Department of Civil Engineering

Website : www.aceec.ac.
in
ACE
Engineering College
Ankushapur, Ghatkesar, Telangana 501301 (EAMCET Code: ACEG)
NAAC Accridated with ‘A’ Grade
Department of Civil Engineering
Soil Mechanics
III Year B.Tech. (II - Sem)
Prepared by :
B. Sandeep M.S Assistant Professor
V. Sateesh M.Tech Assistant Professor
in association with ACE Engineering Academy
ACE is the leading institute for coaching in ESE, GATE & PSUs
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Unit 6 Permeability
1. Definition : It is the property of the soil which allows passage of fluid through it
2. Darcy’s law : For flow through soils
Where,
V = discharge velocity of flow
= Q/A = Discharge /Area
i = hydraulic gradient
= ∆h/L = loss of head per unit seepage length
A = perpendicular cross sectional area
“V” is called discharge velocity or superficial or fictitious velocity
k = Coefficient of permeability(cm/sec or m/sec)
When i = 1 , V = k
 k is velocity of flow under unit hydraulic gradient
3. Permeable soil:
When a soil has continuous voids.
• A soil is said to be highly permeable when k> 10-1 cm/sec.
Example: Gravel , sand
• Soil is said to be impermeable when k<10-7 cm/sec.
Example: stiff clay
4. Validity of Darcy’s law:

• For laminar flow conditions only
• Generally, laminar flow will prevail in clays, silts and fine sands.
• Flow will be laminar as long as Reynolds number <1, when Re is calculated
considering characteristic length as the average particle diameter.
AACE Engineering College : Ankushapur, Ghatkesar, Telangana 501301 (EAMCET Code: ACEG)
2 Soil Mechanics
5. Seepage velocity(Vs) or actual or true velocity: For Micro Notes by the

Student
Vs = Discharge/Area of voids ,
= Discharge velocity/porosity
Vs is always greater than V.
6. Coefficient of percolation(kp):
7.
Where,
D10 = effective grain size
γw = unit weight of percolating fluid
μ = viscosity of percolating fluid
e = void ratio
C = shape constant depends upon type of soil, shape of soil particle and packing.
8. Factors affecting k:
(a) Size of particle :
(b) Shape of particle : For same void ratio, the soils with angular particle are less
permeable than those with rounded particles.
• k is inversely proportional to specific surface area
(c) Void ratio:
Paradoxically, the soils with largest void ratio (clays) have less permeability.
3 Soil Mechanics
(d) Properties of percolating fluid: For Micro Notes by the

Student
• Viscosity changes drastically with temperature

• k is reported at standard temperature of 27°C as per Indian Standards.
kt = Permeability at temperature of t°C when viscosity is mt

k27 = Permeability at temperature 27°C when viscosity is μ27
Permeability increases with an increase in temperature due to reduction of the
viscosity.
(e) Degree of saturation : Permeability of partially saturated soil is considerably

smaller than that of a fully saturated soil due to presence of air. (air locking
phenomenon)
(f) Adsorbed water :Adsorbed water or diffuse double layer decreases
permeability
Example: 1
A sandy stratum 4 m thick and having a slope of 3 : 1 lies between two clay strata
which are almost impermeable. Two piezometer tubes inserted at two points ‘A’ and
‘B’ 21 m apart and water head was noted as shown. If quantity of water per ‘m’
width of the sand stratum was observed to be 5 lit/hr, The permeability of the sand
strata in m/sec is____
Impervious
A
Soil L
B B
Q 4
3 1
21 m
Impervious
4 Soil Mechanics
Sol: For Micro Notes by the

L Student
21/3=7
21
Inclined seepage length, L:

L = 72 + 212 = 22.13 m
5 # 10 -3
Q = 5 lit/hr = 60 # 60 = 1.38 # 10 -6
Q=KiA
2
1.38 # 10 -6 = K # 2213 # (4 # 1) [take unit length]
K = 3.84 X 10-6 m/s

K = 0.013 m/hr
Permeability of sand strata = 3.84X10-6 m/s
9. Determination of permeability :
By using permeameter
10. Constant Head Test:

• Suitable for coarse grained soils like Gravel, sand with k> 10−1 cm/sec
• Head is kept constant and the discharge is measured, knowing the head
causing flow, the hydraulic gradient is calculated.
The “k” is determined using the formula,
Example: 2
The following data were recorded in a constant head permeability test. Internal dia of
permeameter = 7.5 cm, head lost over a sample length of 18 cm is 24.7 cm. Quantity
of water collected in 60 sec is 626 m,. Porosity of the soil sample was 44%. Calculate
coefficient of permeability of the soil, discharge velocity and seepage velocity during
the test.
5 Soil Mechanics
h 24.7 For Micro Notes by the

Sol: i = L = 18 = 1.37
Student
n = 0.44
Q=KiA
626 S #
K # 1.37 # 7.52
60 4
K = 0.172 cm/s
V = K i = 0.172 × 1.37
V = 0.236 cm/s → Discharge velocity
V
Seepage Velocity, VS n
0.236
VS 0.536 cm/s
0.44
Example: 3
A constant head permeability test was conducted on a sand sample 15 cm in length,

50 cm2 in cross-sectional area and 40% of porosity. Under a constant head of 40
cm, the discharge was found to be 45 cm3 in 20 seconds. Calculate the coefficient of
permeability. Also, determine the discharge velocity and seepage velocity during the
test. What will be the permeability of the sand for a porosity of 35%?
Sol: Q = k i A (Darcy’s equation)
b 45 l k b 15 l # 50
40
20
 k = 0.01687 cm/sec
= 1.687 X 10–2 cm/s
h
Discharge velocity, V ki k,
40
1.687 # 10 -2 # 15 4.5 # 10 -2 cm/s
V 4.5 # 10 -2
Seepage velocity, Vs n 0.4
= 11.25X 10–2 cm/sec

e3 n
k \ and e
1 e 1n
e23
k2
1 e2
k1 e13
1 e1
6 Soil Mechanics
0.4 For Micro Notes by the

For n1 = 40%, e1 1 0.14
= 0.667
Student
0.35
For n2 = 35%, e2 1 0.14
0.667
3
0.538
`
k2 1 0.538
1.687 # 10 -2 0.6673
1 0.667
k2 = 0.96 X 10–2 cm/s
11. Variable head test :

• For fine sands and silts with k = 10-2 to 10-4 cm/sec
• Discharge is not required to be measured.
• k is calculated using the formula
Where,
a = area of stand pipe
L = length of soil specimen
A = cross sectional area of soil specimen
t = time interval in which head drops from h1 to h2.
Example: 4
In a falling head permeability test the initial head of 1.0 m dropped to 0.35 m in 3
hours, the diameter of the stand pipe being 5 mm. The soil specimen was 200 mm
long and of 100 mm diameter. The coefficient of permeability of the soil in cm/sec
is______
Sol: h1 = 1.0 m ; h2 = 0.35 m

t = 3 hrs=3 × 60 × 60 secs = 10800 sec;
L = 200 mm
S# 2 S# 2
a d 5 19.63 mm2
4 4
S #
A 1002 7853.98 mm2
4
K
aL c h1 m
At log e h2
= 4.859 X 10-5 mm/s (or) 4.859 X10-6 cm/sec
7 Soil Mechanics
12. Consolidation test data: Suitable for clays with k <10-6 cm/sec For Micro Notes by the
Student
13. Capillary-permeability test:
• Suitable to find ‘k’ of partially saturated soil
• Capillarity and permeability both can be found.
14. Pumping out test :

