International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology

Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

The Impacts of Urbanization on Kabul City’s Groundwater

Quality
Wafaurahman Wafa*1, Mohammad Haroon Hairan2, Hamidullah Waizy3
1
Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment, Kabul University
2
Department of Natural Resources Management, Faculty of Environment, Kabul
University
3
Department of Geological Engineering and Exploration of Mines, Faculty of
Geology and Mines, Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul, Afghanistan
E-mail: 1wafa@ku.edu.af, 2mhairan@ku.edu.af, 3waizy.hamidullah@yahoo.com

Abstract
The quality of water is usually described according to its physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics. This study aims to assess the impacts of urbanization
on the physical, chemical, and biological conditions of Kabul City’s groundwater,
which is used for the drinking purpose in both shallow wells and tap water cases.
The samples are collected from 39 sampling points in 10 most populated and
urbanized areas of Kabul City, where both in-situ and ex-situ analysis are
conducted. The gained values are tabulated and compared to ANSA and WHO
standard guidelines. The results show that some parameters, i.e., dissolved
oxygen, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, manganese, total coliform, and fecal
coliform of the groundwater in mentioned areas, are higher than the national
(ANSA) and international (WHO) standards. The remaining parameters of water
quality are within the range of national and WHO standards, so the water is
needed to be treated prior to use for drinking purposes.
Keywords: Water Quality, Groundwater, Urbanization, Kabul City, Contamination,
ANSA

1. Introduction
Water quality is one of the biggest drinking water challenges in Kabul city.The rapid
urbanization is the most influencing factor of groundwater contamination in Kabul City as
the rapid industrialization, and urban expansion may affect the groundwater quality
(Zhang et al., 2019).Due to the security concerns, most of the vulnerable
peopleareinternally migrating toKabul City forthe last two decades, which makes Kabul a
metropolitan city that was having more than 5 million populations(Mukhtar, et al.,
2016).Most of these populations are living in unplanned housing schemes, where proper
sewerage and channelization systems are lacking to collect the sewage and wastewater.
Therefore, the wastewater is draining to the Kabul River without any prior treatment.At
the same time, the upper Kabul river basin is the main source of groundwater recharge in
Kabul, so the groundwater is getting polluted day by day, which leads to the deterioration
of groundwater quality and remains as the main cause of waterborne diseases and
increased rate of mortality of children below 5 years. The people of Kabul city spenda
huge amount of moneyon water-borne diseases that adversely affect theGDP of
Afghanistan.
Groundwater is the main source of drinking water in Kabul City. However, the
groundwater is crucially used for drinking purposes globally because the sources of
groundwaterare not sustainable, and the quality of water is also a point of
concern(Udeshani, Dissanayake, Gunatilake, & Chandrajith, 2020b). Water is a
deliberated as a key requirement of industrial, agricultural, and human use. The
population growth is the main factor of increasing demand for water for drinking and

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10796
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

