk is the temperature of the product after pas-
teurization. Many milk containers act as insulators;
therefore, the temperature of the milk as it leaves the
pasteurizer is critical to ensure that the pasteurized milk
reaches the maximum shelf-life. The effective tempera-
ture of cool storage rooms is dependent upon factors
such as the temperature of the external environment,
the temperature of incoming product, the refrigeration
capacity, and the isolation or separation of the cool
room from the external environment. It is generally
agreed that the temperature of milk should remain
below 5
C to ensure the maximum shelf-life. This
 3956 MILK/Processing of Liquid Milk
requires an efficient cold chain during the transport of
milk from the pasteurizer to the customer.
0038 In many countries, storage of milk at temperatures
below 0
C experienced during winter may result in
freezing and subsequent damage to the milk during
thawing. Steps must be taken to minimize the possible
uncontrolled freezing and thawing of the product.
0039 Care must be taken during storage and distribution
to prevent possible contamination of milk with off-
flavors caused by close contact with chemicals or
other foods. Mechanical damage to the container
may permit contamination by microbes and other
material such as dust.
Factors that Influence Shelf-life
0040 The shelf-life of milk products is defined as the period
between manufacture or processing and when the
consumer considers the product unsuitable for use.
The product may be considered to be unsuitable for
consumption, because of the presence of flavor
defects and/or changes in physical appearance. (See
Storage Stability: Shelf-life Testing.)
0041 Factors determining the shelf-life of pasteurized
milk include:
0042 1. The presence of thermoduric bacteria in raw milk
that are able to grow under refrigeration, e.g.,
Bacillus cereus and B. circulans. Processors using
the extended shelf-life packaging technique often
encounter problems with shelf-life owing to the
presence of low numbers of Bacillus spp. in the
raw milk. (See Bacillus: Occurrence.)
0043 2. The presence of psychrotrophic bacteria in the
plant after the heat treatment step. These organ-
isms grow under refrigeration and eventually cause
spoilage as a result of their biochemical activity.
0044 3. The temperature of the product after heat treat-
ment. Ideally, milk should be stored between 1 and
2
C to minimize the growth of psychrotrophic
bacteria present in the milk from postpasteuriza-
tion contamination. However, in many production
situations, 1–2
C is not practical, and the recom-
mended temperature is 4–5
C, with some coun-
tries permitting higher storage temperatures.
Elevated temperatures allow bacteria to grow
more quickly, thus reducing the time required for
spoilage. (See Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage.)
0045 4. The presence of heat-stable enzymes produced
by some species of psychrotrophic bacteria.
Pasteurization and UHT treatments easily kill the
bacteria, but the enzymes survive and are able to
break down protein or fat. The problem is more
pronounced in UHT products. Generally, a large
number of bacteria must be present to produce the
enzyme, and so low numbers of bacteria in raw
milk will minimize this risk. (See Spoilage: Chem-
ical and Enzymatic Spoilage.)
5. The action of lipase on damaged fat globules in 0046
raw milk results in rancid flavors in the finished
products. Fat globules may be damaged during
pumping and agitation. Maintaining the tempera-
ture of raw milk below 4
C minimizes the lipo-
lytic activity. The lipase is inactivated during
pasteurization.
6. The general microbial growth in raw milk may 0047
result in damage to the milk solids as a result of
metabolic activity. Subsequent handling of the
milk may result in precipitation of the milk pro-
teins or off-flavors. Numbers in excess of 5 million
per milliliter are generally required for this to be a
major concern.
7. Excessive temperatures (> 75
C) during pasteuriza- 0048
tion are likely to induce the germination of micro-
bial spores present in the raw milk; these microbes
are then able to grow under low temperatures.
8. The action of heat-stable plasmin on proteins in 0049
milk. This causes flavor defects and age gelation in
UHT products. Plasmin concentration increases
with time during the lactation period, the degree
of mastitic infection and the age of the cow.
Many consumer complaints relate to the presence of
off-flavors in the milk. Frequently, these off-flavors
may be caused by exposure of milk to sunlight or
artificial light. One form of off-flavor, called acti-
vated flavor, occurs quickly on exposure to sunlight.
The intensity of the off-flavor decreases over time.
The light-induced oxidized flavor is very strong and
objectionable, and does not decrease. Many dairies
now use opaque packaging material to reduce the
frequency of complaints from this problem.
Quality Assurance and Quality Control
Effective programs for the manufacture of safe, high- 0050
quality milk products are based on preventative
systems for the control of microbial and other con-
tamination. Many dairies now implement Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Point-based programs to
identify and manage points in the process where
hazards can occur, including where pathogenic organ-
isms can survive and proliferate. Key areas of hygienic
control for the safe production of milk include raw
material quality, adequate heat treatment, avoidance
of postpasteurization contamination, and limiting the
growth of microorganisms during storage prior to
consumption. These practices will not only ensure
the microbial safety of milk products but also assist
in the prevention of milk spoilage.