• Most accurate among all tests, since large area surrounding the well is
influenced.
• Used for large engineering projects.
• It is expensive
• It is a field test
15. Pumping in test:

• Commonly used for testing rocks and individual stratum layers.
• It is a field test
16. Permeability of stratified soil deposits:

(a) Flow parallel to planes of stratification
• Loss of head or hydraulic gradient is same for all layers.
• Total discharge, Q = q1 + q2 + q3+ …..
• Average permeability, kH or kx
Example: 5
A stratum of soil consists of three layers of equal thickness. The permeabilities of top
and bottom layers are 1 × 10−4 cm/sec and that of middle layer is 1 × 10−3 cm/sec. Then
the value of the horizontal coefficient of permeability for the entire soil layer in cm/
sec is______
Sol: k1 = k3 = 1 X 10-4 cm/s

k2 = 1 X 10−3 cm/s
z1 = z2 = z3
k1 z1 k2 z2 k3 z3
kH
z1 z2 z3
z (1 # 10 -4 1 # 10 -3 1 # 10 -4)
z (1 1 1)
kH = 4 X 10-4 cm/sec
8 Soil Mechanics
17. Flow perpendicular to stratification: For Micro Notes by the

• Discharge is same through all layers at any section. Student
• Total loss of head = sum of loss of heads through each layers.

hf = hf1 + hf2 + …
• Average permeability for perpendicular flow, kv or ky
kH is always greater than kv, for most of soils.
Example: 6
The permeability of individual layers A, B and C of soil in a three layer system is

in the ratio of 2, 3 and 1 respectively. The ratio of thickness of the layers A,B and
C are in the ratio of 2,1 and 2 respectively. The average permeability perpendicular
to the bedding planes is ----------
Sol: KA : KB : KC = 2 : 3 : 1
ZA : ZB : ZC = 2 : 1 : 2
ZA ZB ZC 211
Kv ZA ZB ZC
b 1 2l
2
KA KB KC 2 3 1
3
Kv
2
18. Approximate coefficient of permeability soil can be found as follows:
Where,
D10 ……..effective size of soil in cm
k ……… in cm/sec
9 Soil Mechanics
For Micro Notes by the

Conventional Classroom Practice Questions Student
01. A capillarity permeability test was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, the
wetted surfaced advanced from its initial position of 4 cm to 12 cm in 9 minutes,
under a head of 60 cm at the entry of water. In the second stage, the wetted surface
advanced from 12 cm to 25 cm in 22 minutes under a head of 210 cm. At the end
of test, the degree of saturation was found to be 93% and the porosity was 30%.
Estimate the capillarity head and the coefficient of permeability of the soil.
(Ans: hc = 218.5 cm, ku = 7.1× 10–3 cm/min)
02. A soil profile consists of three layers with properties shown in the table below.
Initially there was 0.5 m of water above the surface of the soil. What will be the
time required for the water level to drop to the ground surface by drawing in
vertical direction through the layers only?
Layer Thickness K (parallel, K (normal,
No. (m) m/s) m/s)
1 3.0 2.0 ×10-6 1.0 ×10-6
2 4.0 5.0 ×10-8 2.5 ×10-8
3 3.0 3.0 ×10-5 1.5 ×10-5
(Ans. 92.17 days)
03.
0.4m
0.25m
Soil 2 B
0.3m Soil 1
A
A flow is taking place under a constant head through the soils 1 and 2 as shown
in the figure. If 40% of the excess hydrostatic pressure is lost in flowing through
soil 1. Determine hydraulic heads and pressure heads at point A and B.
If the permeability of soil 1 is 0.04 cm/sec, what is the seepage flow rate through
unit area of the soil per second. The void ratios and specific gravities of soil 1
and 2 are as below.
10 Soil Mechanics
Soil 1: e = 0.55 and Gs = 2.65 For Micro Notes by the

Student
Soil 2: e = 0.65 and Gs = 2.70
Determine the discharge velocity and seepage velocity through each soil and the
hydraulic head at which instability occurs .
(Ans: At Point A: 0.4 m. 0.95 m

AT Point B: 0.24 m, 0.49 m,
Q = 0.0213 cm3/sec, Vs = 0.06 cm/sec,
1
Vs = 0.054 cm/sec
2
Instability at head = 0.43 m)
Previous Gate Questions
One Mark Questions
01. According to Darcy’s law for flow through porous media, the velocity is
proportional to
(a)Effective stress (b) Hydraulic gradient
(c)Cohesion (d) Stability number
02. The two tubes shown in figures may be considered to be permeameters. Dimensions
of the sample in figures (i) and (ii) are alike. A, B,.. etc. indicate points and AB,
AE, …etc. indicated heads. Head loss through these samples are
A
E
A
SOIL
C
F
B
SOIL
Datum B
D
(a) (i) AD, (ii) AB (b) (i) AB, (ii) AF

(c) (i) AC, (ii) AE (d) (i) AB, (ii) AB
11 Soil Mechanics
03. Which of the following statements is TRUE for the relation between discharge For Micro Notes by the
velocity and seepage velocity? Student
(a) Seepage velocity is always smaller than discharge velocity

(b) Seepage velocity can never be smaller than discharge velocity
(c) Seepage velocity is equal to the discharge velocity
(d) No relation between seepage velocity and discharge velocity can be
established.
One Mark KEY
01. (b) 02. (d) 03. (b)
Two Mark Questions
04. The soil profile below a lake with water level at elevation = 0 m and lake bottom
at elevation = -10 m is shown in the figure, where k is the permeability coefficient.
A piezometer (stand pipe) installed in the sand layer shows a reading of +10 m
elevation. Assume that the piezometric heads are uniform in the sand layer. The
quantity of water (in m3/s) flowing into the lake from the sand layer through
the silt layer per unit area of the lake bed is:
(GATE - 13)
10 Stand pipe

Lake Lake bottom
10
Elevation (m)
Silt (k=106m/s)
30
Sand
(under artesian pressure)
40
30 Rock
(a) 1.5×10-6 (b) 2.0×10-6

(c) 1.0×10-6 (d) 0.5×10-6
05. Water is flowing at a steady rate through a homogeneous and saturated horizontal
soil strip of 10 m length. The strip is being subjected to a constant water head (H)
of 5 m at the beginning and 1m at the end. If the governing equation of flow in
the soil strip is (where x is the distance along the soil strip), the value of H(in m)
at the middle of the strip is _______ (GATE –14–Set 2)
12 Soil Mechanics
06. A non-homogeneous soil deposit consists of a silt layer sandwiched between a For Micro Notes by the
fine-sand layer at top and a clay layer below. Permeability of the silt layer is 10 Student
times the permeability of the clay layer and one-tenth of the permeability of the
sand layer. Thickness of the silt layer is 2 Times the thickness of the sand layer and
two-third of the thickness of the clay layer. The ratio of equivalent horizontal and
equivalent vertical permeability of the deposit is ________.
07. Seepage is occurring through a porous media shown in the figure. The hydraulic
conductivity values (k1, k2, k3) are in m/day.
Impervious
15m
P 10m
3m k1=2 k2=2 k3=2 3m
Q
20m 10m 20m 10m
The seepage discharge (m3 /day per m) through the porous media at section PQ is
7 1 9 3
(a) 12 (b) 2 (c) 16 (d) 4
08. Water flows from P to Q through two soil samples, Soil 1 and Soil 2, having cross
sectional area of 80 cm2 as shown in the figure. Over a period of 15 minutes, 200
ml of water was observed to pass through any cross section. The flow conditions
can be assumed to be steady state. If the coefficient of permeability of Soil 1 is
0.02 mm/s, the coefficient of permeability of Soil 2 (expressed in mm/s) would be
______
600 mm
300 mm
P Soil 1 Soil 2 Q
150 mm 150 mm
13 Soil Mechanics
09. Three soil specimens (Soil 1, soil 2, soil 3) each 150 mm long and 100 mm For Micro Notes by the
diameter, are placed in series in a constant head flow set-up as shown in figure. Student
Suitable screens are provided at the boundaries of the specimens to keep them
intact. The values of coefficient of permeability of Soil 1, Soil 2, Soil 3 are 0.01,
0.003 and 0.03 cm/s respectively.
560mm
h
Soil 1 Soil 2 Soil 3