agriculture purposes, which cause the water scarcity and pollution due to the waste
discharges andaffect aquatic organisms and human health (Gupta, Pandey, & Hussain,
2017).
Water pollution is the change in physical, chemical, and biological features of water.
When water is contaminated by urban, domestic and industrial activities, then it will not
be suitable to use for drinking purposes for all living being (Udhayakumar, Manivannan,
Raghu, & Vaideki, 2016; Di Wu, Wang, & Seidu, 2020).The increased environmental
pollution in urban areas and cities are the most critical source of water pollution
worldwide. Historically all urban areas and cities are built up alongside the freshwater
bodies to use them easily for drinking and other purposes (Szita, Horváth, Winkler,
Kalicz, & Gribovszki, 2019).
As the population living in urban areas is growing rapidly, so they are consuming more
natural resources, especially water resources, for their drinking and industrial purposes.
Therefore, they are considered as the biggest cause of urban pollution. Hence, the
population increase is named as the pollutant of water bodies as well (Bugica, Sterba-
boatwright, & Wetz, 2020; Udeshani, Dissanayake, Gunatilake, & Chandrajith, 2020a).
The cities like Kabul, which depend on groundwater resource, are facing water scarcity
due to the increasing demand for water and affects the groundwater resources
sustainability by increased pumping and less recharge (Kumar et al., 2020; Mautner,
Foglia, Herrera, Galán, & Herman, 2020; Wang, Qian, Rui Zou, Alvi Khalid, 2019; D
Wu, Wang, & Seidu, 2020).
According to Udeshani et al. (2020b), due to anthropogenic activities, the groundwater
resources are highly vulnerable in Sri Lanka. Additionally, continuous urban
development, agriculture, and insufficient wastewater management activities have been
recognized as main causes for water quality pollution (Krishan et al., 2016; Shi et al.,
2019; Wang, Qian, Rui Zou, Alvi Khalid, 2019; Di Wu et al., 2020). Moreover, national
water quality standards rely on biological indicators. They are different for various
geographical, industrial, or expansion stage conditions by regions. Usual biological
indicators include coliform, escherichia coli, Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, and
Mollusca (Di Wu et al., 2020).
Since Afghanistan is a signatory to sustainable development goals 2030, and the goal
six of SDG 2030 aims that everyone must have access to clean water and sanitation.
Hence, the government of Afghanistan developed a national rural water sanitation and
hygiene education policy. Furthermore,the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and
Development (MRRD), Ministry of Public Health (MoPH), and Ministry of Education
(MoE) of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan are in close partnership with relevant
stakeholders. They are committed to ensure that people have access to clean water supply
and sanitation services along with hygiene promotion (MRRD, 2016). According to the
international standards (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2015), improved drinking water supply
coverage areas increased from (24% to 47%) in 2015, and 6.2 million people had access
to the improved drinking water supply. That leaves 12.5 million people without access to
improved drinking water sources(Medicine, 2008).
To address the aforementioned problems, the study aims to identify the urbanization
impacts on the groundwater quality of Kabul City and compare themwith national and
international standards. The research further highlights the impacts of water pollution to
give some clear recommendations to theGovernments of the Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan(GoIRA) and Kabul Municipality to adopt and implement the water pollution
control policies and ensure the public health and safety.

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10797
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

1.1. Water Resources

The Earth’s surface is contained 71% of the water in its four oceans. However, only a
minor percentage (3%) is freshwater, from which 69% is in icecaps and glaciers and 30%
forms groundwater. The rivers, lakes, and swamps combined just account for 0.3%.
Freshwater provides people’s essential necessities for industrial, agricultural, and
domestic activities, especially in urban areas. Groundwater and surface water resources
are considered as simply available freshwater and are significantly prone to chemical and
microbial contamination. Therefore, over 631 million peoplearound the world depend
oncontaminated water resources (Di Wu et al., 2020).
According to Chang et al. (2020), the urban growth is the main cause of stream
temperature, suspended solids, heavy metal, the content of salt in water, organic chemical,
and nutrient. It also elevates the level of chloride, conductivity, and sulphate due to
wastewater input in the water stream. However,Rajendran & Mansiya (2015) evaluated
the physicochemical parameters such as dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand,
pH, temperature, turbidity, total solids, and fecal coliform. Based on Water Quality Index
(WQI), they suggested that the water quality values were in the range of medium to good
and might be used for drinking and other domestic purposes after appropriate treatment.
The urban area runoff, pollutant accumulation, and removal procedures are extremely
dynamic, restricted, and conquered by diverse land use sorts and conditions of climate
(Wang, Qian, Rui Zou, Alvi Khalid, 2019).
1.2. Water Quality Parameters
Human health protection from the pathogenic organisms present in the sewage prior to
the treated effluent being discharged to the receiving water bodies is of specific concern
(Haroon & Unnisa, 2016). According to Halder and Islam (2015)that ―the water quality of
Turag river may not be in a position to sustain the aquatic life and not suitable for using of
domestic purpose. The very low dissolved oxygen indicates other dignified parameters.
The determined concentration of biological oxygen demand( BOD), chemical oxygen
demand (COD), hardness, turbidity, and TDS found in the Turag river are much higher
than the standard allowable limit. The study also delivers indication that local societies
are suffering from a diversity of health problems counting diarrhea, skin, respiratory
illnesses, dysentery, anemia, and complications in childbirth(Halder & Islam, 2015)
Safe drinking water is a basic need for good health, and it is a fundamental right of
humans. Freshwater is previously a limiting resource in many parts of the world. In the
next century, it will become even more limiting due to increased population, urbanization,
and climate change. Unfortunately, in developing countries, the quality of drinking water
is incessantly contaminated and harmful for human use due to the high growth of
population, extension in industries, lobbing away from wastewater and chemical
emissions into canals and other water sources. According to recent evaluations, the
amount of accessible water is falling hard while the value of water is declining speedily
due to fast urbanization, deforestation, land degradation, etc. (Van der Gun,
2012).Consequently, many cities in Asia facing increase in organic and nutrient material
in drinking water due to the acquittal of natural domestic and industrial waste water into
these resources. Sites are more serious in South Asia, where more than 0.5 million losses
of kids occurred per year with extra health threats due to poor water quality and bad
sanitation (Annachhatre, 2006).
Globally, there are more people dying from poor quality of water per year than from all
forms of passion, including conflicts, and it is valued that about 26% of all deaths have
resulted from spreadable diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria (WHO, 2002; UNEP
GEMS/ Water Program, 2008). Diarrhea, an aquatic disease, is testified as to the top
cause of death in kids and children in Afghanistan, while every fifth citizen hurts from
virus and disease caused by the contaminated water (Kahlown et al., 2006). Even though