0051 Programs to ensure that the consumer receives milk
with acceptable properties, including safety and shelf-
life, include the following key elements:
0052 1. Inspection of incoming raw materials for organo-
leptic and compositional properties, plus the
presence of contaminants such as added water,
extraneous matter, residues, and bacteria.
0053 2. Monitoring of milk temperature during storage
and heat treatment using chart recorders.
0054 3. Monitoring of effectiveness of pasteurization heat
treatment using the alkaline phosphatase test and
operation of the diversion flow valve.
0055 4. Monitoring of effectiveness of the homogenization
process.
0056 5. Testing of product to ensure compliance to speci-
fications.
0057 6. Monitoring the effectiveness of cleaning and sani-
tation programs. This may involve the application
of tests to ensure that detergents and sanitizers are
used at the correct strength, temperature, and time
period, visual checks or swabs for the presence of
milk residues, and tests for bacterial indicators
such as Gram-negative psychrotrophs to deter-
mine the presence of postpasteurization contamin-
ation. (See Sanitization.)
0058 7. Monitoring the volume of packed containers.
0059 8. Monitoring the effectiveness of formation and
sealing of containers, including the presentation
of the pack.
0060 9. Monitoring the control of temperature and house-
keeping practices during the storage and distribu-
tion of the finished product.
A complete quality-management system will depend
upon the processing requirements of individual dairies.
The selection of process control tests should recognize
the need for quick results to enable an operative to take
corrective action, rather than for analytical precision.
(See Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point; Quality
Assurance and Quality Control.)
See also: Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point; Heat
Transfer Methods; Heat Treatment: Ultra-high
Temperature (UHT) Treatments; Homogenization; Milk:
Liquid Milk for the Consumer; Packaging: Packaging of
Liquids; Pasteurization: Pasteurization of Liquid
Products; Plant Design: Designing for Hygienic
Operation; Quality Assurance and Quality Control;
Recombined and Filled Milks; Sanitization;
Sterilization of Foods; Storage Stability: Shelf-life
Testing
Further Reading
Burton H (1988) Ultra-high-temperature Processing of
Milk and Milk Products. London: Elsevier.
MILK/Physical and Chemical Properties 3957
Champagne CP, Laing RR, Roy D, Mafu AA and Griffiths
MW (1994) Psychrotrophs in dairy products: their
effects and their control. Critical Reviews in Food
Science and Nutrition 34: 1–30.
Fox PF (ed.) (1995) Heat-induced Changes in Milk, 2nd
edn. Brussels: International Dairy Federation.
International Dairy Federation (1986) Monograph on
Pasteurized Milk, Document 200. Brussels: Inter-
national Dairy Federation.
International Dairy Federation (1987) Factors Affecting the
Keeping Quality of Heat Treated Milk, Document 130.
Brussels: International Dairy Federation.
International Dairy Federation (1988) Recombination of
Milk and Milk Products. Brussels: International Dairy
Federation.
International Dairy Federation (1994) Recommendations
for the Hygienic Manufacture of Milk and Milk-based
Products, Document 292. Brussels: International Dairy
Federation.
International Dairy Federation (1995) Technical Guide for
the Packaging of Milk and Milk Products, Document
300. Brussels: International Dairy Federation.
International Dairy Federation (1996) Heat Treatment
and Alternative Methods. Brussels: International Dairy
Federation.
Lewis MJ (1994) Heat Treatment of Milk. In: Robinson RK
(ed.) Modern Dairy Technology, vol. 1 Advances in Milk
Processing, 2nd edn., pp. 1–60. London: Chapman &
Hall.
Marth EH and Steele JL (eds.) (1998) Applied Dairy Micro-
biology, pp. 405–460. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Society of Dairy Technology (1983) Pasteurizing Plant
Manual. Huntingdon, UK: Society of Dairy Technology.
von Bockelmann B (undated) Long Life Products from Raw
Materials to Finished Products. Lund: Tetra Pak Inter-
national.
Walstra P, Geurts TJ, Noomen A, Jellema A and van Boekel
MASS (1999) Dairy Technology, Principles of Milk
Properties and Processes. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Physical and Chemical
Properties
D Otter, New Zealand Dairy Research Institute,
Palmerston North, New Zealand
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction
Milk comes from a wide variety of animal sources, 0001
e.g., human, cow, buffalo, goat, and sheep, and is an
important source of nutritional and physiological
components. The gross composition of milk from all
these sources has some similarities and this article
will discuss only bovine milk. It has a very complex