150mm 150mm 150mm
The value of h in the set up is

(a)0 mm (b)40 mm
(c)255 mm (d)560 mm
Two Mark KEY

01. (d) 02. (3) 03. (11) 04. (b) 05. (0.0455) 06. (b)
Previous IES Objective Questions
01. A stratum of soil consists of three layers of equal thickness. The permeability of
both the top and the bottom layers is 10-4 m/s; and that of the middle layer is 10-3
cm/s; then the value of the horizontal coefficient of permeability for the entire
composite of the soil layers is
(a) 2 × 10-4 cm/s (b) 3 × 10-4 cm/s
(c) 4 × 10-4 cm/s (d) 5 × 10-4 cm/s
02. Consider the following assumptions as regards field permeability test:

1. The flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is valid.
2. The flow is horizontal and uniform at all points in the vertical section.
3. The velocity of flow is proportional to the ‘tangent magnitude’ of the
hydraulic gradient.
Which of the above assumptions are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
14 Soil Mechanics
03. In a three-layered soil system, the thicknesses of the top and bottom layers each For Micro Notes by the
Student
are half the thickness of the middle layer. The coefficients of permeability of top
and bottom layers each are double the coefficient of permeability k of the middle
layer. When horizontal flow occurs, the equivalent coefficient of permeability of
the system will be
(a) 1.5 k (b) 3.0 k
(c) 4.5 k (d) 6.0 k
04. An extended layer of soil with homogenous rounded grains has 10% of the material
finer than 0.07 mm. The constant to be adopted to determine its permeability has
been recommended as 750. What is its permeability?
(a) 2.583 m/day (b) 2.857 m/day
(c) 3.244 m/day (d) 3.675 m/day
05. Consider the following statements regarding permeability of soils:

1. Permeability of coarse grained soil is inversely proportional to the specific
surface at a given porosity.
2. Direct measurement of permeability of a soil specimen at any stage of loading
in oedometer test can be made only in fixed-ring type oedometer.
3. The permeability of an aquifer increases with decrease in temperature of
water moving through it.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3
KEY
01. (c) 02. (d) 03. (a) 04. (d) 05. (a)
Previous TSPSC Questions
01. For large engineering projects the permeability is determined accurately by

(a) constant head test (b) variable head test
(c) pumping in test (d) pumping out test
02. The average permeability for a flow perpendicular to the bedding planes when
compared to the average permeability for the flow parallel to the bedding planes is
(a) Always less (b) Always greater
(c) Always equal (d) Lesser or greater
15 Soil Mechanics
03. What is the seepage velocity of soil having a discharge velocity of 6 × 10–6 m/s For Micro Notes by the
and a void ratio of 0.5? Student
(a) 12 × 10–6 m/s (b) 18 × 10–6 m/s
(c) 3 × 10–6 m/s (d) 6 × 10–6 m/s
KEY
01. (d) 02. (a) 0.3 (b)
Unit 7 Effective Stress
1. Stress conditions in soil:
Total stress is due to

(a) self weight of soil and water
(b) over burden on the soil
2. Neutral pressure (or) pore pressure (u )

• The pressure transmitted through the pore fluid.
• It is called neutral pressure because is does not have any measurable influence
on void ratio or any other mechanical properties of soil such as shearing
resistance.
3. Effective stress (s′ ) :

• It is the total stress minus the neutral stress.
• It is equal to the total vertical reaction force transmitted at the points of
contact of soil grains divided by the total area, including that occupied by
water.
• In other words, it is the pressure transmitted from particle to particle through
their points of contact through soil mass.
• It has no physical meaning and it can not be directly measured.
• It can only be computed knowing the s and u.
• It is also called ‘Inter granular pressure’.
• It is not equal to the actual ‘Contact stress’, it is much smaller than the
actual contact stress
Significance: The decrease in void ratio and mobilization of shear strength of soil
depend on effective stress only.
4. Relationship among σ, σ′, u
2 Soil Mechanics

Example: 1 Student
A soil profile consists of a surface layer of sand 4 m thick (γ = 1.6 t/m3), an intermediate
layer of clay 3.5m thick (γ=1.9 t/m3) and the bottom layer of gravel 4 m thick (γ =
1.925 t/m3). The water table is at the upper surface of the clay layer. Determine the
effective stress at plane CC and DD
A A
B SAND B
C CLAY C
D GRAVEL D
Sol: σ′ = σ - u
At plane C- C:
σ′ = (1.6X4)+(1.9X3.5)-(3.5)X1
σ′ = 9.55 t/m2
At plane D- D:
σ′= σ - u
σ′ = (1.6X4) + (1.9X3.5) + (1.925X4) - (7.5)X1
σ′ = 13.25 t/m2
5. The water which is held in the soil against the gravity is divided into
(a) structural water
(b) Adsorbed water
(c) Capillary water.
6. Structural water:
• It is chemically combined in the crystalline structure of the soil, grains.
• Cannot be removed by simple oven drying at 105o C.
• It is an integral part of the soil.
7. Adsorbed water:
• Water held by electrochemical forces existing on the soil surface.
• It is important only for clays.
• For coarse grained soils the adsorbed water is negligible or zero.
• Also called ‘hygroscopic water’ (the amount of water absorbed from
atmosphere by an air-dried soil).
• Can be removed by oven drying.
3 Soil Mechanics
8. Capillary water: For Micro Notes by the

• It is the water held in the voids of soil due to capillary forces (surface tension) Student
Capillary rise,
where,
σS = surface tension of water
α = contact angle
d = diameter of tube
9. In soils, the capillary height,
where
hc = capillary rise in ‘cm’
d = dia of void in ‘cm’
The effective pore diameter (d) may be taken approximately equal to 20% of the
D10 size.
1
Note: h c \ d
• ‘hc’ depends on surface tension of liquid, size of voids in a soil.
• The inter connected fine voids of a soil will act like a capillary tube, through
which capillary water rises. It is called ‘capillary fringe’.
• Capillary water is always under tension and varies linearly.
• An approximate relationship to find hc is:
Where hc is in cm
e is void ratio
D10 is effective size in cm
C is an empirical constant (0.1 to 0.5 cm2)
4 Soil Mechanics
10. As the capillary rise is inversely proportional to the diameter of the void, the For Micro Notes by the
Student
capillary rise is small in coarse grained soils, but it may be very large in fine
grained soils.
• In clays the capillary rise will be maximum and it may be even more than 25
m.
11. The capillary water causes compression in the walls of the capillary tube (or on the
soil grains).
12. Frost heave:

The water which rises from the water table to the capillary fringe may freeze if
temperature falls down to freezing point and ice is formed. This causes increase in
volume of soil and thereby uplifting the light structures built on the ground. This
phenomenon is called ‘Frost heave’. Soils which are prone to frost heave are silts
and fine sands.
13. Frost boil:

• The process of softening of soil due to increase in water content caused by
melting or thawing of ice formed in the capillary fringe.
• Soils susceptible to softening effect are silts and fine sands.
14. To prevent frost heave and frost boil:

• Replace the frost susceptible soil by coarse grained like Gravel, sand
• Also by providing insulation blanket consists of gravel or Coarse Sand (15 to
30cm thick)
Conventional Classroom Practice Questions
01. Granular soil deposit is 7 m deep over an impermeable layer. The ground water
table is 4 m below the ground surface. The deposit has a zone of capillary rise
of 1.2 m with a saturation of 50%. Plot the variation of total stress, pore water
pressure and effective stress with the depth of deposit, e = 0.6 , GS = 2.65 a n d
gw = 9.81 kN/m3
(Ans: At 2.8 m depth, u= –5.89 kN/m2,
s = 45.5 kN/m2 & 51.39 kN/m2
At 7 m depth, s′ = 97.53 kN/m2)
5 Soil Mechanics
02. The surface of a saturated clay deposit is located permanently below the ground For Micro Notes by the
water table. Laboratory tests have revealed that the average natural water content Student
of clay is 43% and specific gravity of clay particles is 2.70.
(i) Determine the vertical intergranular pressure at a depth of 11 m
(ii) How many meters of clay should be removed by dredging if this pressure at
this 11 m depth is to be reduced to 48 kN/m2 when the water level remains
unchanged?
(Ans: 84.9 kpa and 4.78 m)
One Mark Questions
01. Mention True/False for the following question.

Effective stresses in a sand layer below a lake do not alter as the level
fluctuates.
02. A 10 m thick clay layer is underlain by a sand layer of 20 m depth (see figure
below). The water table is 5 m below the surface of clay layer. The soil above the
water table is capillary saturated. The value of γsat is 19 kN/m3. The unit weight of
water is γw. If now the water table rises to the surface, the effective stress at a point
P on the interface will
10m Clay
P Sand
20m
(a) increase by 5γw (b) remain unchanged

(c) decrease by 5 γw (d) decrease by 10 γw
03. Which of the following statement is NOT true in the context of capillary pressure
in soils?
(a) Water is under tension in capillary zone
(b) pore water pressure is negative in capillary zone
(c) Effective stress increases due to capillary pressure
(d) Capillary pressure is more in coarse grained soils
6 Soil Mechanics

One Mark KEY Student
01. (True) 02. (c) 03. (d)
Two Mark Questions
01. A river 5 m deep consists of a sand bed with saturated unit weight of 20 kN/
m3,γw = 9.81 kN/m3. The effective vertical stress at 5 m from the top of sand bed
is
(a) 41 kN/m2 (b) 51 kN/m2
(c) 55 kN/m2 (d) 53 kN/m2
02. For the soil strata shown in figure, the water table is lowered by drainage by 2 m
and if the top 2 m thick silty sand stratum remains saturated by capillary action
even after lowering of water table, the increase in effective vertical pressure in kPa
at mid-height of clay layer will be
Original GWT
G S
Zone of capillary saturation after drainage
2m GWT after drainage
10m Jsat=19kN/m3
Silty Sand
7m Jsat=19kN/m3
Clay
(a) 0.2 (b) 2 (c) 20 (d) 200
03. Assuming that a river bed level does not change and the depth of water in river was
10 m, 15 m and 8 m during months of February, July and December respectively
of a particular year. The average bulk density of the soil is 20 kN/m3. The density
of water is 10 kN/m3. The effective stress at a depth of 10 m below the river bed
during these months would be
(a) 300 kN/m2 in February, 350 kN/m2 in July and 320 kN/m2 in December
(b) 100 kN/m2 in February, 100 kN/m2 in July and 100 kN/m2 in December
(c) 200 kN/m2 in February, 250 kN/m2 in July and 180 kN/m2 in December
(d) 300 kN/m2 in February, 350 kN/m2 in July and 280 kN/m2 in December
7 Soil Mechanics

KEY Student
01. (b) 02. (c) 03. (b)
01. Consider the following statements :

1. Effective stress in a sand layer below a lake with standing water does not alter
as the water level fluctuates.
2. Regarding water table below the ground surface, any rise in the water table
causes equal changes in both pore pressure and effective stress.
3. Capillary saturation will cause the effective stress to increase.
Which of the above statements are correct ?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
02. Consider the following statements in the context of capillary pressure in soils:
1. Pore water pressure is negative in capillary zone.
2. Water is in tension in capillary zone.
3. Capillary pressure is more in coarse grained soils.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
03. A soil sample has an average grain diameter as 0.03 mm. The size of interstices is
one-eighth of the mean grain diameter. Considering σ of water as 0.075 g/cm, the
water will rise in the clay to a height of
(a) 2.4 m (b) 3.0 m
(c) 3.6 m (d) 4.0 m
KEY
01. (d) 02. (a) 03. (d)
8 Soil Mechanics

Previous TSPSC Questions Student
01. Rise of ground water table above ground surface causes

(a) equal increase in pore water pressure and total stress
(b) equal decrease in pore water pressure and total stress
(c) decrease in pore water pressure but increase in total stress
(d) increase in pore water pressure but decrease in total stress
02. If the water table rises upto ground surface then the
(a) effective stress is reduced due to decrease in total stress only but pore water
pressure does not change
(b) effective stress reduced due to increase in pore water pressure
(c) total stress is reduced due to increase in pore water pressure only but effective
stress does not change
(d) total stress is increased due to decrease in pore water pressure but effective
stress does not change
03. The rise of water against gravitational force in the fine pores of the soil above the
phreatic line (free water surface) is due to
(a) Viscosity (b) Capillarity
(c) Permeability (d) None of the above
04. Magnitude of capillary rise is more in

(a) Silts (b) Sands
(c) Clays (d) Gravels
05. Effective stress on soil

(a) increase with the degree of saturation
(b) decrease with pore pressure
(c) decrease with foundation depth
(d) increase with pore pressure
06. In a saturated soil deposit having a density of 25 kN/m3, the effective normal stress
on a horizontal plane at 4 m depth will be:
(a) 20 kN/m3 (b) 40 kN/m3
(c) 60 kN/m3 (d) 80 kN/m3
9 Soil Mechanics
07. The difference in levels between top of capillary zone and the water table is For Micro Notes by the
(a) Zero (b) Negative Student
(c) Positive (d) None of the above
08. Capillary force is dependent on