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10798
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

the problem of drinking water quality has an intensifying alarm in the urbanized world,
but little is discussed in developing countries.Then, water pollution is not any longer new
threat for human in urbanization development
Currently, in increasing urbanization, agricultural and industrial repetition brings a bad
effect on both surface and groundwater, and it will quickly decrease the water quality in
terms of its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Then, water pollution is not
any longer a new threat for humans in urbanization development.
Groundwater used in the world for a long time because of its easy accessibility and
good quality. In urban areas, groundwater as a source of domestic, commercial and
industrial uses and water has seriously subsidized the development of cities. Groundwater
in urban areas is sometimes contaminated with multiple contaminants at higher
concentrations than in rural areas.
Among the heavy metals, As, Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu, Hg, and Ni are of major concern, mainly
due to their presence at relatively high concentrations in drinking water and their effects
on human health. Amongst the mentioned heavy metals, As, Cd, and Pb have extensively
been studied for their public health effects (Malik & Khan, 2016). The UN general
assembly sustainable development goals (SDGS) published in 2015, to achieve by 2030
globally, the clean water and sanitation are ranked as goal 6 also think about the global
water quality (Di Wu et al., 2020).
1.3. Urbanization impacts on water Quality
Unplanned urbanization is driven some serious long-term impacts on human life
and the environment; water contamination due to urban mess and air pollution due
to traffic smoke is very evolving and widespread problems. The clean drinking
water is getting scarce for people day by day in unplanned cities, and water from the
municipal supplies is not assured.The leaking of sewerage pipes is also impacting
groundwater supplies. People usually deal with water shortages, and this happens on
a regular basis.Another important element that makes the water impure in urban
areas is the human wastes and insufficient sewage system, which is a big source of
water pollution and infiltrate to underground water sources (Rashid et al., 2018).
A practical feature of the urbanization process is the discharge of domestic waste
into water resources, and this activity induces changes, which affect the
environmental stability and water quality for many purposes (Pires, N. L et al.,
2015). However, Urbanization is one of the most devastating factors affecting the
quality of waterways and one of the greatest problems facing groundwater planners .
Major damage to water supplies and human health is caused by industrial waste.
Waste discharged from manufacturing operations, such as untreated effluents, heavy
metals, toxins, alkaline substances, and pollutants, adversely harms the ecological
environment and natural resources (Ravish, Setia, & Deswal, 2018).
1.4. Current State of water quality in Kabul city
The condition of the water in the Kabul city is getting poorer due to population
growth, mismanagement of water resources, overexploitation and depletion of
groundwater, water contamination, and climate change (Kazemi, 2018; Khalil,
Ahmed, Kumar, Khan, & Joshi, 2020). Nowadays, the water problems have reached
an alarming situation in Afghanistan; only in Kabul, about 80% of people do not
have access to the safe drinking water, and 95% have no access to good quality
sanitation (Burrows, 2017). Only 20% of the residents of Kabul City have access to
tap water; the remaining people are relying on shallow wells, which are insecure in
terms of sustainable supply and water quality (Brati et al., 2019; Mack, Chornack, &
Taher, 2013) As about 80% of the inhabitants of Kabul rely on shallow groundwater
for their drinking purpose, therefore, thousands of hand-pumps are installed by non-