(a) Pore pressure (b) Water content
(c) Depth to water (d) Surface tension of water
09. In saturated soil deposits which have a density of 22 kN/m3, the effective normal
stress on a horizontal plane at 5.0 m depth will be
(a) 22 kN/m2 (b) 50 kN/m2
(c) 60 kN/m2 (d) 110 kN/m2
KEY
01. (a) 02. (b) 0.3 (b) 04. (c) 05. (b)
06. (c) 07. (b) 08. (d) 09. (c)
Unit 8 Seepage Pressure and Critical
Hydraulic Gradient
1. Total head = pressure head + velocity head + datum head (or) elevation head.
• Velocity head in soils is neglected.
 Total head =
2. Hydraulic Gradient (i) : It is the loss of head per unit seepage distance.
3. Seepage Pressure (ps): It is the pressure exerted by water on the soil through
which it
percolates.
Seepage Pressure
Where,
h = net head causing flow
i = hydraulic gradient
z = seepage length
Seepage force per unit volume = i . γw
(i) Seepage pressure always acts in the

direction of flow.
(ii) Due to seepage pressure, vertical
effective pressure may be increased
or decreased based upon direction
of flow.
(iii) Effective stress increases if flow is
down wards
(iv) Effective stress decreases if flow is
upwards.
2 Soil Mechanics
4. Critical hydraulic gradient and quick sand condition : For Micro Notes by the
Student
If upwards seepage pressure becomes equal to submerged weight of soil, effective
pressure reduces to zero. In this case sand looses all its shear strength and soil
particles move in upward direction. This phenomenon is called ‘Quick condition
/ boiling condition / Quick sand.
‘Quick Sand’ is not a type of sand but a

flow condition occurring in ‘Cohesionless’
soils. The cohesive soil does not develop
quick condition since it possesses some
shear strength equal to its cohesive
strength even when the effective stress is
zero. The quick condition is most likely to
arise in silts and fine sands.
• During quick condition hydraulic gradient is called critical hydraulic gradient

(ic).
ic = (G - 1) (1 - n)
• Generally, the critical hydraulic gradient for cohesionless soils is about unity.
• The critical hydraulic gradient is not affected by depth of water over the soil
surface.
5. Effect of surcharge on quick condition :

In an upward flow, at bottom of soil, the effective stress becomes zero, when
γw h = (γ1 L + q)
The head required to cause quick condition is,
3 Soil Mechanics
6. To prevent quick sand condition during excavation of trenches : For Micro Notes by the
• Keep certain depth of water present in excavation pit without completely Student
dewatering.
• Lower down the water table.
Example: 1
A layer of clay of thickness 12.5 m is underlain by sand. The sat of the clay
is 18.5 kN/m3. When the depth of an open trench excavated in the clay
reached a depth of 8 m the bottom cracked and the water started entering
the trench from below. What is the height to which water would have risen
from the top of sand in a bore hole if it were drilled into sand prior to the
excavation, is (Take w = 10 kN/m3).
Sol :
8m
12.5m
clay ha
Z
4.5m
sand ' = 0
γsat = 18.5 kN/m3

At 12.5 m depth, σ1 = γsat Z− γw ha
Here σ1 = 0
0 = 18.5×4.5−10× ha
18.5 # 4.5
ha 8.325 m
10
Therefore, the height of water(ha) would have risen from top of sand in a bore hole
by 8.325 m.
7. Piping: If seepage takes place through a soil mass, below a hydraulic structures
the grains will be lifted by water if effective pressure reduces to zero and exit
gradient is greater than critical hydraulic gradient. Then the erosion of particles
continues and this phenomenon progresses towards upstream direction. This
phenomenon is called piping.
8. Factor of safety against piping or Quick sand,
4 Soil Mechanics

Student
9. Piping can be prevented by

• Increasing the path of seepage (by providing more impervious floor length
& sheet piles).
• By reducing seepage
• By providing drainage filter (rock toe, chimney drain, etc)
Example: 2
Water is flowing at the rate of 0.06 m , /sec in an upward direction through

a fine sand sample whose co-efficient of permeability is 3 × 10–3 cm/sec. The
sample thickness is 10 cm and cross-sectional area is 60 cm2. If the saturated
unit weight of sand is 19.6 kN/m3, find the effective pressure at the bottom
sections of the sample. (Take w = 9.81 kN/m3)
Sol: q = 0.06 cm3/sec

k = 3 × 10–3 cm/sec
z = 10 cm; A = 60 cm2
γ′ = 19.6 – 9.81 = 9.79 kN/m3
We know, q = k.i.A
q 0.06
i 0.333
kA 3 # 10 -3 # 60
For upward flow of water, the effective pressure is given by

σ1 γ′ = z γ′ – izγw
For the bottom section of the sample, z = 10 cm = 0.1 m (measured from the top)
 σ1 = (0.1 × 9.79) – (0.333 × 0.1 ×9.81)
= 0.652 kN/m2
Conventional Classroom Practice Questions
01. A deposit of fine sand has a porosity of 45%. Estimate the critical hydraulic
gradient to develop quicksand condition if the specific gravity of grain is 2.7.
02. A 1.5 m layer of soil is subjected to an upward seepage head of 1.95 m. What
depth of coarse sand will be required above this soil to provide a factor of safety
5 Soil Mechanics
of 1.5 against piping. Coarse sand and soil have specific gravity 2.67 and porosity For Micro Notes by the
as 30%. Student
03. Water is flowing at the rate of 0.05 ml s–1 in the upward direction through a fine
sand sample whose k = 2 ×10-3 cm s-1. The sample thickness is 12 cm and the area
of cross-section is 50 cm2. Determine the effective pressure at the middle and
bottom sections of the sample if the saturated unit weight of the sand is 19.4 kN/
m3
One Mark Questions
03. Quick sand condition occurs when

(a) The void ratio of the soil becomes 1.0
(b) The upward seepage pressure in soil becomes zero
(c) The upward seepage pressure in soil becomes equal to the saturated unit
weight of the soil
(d) The upward seepage pressure in soil becomes equal to the submerged unit
weight of the soil
04. For a saturated sand deposit, the void ratio and the specific gravity of solids
are 0.70 and 2.67, respectively. The critical (upward) hydraulic gradient for the
deposit would be
(a) 0.54 (b) 0.98
(c) 1.02 (d) 1.87
05. The relationship between the specific gravity of sand (G) and the hydraulic
gradient (i) to initiate quick condition in the sand layer having porosity of 30% is
(a) G = 0.7i+1 (b) G = 1.43 i –1
(c) G = 1.43 i + 1 (d) G = 0.7 i –1
One Mark KEY

01. (d) 02. (b) 03. (c)
6 Soil Mechanics
Two Mark Questions For Micro Notes by the

Student
01. To provide safety against piping failure, with a factor of safety of 5, what should
be the maximum permissible exit gradient for soil with specific gravity of 2.5 and
porosity of 0.35?
(a) 0.155 (b) 0.167
(c) 0.195 (d) 0.213
02. A seepage flow condition is shown in the figure. The saturated unit weight of the
soil γsat = 18 kN/m3. Using unit weight of water, γw = 9.81 kN/m3, the effective
vertical stress (expressed in kN/m2) on plane X-X is________
3m
1m
5m
Soil
Jsat=18kN/m3
X X
1m
2m
03. At a construction site, a contractor plans to make an excavation as shown in the

figure.
30
20 Proposed Elevation: +20m

Elevation(in m)
Excavation
10
Clay, Unit Weight J=20kN/m3 River
0
-10 Highly Pervious Sand
The water level in the adjacent river is at an elevation of +20.0m Unit weight of
water is 10 kN/m3. The factor of safety (up to two decimal places) against sand
boiling for the proposed excavation is _____________.
7 Soil Mechanics

Student
Two Marks KEY
01. (c) 02. (65.475) 03. (1)
01. A sand sample has a bulk density of 20 kN/m3 and degree of saturation of 70%.
If the specific gravity of soil grains is 2.65, the value of critical hydraulic gradient
for the soil will be
(a) 1.02 (b) 1.05
(c) 1.10 (d) 1.15
02. A uniform collapsible sand stratum, 2.5 m thick, has specific gravity of its sand as
2.65, with a natural void ratio of 0.65. The hydraulic head required to cause quick
collapsible sand condition is
(a) 2.50 m (b) 2.75 m
(c) 3.25 m (d) 3.50 m
03. Statement (I): The possibility of quicksand condition occurring is more on the
downstream of a weir on a permeable foundation than on the upstream end with
an upward component of seepage velocity.
Statement (II): Seepage lines end with an upward component of seepage velocity
at the downstream reaches of such a weir.
04. Statement (I): Saturated fine, as well as medium, sands of uniform particle size
are most susceptible to liquefaction.
Statement (II): Fine particles reduce the permeability which is a prime factor for
liquefaction.
KEY
01. (c) 02. (a) 03. (b) 04. (a)
8 Soil Mechanics

Previous TSPSC Questions Student
01. A uniform sand stratum 3.0 m thick has a specific gravity 2.8 and a natural void
ratio of 0.8. The hydraulic head required to quick sand condition in the sand
stratum is:
(a) 0.25 m (b) 0.5 m
(c) 2.5 m (d) 3.0 m
02. Quick sand condition occurs when

(a) the void ratio of the soil becomes 1.0
(b) the upward seepage pressure in soil become zero
(c) the upward seepage pressure in soil become equal to the saturated unit
weight of the soil
(d) the upward seepage pressure in soil become equal to the submerged unit
weight of the soil
03. An important hydraulic failure of earth dams is

(a) Piping
(b)Overtopping
(c) Upstream slope failure due to sudden drawdown
(d)Sloughing
KEY
01. (d) 02. (d) 0.3 (b)
Unit 9 Seepage Analysis
1. Flow line: It is a path along which a water particle travels. It is also called stream
line
2. Equipotential line: It is a line joining points having equal total head.

If piezometers are inserted into the soil at different points along an equipotential
line, water would rise to the same elevation in all these piezometers.
‘Along an equipotential line the total head is

constant while pressure heads are different,
elevation heads are different.
3. Flow net: It is a combination of flow lines and equipotential lines.
4. Flow path: The space between two adjacent flow lines. Also called flow channel.
5. Field: Space between any two adjacent flow lines and adjacent equipotential lines.
6. Characteristics of flow net:

• Flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal to each other (i.e.,
perpendicular)
• The quantity of seepage in each flow channel is the same.
• Drop in head between adjacent equipotential lines is the same.
• Two flow lines or two equipotential lines can never meet or cross each other
• Fields are kept approximately squares.
• Flow net does not depend on permeability of the soil (K) and head causing
flow (H)
• Flow net depends on boundary conditions only.
7. Uses of flow net : To compute

(a) Seepage loss
(b) Total head at different points.
(c) Uplift pressure
(d) exit gradient
2 Soil Mechanics
8. Seepage quantity : For Micro Notes by the

Student
k = permeability of the soil.

For an anisotropic soil,
where,
kx = permeability in horizontal direction
ky = permeability in vertical direction
H = net head causing flow (difference between U/s and D/s water levels)
Nf = no. of flow channels
Nd = no. of potential drops
• The ratio Nf / Nd is called ‘Shape factor’ of a flow net .

• For a given boundary conditions, the ‘Nf / Nd’ ratio remains same.
• For a particular set of boundary conditions the flow net will be unique.
9. Calculation of total head, h using flownet :

h = hydraulic potential or balance total head available after ‘n’ potential drops.
H = total hydraulic head causing flow at upstream end (difference between U/s
and D/s water levels).
∆H = head drop through field =
10. Calculation of uplift pressure from flow net :

Uplift pressure at any depth
hp = pressure head at that depth
11. Exit gradient from flow net :
Exit gradient,
3 Soil Mechanics
∆H = head drop, per field For Micro Notes by the

∆L = average length of last field at exit point Student
• For safety against piping, the iexit must always be less than the critical
hydraulic gradient (ic)
• Factor of safety against piping,
• Filters (Graded or inverted) are provided at exit point to Prevent escape of

soil particles and to check piping.
12. Phreatic line: (also called seepage line or top flow line):
• Along phreatic line pressure head is zero (only atmospheric pressure exists)
• A parabolic shape
• Discharge through body of the dam,
q= ...... Kozny’s equation.
• S = focal distance (distance between focus and directrix of the parabolic

shape phreatic line)
13. Seepage in anisotropic soils :

• Equivalent permeability
• Flow lines and equipotential lines get deflected at the interface between two
dissimilar soils when they pass from one soil to the other.
4 Soil Mechanics

Student
14. In the case of anisotropic soils ( kx > ky ), the flow net is drawn for the ‘transformed
section’ which is obtained by reducing the horizontal dimensions and keeping the
vertical dimensions unchanged.
The horizontal dimension is reduced by multiplying with a reduction coefficient
ky
of k
x
Example: 1
For a sheet pile wall constructed in a soil having effective grain size=0.1 mm,
the difference of the upstream and downstream water levels is 3 m. If the flow
net drawn for the problem yields 2 as the ratio of number of head drops to
number of flow channels, then what is the discharge in unit of m3/s/m length
of sheet pile wall?
Sol: H = 3m
D10 = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
K = 100 D102 ( D10 shall be in cm)
= 100 × (0.01)2 = 1 × 10−2 cm/s
=1 × 10−4 m/s
Nd
N =2
f
N 1
Q = KH N f = 1 # 10 -4 # 3 # 2
d
Q
# -4 3
1 = 1.5 10 m /s/m
Example: 2
The base dimensions of flownet are 4 m & 3 m for natural and transformed sections
respectively. What is the anisotropy ratio ?
Sol: Anisotropy ratio = kk x

y
5 Soil Mechanics
ky For Micro Notes by the

Transformed width b = B # kx Student
ky
3 = 4# kx
k 1 = 16 =
 kx = 1.78
y (3/4) 2 9
Phreatic Line of an Earth Dam
Analytical method: S can be calculated analytically by following equation
Discharge through the body of the dam: q = k.s (kozney’s equation)
6 Soil Mechanics

Conventional Classroom Practice Questions Student
01. An earthen dam rests on an impervious foundation. The relevant data is given
below.
Height of dam = 58 m
Free board = 1.5 m
Upstream slope = 2.75:1
Downstream slope = 2.5:1
Crest width =6m
Length of drainage blanket = 110 m
Coefficient of permeability of the embankment material:
kx = 4.5 ×10–7 m/s and ky = 2 × 10–7 m/s.
Determine the seepage through the earthen dam
(Ans: 48 × 10–7 m3/s/m)
One Mark Questions
01. Along a phreatic line in an earth dam

(a) the total head is constant but not zero
(b) the total head is everywhere zero
(c) the pressure head is everywhere zero
(d) none of the above

Water pressure is atmospheric at all points on a phreatic line. Phreatic line is,
therefore, an equipotential line.