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10799
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

governmental organizations (NGOs) throughout the city. Meanwhile, th ere is neither

systematic treatment of sewage, nor well-operated sewerage system exist; therefore,
the domestic and agriculture wastewater is leaching to the ground and contaminating
the shallow groundwater. As a result, the high mortality rate of infants is probably
due to polluted groundwater (Houben, Tünnermeier, Eqrar, & Himmelsbach, 2008;
Khalil et al., 2020; Mack et al., 2013; Zahid et al., 2019)
2. Materials and Method
2.1. Study Area
Kabul is the capital city of Afghanistan, located in the eastern part of the country in a
semiarid zone within the latitude of 34°31’ North and 69°12’ East (Brati, Ishihara, &
Higashi, 2019; Lashkaripour & Hussaini, 2008; Zahid, Asmawi, & Abdullah, 201;
Mukhtar, et al., 2016). Winter is the rainy season, and the precipitation in winter occurs as
snowfall, while scarce rainfalls in the spring season as well (Brati et al., 2019). There is a
significant temperature variation between daytime and night time. The temperature in
winter falls as lower as -20° C, and in summer, rises as much as 40° C (Houben, Niard,
Tünnermeier, & Himmelsbach, 2009). Recently, the city is counted one of the most
rapidly growing citiesin Asia (Zahid et al., 2019). The main cause of the rapid population
growth is the return of refugees from neighboring countries and internal migration due to
the insecurity in many provinces of Afghanistan. The recent estimated consensus says that
the population has increased from 720,000 in 1978 to about 4.9 million in 2015 (Zahid,
Asmawi, & Abdullah, 2019), and a further increase of up to 8 million is estimated up to
2050 (Kazemi, 2018; Lashkaripour & Hussaini, 2008).
2.2. Data Collection
Kabul has 22 districts, from which 10 Areas located inside the Kabul City were
selected as study areas based on the newly established residential areas and population
density. The districts where sampling took place are Puli-e-Charkhi, Ahmad Shah Baba
Mena, Bagrami, Shuhada-e-Salehin, Chehel Sutu, Darul Aman, Company, Taimani, Khair
Khana, and Macroryans; minimum 3 and maximum 8 sampling points were selected for
sampling in each district. So, collectively the sampling was done in 39 points, as shown in
figure (1). A total of 30 physicals, chemical, and biological parameters were tested and
analyzed, as shown in table (1). For this purpose, both in-situ and ex-situ parameters
testing methods were applied.

Figure 1: Study area map and sampling points

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10800
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

2.2.1. In-situ Analysis

The measurement of in-situ parameters is conducted during the sampling at the
sampling sites using CyberScan PCD 650 instrument. Measurement of nine parameters is
taken and then recorded with a calibrated multi-parameter probe. The instruments were
handled very carefully and correctly in order to avoid any possible error that might affects
water quality determination. The water parameters measured in-situ are temperature, pH,
dissolved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS),
salinity, color, turbidity, and total hardness.

2.2.2. Ex-situ Analysis

The ex-situ parameters are measured in the laboratory using the collected and
preserved water samples. The collected samples were preserved in a sensitivesampling
lab,where no chemical, biological, and physical reactions happen before laboratory
analysis. Every parameter has its own procedure of measurement. There are 21 ex-situ
parameters analyzed in this study, and they are the measurements of calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), alkalinity, bicarbonates (HCO3), chloride, fluoride,
sulphate, phosphate, potassium, nitrite, nitrate, ammonia, iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),
copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), arsenic (Ar), cyanide (Cy), total coliform and F-coliforms
using the APHA (American public Health Association) methodology (Trussell, 1989).
The total coliform and fecal coliforms were also analyzed.The total coliform was
incubated at 37 ºC, and fecal coliformat 44 ºC for 24 hours, using Wagtech Potatest
incubator WE10005 incubator test kit.

2.2.3. The Experimental Flow and Research Framework

Based on the agreed research experimental design, the study conducted is shown in
Figure 2, all the physical parameters were analyzed in-situ, the chemical and biological
parameters were analyzed ex-situ considering the standard laboratory procedures.