Flow lines and equipotential lines in a flow net are orthogonal to each
other.
04. Seepage force per unit volume (j) can be expressed as

(a) iγwL (b) iL (c) γwh (d) iγw
7 Soil Mechanics

One Mark KEY Student
01. (c) 02. (False) 03. (True 03. (d) 04. (c)
Two Mark Questions
Common Data for Qs. 05 & 06

The flow net around a sheet pile wall is shown in the sketch. The properties of the
soil are: permeability coefficient = 0.09 m/day (isotropic), specific gravity = 2.70
and
void ratio = 0.85. The sheet pile wall and the bottom of the soil are
impermeable.
10m
1.5m
3m
01. The seepage loss (in m3 per day per unit length of the wall) of water is
(a) 0.33 (b) 0.38
(c) 0.43 (d) 0.54
02. The factor of safety against the occurrence of piping failure is

(a) 3.55 (b) 2.93
(c) 2.60 (d) 0.39
03. The flow net constructed for the dam is shown in the figure below. Taking the
coefficient of permeability as 3.8×10–6 m/s, the quantity of flow (in cm3/s) under
the dam per meter of dam is __
8 Soil Mechanics

Student
50m
1.6m
6.3m
9.4m
17.2m
Impermeable stratum
04. The seepage occurring through an earthen dam is represented by a flownet

comprising of 10 equipotential drops and 20 flow channels. The coefficient of
permeability of the soil is 3 mm/min and the head loss is 5 m. The rate of
seepage (expressed in cm3/s per m length of the dam) through the earthen dam
is_______.
Two Mark KEY

01. (b) 02. (c) 03. (7.18) 04. (500)
01. Statement –I: In a flow net, each field must be a (curvilinear) square:
Statement – II: Each flow channel in a flow net has the same rate of flow.
Codes:
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and Statement
(II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true but Statement
(II) is NOT the correct explanation of Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
9 Soil Mechanics
02. Consider the following statements: For Micro Notes by the

1. Quantity of seepage in each flow channel of a flow-net is independent of the Student
size of field.
2. Drop in head between adjacent equipotential lines of a flow-net is dependent
on upstream head.
3. With increase in the length of a flow path, the corresponding exit gradient
will decrease.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only
03. Consider the following statements regarding flow net:

1. It helps determine the quantity of seepage.
2. It helps determine the upward lift below a hydraulic structure.
3. It is applicable to rotational flow only.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3
KEY
01. (d) 02. (c) 03. (a)
Previous TSPSC Questions
01. The shape of the phreatic line is

(a) Parabola (b) Cylindrical
(c) Circular (d) Straight line
02. Seepage through earthen dam can be computed by the following equation (with
usual notations)
(a) q = kh = Nd G
N N
(b) q = kh N f
f h
(c) q = kh [Nd × Nf] (d) q = kh [Nf/Nd]
03. The coefficient of permeability of a soil sample having its void ratio as 0.50 and
co-efficient of percolation as 3.00 × 10–4 cm/s is
(a) 1.00 × 10–4 cm/s (b) 1.50 × 10–4 cm/s
(c) 6.00 × 10–4 cm/s (d) 3.00 × 10–4 cm/s
10 Soil Mechanics
04. A layer of soil having G = 2.67 and e = 0.67 is subjected to an upward head of For Micro Notes by the
Student
1.5m due to seepage of water. The depth of the soil layer required to provide a
factor of safety 2 against piping is
(a) 3.0 m (b) 0.75 m
(c) 1.5 m (d) 2.0 m
05. If Nf, Nd and H are total number of flow channels, total number of potential drops
and total hydraulic head differences respectively, the discharge q through the
complete flow is given by (where K is a constant)
N N
(a) q = k H N f (b) q = kH N f
d d
N N
(c) q = H Nd (d) q = H N f
f d
06. The phreatic line is defined as the line within a dam section below which there
are
(a) positive hydrostatic pressure (b) negative hydrostatic pressure
(c) negative equipotential lines (d) positive equipotential lines
KEY
01. (a) 02. (d) 0.3 (a) 04. (a) 05. (b) 06. (a)
Unit 2 JNTU QUESTIONS
Previous JNTU Conventional Questions
01. Explain the laboratory procedure to determine the coefficient of permeability by

variable head method.
02. Determine the effective stress at a depth of 8m below the ground level, the water
table is at 3m below the ground level. the water content above the water table is
10%. Take G=2.68, e=0.6, Neglect capillary flow.
03. Write the uses and properties of Flow Net.
04. In laboratory Permeability test, the discharge of water collected from the constant
head permeameter in a period of 10min of 200ml. The internal diameter of the
permeameter is 6 cm and the measured in head between two gauging points 15 cm
vertically apart is 10 cm. Calculate the coefficient of permeability.
05. Explain the capillarity in the soils. Calculate the approximate height of the rise in
soil having e=0.75, D10=0.05mm, C=25, what is the value of capillary tension?
06. A 5m thick sand layer (G=2.65, e=0.6) is underlain by a bed of 4m clay (ϒsat =
20kN/m3), plot the total, neutral, effective stress distribution upto the bottom of
the clay layer, when i) water table is at 2m below the ground level (take S=50%,
above the water table), ii) water table is at the ground level. iii) water table is 2m
above the ground surface.
07. Explain the Quick sand condition and characteristics of flow net?
08. What are the factors affecting permeability? A horizontal stratified soil deposit
consists of three layer each uniform in itself the permeability of layer is 810-6
m/s, 5010-6 m/s, and 1510-4 m/s and three thicknesses are 6m, 3m, and 18m
respectively. Find the effective average permeability of the deposit in horizontal
and vertical direction.
09. Define the coefficient of permeability and list the parameters on which permeability
depends?
2 Reinforced Cement Concrete
10. A concrete dam retains the height of the water of 9m, it has a row of sheet piling For Micro Notes by the
Student
at both heel and toe which extend halfway down to a impervious stratam. From
a flow net sketched on a transform section, it is found that there are four flow
channel and 16 head drops. the average horizontal and vertical permeability’s are
610-3 mm/s and 210-3 mm/s respectively. what is the seepage per day, if the
length of the dam is 150m?
11. A uniform homogeneous sand deposit of G= 2.60, and e = 0.65 extended to a

large depth. the ground water table is 2m below the ground level. determine the
effective, total, neutral stresses at a depth 2m, and 6m. assume the soil from 1m to
2m has capillary moisture leading a degree of saturation of 60%?
12. Discuss the different methods to determine the coefficient of permeability of soil
sample?.
13. A saturated sand layer over a clay stratam is 5m in depth. the water table is 1.5m
below the ground level. the bulk density of saturated sand is 1.8 g/cc, calculate the
effective and neutral stresses at top the clay layer.
14. Discuss the merits and demerits of the different methods to determine the
permeability and special applications?
Previous JNTU Objective Questions
Choose the correct alternative:

01. In general, laboratory determination of coefficient of permeability for fine sands
and silts is done by [ ]
A) Constant head test B) Falling head test
C) Pumping-in test D) Pumping-out test
02. For a given soil mass the effect of void ratio to the value of permeability is .
[ ]
A) k  e B) k  e 3
C) k e D) k  e 2
03. The critical hydraulic gradient (icr) for a quick sand condition is given as
[ ]
A) (G+1)/(1+e) B) (1+e)/(G-1)
C) (G-1)/(1+e) D) (1+e)/(G+1)
3 Footings
04. According to Allen Hazen’s for clean sands, the correlation between coefficient of For Micro Notes by the
permeability and D10 is . [ ] Student
A) k = 50 D10 B) k = 100 D 10
2
C) k = 50 D 10
2
D) k = 100 D10
05. The critical gradient of a soil increases with [ ]

A) with increase in void ratio B) decrease in void ratio
C)decrease in specific gravity D)None of the above
06. The exit gradient is equal to the ratio of [ ]

A) total head to total length B) slope of flow line
C) slope of equipotential line D) head loss to length of flow field at exit
07. The seepage pressure is proportional to [ ]

A) hydraulic gradient B) unit weight of water
C) length of the specimen D) all the above
KEY For Objective

01. (B) 02. (D) 03. (C) 04. (B) 05. (B)
06. (D) 07. (D)
III. Fill in the Blanks

08. Permeability varies approximately as the ________of the grain size
09. The condition when cohesion less soil loses its shear strength due to upward
direction of flow is called _______________.
10. Equipotential lines represent contours of ____
11. The direction of seepage is always _________to Equipotential lines.
12. Pressure exerted by the water on to the soil mass when it percolates through it is
______
13. The permeability of a partially saturated soil is comparatively_____ than that of
fully saturated soils
14. In fine grained soils due to adsorbed water, permability _____ .
15. The total stress at a depth of 3m from ground for a sand layer if water table is at
ground surface is_____ . Take G=2.7 , e=0.5.
16. The effective stress at the middle of the clay layer of 4m thick is __________
when its unit weight is 18kN/m3 and if water table is at greater depth.
17. The weakest bone in soils is______ .
18. The Westergaard analysis is used for ______ soils.
II. Fill in the blanks Answers: For Micro Notes by the

Student
8. Square 9. Quick Sand 10. same total head

11. Perpendicular 12. Seepage Pressure 13. less
14. Decreases 15. 62.78 kN/m2 16. 36 kN/m2
17. Secondary Valance Bond 18. Stratified
Two Mark Questions & Answers
01. Define soil water

Ans: Water present in the voids of a soil mass is called soil water.
02. State the types of soil water.

Ans: • Free water or Gravitational water
• Held water
• Structural water
• Absorbed water
• Capillary water.
03. Write down the uses of Flow net.

Ans: • a . To determine discharge
• b. To determine Seepage Pressure
• To determine Exit Gradient
• To determine Hydrostatic Pressure
04. Write down the methods of drawing Flow net.

Ans: • a . Analytical Method
• b. Energy flow analogy
• Capillary flow analogy
• Sand Model
• Graphical Method
05. Define capillary action or) capillarity.

Ans: It is the phenomenon of movement of water in the interstices of a soil due to
capillary forces. The capillary forces depend upon various factors depend upon
various factors such as surface tension of water, pressure in water in relation to
atmospheric pressure and the size and conformation of soil pores.
5 Footings
06. Define Darcy’s law. For Micro Notes by the

Sol: Darcy’s law states that for laminar flow conditions in a saturated soil, the rate of Student
flow or the discharge per unit time is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
q = KiA
07. What is the importance of effective stress?

Ans: It is the pressure transmitted from particle through their point of contact
through the soil mass and it is also termed as inter granular pressure. It is effective
in decreasing the void ratio of the soil mass and in mobilizing its shear strength.
08. Define capillary siphoning.

Ans: When the water level in the reservoir is corresponding to the flood level H.F.L, the
portion to the u/s of the dam will be saturated. The water level in the u/s pervious
shell will be practically the same as the H.F>L. Due to capillarity, water will rise
through a height hc. If the top of the core is situated at a height y< hc above the
H.F.L, , the capillary forces ill pull the water in descending part of the earth dam,
and will slowly empty it. This process is known as capillary siphoning.
09. Define surface tension.

Ans: Surface tension of water is the property which exists in the surface film of water
tending to contract the contained volume into a form having a minimum superficial
area possible.
10. What is Quick Sand?

Ans: In cohesion less soil loses all its strength and the particles have a tendency to
move up in the direction of flow. This phenomenon of lifting of soil particle is
called quick condition, boiling condition or quick sand.
11. Define free water and held water.

Sol: Free water:
Water that is free to move through a soil mass under the influence of gravity is
known as free water.
Held water:
Held water is the part of water held in soil pores by some forces existing within
the pores: such water therefore is not free to move under gravitational forces.
12. Define structural, Adsorbed and capillary water.

Ans: Structural water:
Structural water is the water chemically combined in the crystal structure of the
soil mineral and can be removed only by breaking the structure. For Micro Notes by the
Student
Adsorbed water:
Adsorbed water, also termed as the hygroscopic water or the contact moisture
or surface bound moisture. It is the part which the soil particles freely adsorb
from atmosphere by the physical forces of attraction and is hold by the force of
adhesion.
Capillary water:
Water held in the interstices of soil due to capillary forces is called capillary water.
13. Define contact moisture.

Ans: Water can also be held by surface tension round the point of contact of two
particles spheres) capillary water in this form is known as contact moisture or
contact capillary water.
14. Define Permeability.

Ans: Permeability is defined as the property of a porous material which permits the
passage of water or other fluids through its interconnecting voids. A material
having continuous voids is called permeable. Grovels are highly permeable while
stiff clay is a least permeable, and hence clay may be formed impermeable.
15. Define seepage velocity or) Actual velocity.

Ans: The actual velocity or seepage velocity is defined as the rate of discharge of
percolating water per unit cross-sectional area of voids perpendicular to the
direction of flow.
7 Footings
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2. Darcy’s law : For ﬂow through soils

4. Validity of Darcy’s law:

5. Seepage velocity(Vs) or actual or true velocity: For Micro Notes by the

• k is inversely proportional to speciﬁc surface area

(c) Void ratio:

(d) Properties of percolating ﬂuid: For Micro Notes by the

• Viscosity changes drastically with temperature

kt = Permeability at temperature of t°C when viscosity is mt

(e) Degree of saturation : Permeability of partially saturated soil is considerably

Sol: For Micro Notes by the

Inclined seepage length, L:

K = 3.84 X 10-6 m/s

10. Constant Head Test:

h 24.7 For Micro Notes by the

A constant head permeability test was conducted on a sand sample 15 cm in length,

Sol: Q = k i A (Darcy’s equation)

= 11.25X 10–2 cm/sec

0.4 For Micro Notes by the

11. Variable head test :

Sol: h1 = 1.0 m ; h2 = 0.35 m

= 4.859 X 10-5 mm/s (or) 4.859 X10-6 cm/sec

14. Pumping out test :

15. Pumping in test:

16. Permeability of stratiﬁed soil deposits:

Sol: k1 = k3 = 1 X 10-4 cm/s

17. Flow perpendicular to stratiﬁcation: For Micro Notes by the

• Total loss of head = sum of loss of heads through each layers.

kH is always greater than kv, for most of soils.

The permeability of individual layers A, B and C of soil in a three layer system is

18. Approximate coeﬃcient of permeability soil can be found as follows:

For Micro Notes by the

(Ans. 92.17 days)

Soil 1: e = 0.55 and Gs = 2.65 For Micro Notes by the

(Ans: At Point A: 0.4 m. 0.95 m

Instability at head = 0.43 m)

Previous Gate Questions

One Mark Questions

(a) (i) AD, (ii) AB (b) (i) AB, (ii) AF

(a) Seepage velocity is always smaller than discharge velocity

Two Mark Questions

(a) 1.5×10-6 (b) 2.0×10-6

Soil 1 Soil 2 Soil 3

The value of h in the set up is

Two Mark KEY

Previous IES Objective Questions

02. Consider the following assumptions as regards ﬁeld permeability test:

05. Consider the following statements regarding permeability of soils:

Previous TSPSC Questions

01. For large engineering projects the permeability is determined accurately by

1. Stress conditions in soil:

Total stress is due to

2. Neutral pressure (or) pore pressure (u )

3. Eﬀective stress (s′ ) :

4. Relationship among σ, σ′, u

For Micro Notes by the

8. Capillary water: For Micro Notes by the

9. In soils, the capillary height,