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10801
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

Calcium

Magnesium
Ex-situ Analysis
Collected
Samples Sodium

Alkalinity

Bicarbonat
es
Chloride
Colifo
Fecal

Total
Colif
orm
rm

Fluoride

Sulfate
In-situ
Analysis Phosphate

Potassium

Nitrite

Nitrate

Iron

Manganese
Temperature
Turbidity

Salinity

Color
TDS

DO

EC
pH

Copper

Aluminum

Arsenic

Cyanide

Figure 2: Experimental design and Research framework

4. Result and Discussion

A statistical overview of the analyzed water samples is given below. The gained results
have been categorized into three groups; Physical parameters, Chemical parameters, and
Biological parameters. The whole groups of water quality parameters were determined in
all collected water samples.

4.1. Physical Parameters of Kabul City Water

The physical water quality parameters of Kabul City areshown in Table1. The color
and temperature are in the acceptable range based on WHO (2011) and Afghanistan
National Standard Authority (ANSA 2010). The maximum mean values of electrical
conductivity in all selected areas of Kabul city are as follow (unit is µS/cm): 5811 in

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10802
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

Bagrami, 1938 in Puli-e-Charkhi, 1888 in Ahmadshah baba Mina, 1827 in Shuhada-e-

Salehin, 1262 in Makrorayan, 1193 in Taimani, 1169 in Kair Khana, 1049 in Chehl
Sutun, 893 in Darul Aman, and the minimum mean value of 545µS/cm were recorded in
Company area, district- 5 of Kabul city. Based on WHO (2011) and ANSA (2010)
standards, the1500µS/cm and 1250µS/cm is the acceptable range of EC for drinking
water. The Bagrami, Puli-e-Charkhi, Ahmadshahbaba Mina, Shuhada-e-Salehin and
Makroryan were exceeded from the acceptable range.
pH is one of the important parameters in water quality.The Acceptable range of pH is
6.5 to 8.5. The pH of less than 6.5 caused the interruption of vitamins and minerals
creation in the human body. However, pH of more than 8.5 caused the taste of water
saltier and causes eye irritation and skin disorders (Avvannavar & Shrihari, 2008).
Additionally, extremely high and very low pH values are not acceptable as both can
hazardous effects to the living organisms (Haroon & Unnisa, 2016). The highest mean
value of pH was detected 8.96 at Chehel Sutun, and the minimum mean value was 7.75,
determined in Puli-e-Charkhi of Kabul City, however; the exceeded values were recorded
in Chehel Sutun, Shuhada-e-Salehin, and Ahmadshahbaba Mina. Furthermore, the highest
recorded mean value of DO is 113.9 in Shuhada-e-Salehin, and the lowest was in
Bagrami, which is 0.07.
TDS is one of the most important parameters in drinking water quality. It is the sum of
calcium, potassium, carbonates, bicarbonates, sodium, magnesium, chlorides, phosphate,
organic matter, and other particles. The higher concentration of TDS causes the
gastrointestinal irritation in human body. The high level of TDS in Bagrami is caused by
agriculture, sewage, municipal, and urban activities (Mohsin, Safdar, Asghar, & Jamal,
2013).The maximum mean value of the recorded TDS is 4586.7 mg/l found in Bagrami,
and the minimum mean recorded value is 45.1 mg/l found in Puli-e-Charkhi of Kabul
City. The recorded unacceptable ranges of TDS is the biggest problem detected in the
drinking water of Kabul City.
The turbidity of water is in the range of 11.25NTU in Shuhada-e-Salehin and 7.75NTU
in Ahmad shah Baba Mina, and both were exceeded the guided range of the ANSA
(2010) and WHO (2011). The rest of the areas of Kabul City were within the acceptable
range of ANSA and WHO. High values of turbidity can cause the growth of pathogenic
organisms in water bodies (Avvannavar & Shrihari, 2008).
The highest values (1170 mg/l, 1055 mg/l, 870 mg/l, 715.5 mg/l, 515 mg/l, 417.5 mg/l,
375 mg/l, 360 mg/l, 297.5 mg/l) of total hardness were detected in Bagrami, Puli-e-
Charkhiand Shuhada-e-Salehin, Taimani, Ahmad Shah Baba Mena, Macroryans, Darul
Aman, Company, Khair khana, and Chehel Sutun areas respectively. In contrast, the
ANSA acceptable range of TDS is 300 mg/l, and the WHO acceptable range is 500 mg/l.
Table 1. The Physical Parameters of Water Quality in Kabul City
Location

Color

Temperature

EC

pH

DO

TDS

Salinity

Turbidity

T Hardness

Puli-e-Charkhi 0 17.43 1938 7.75 9.44 45.1 1241 0.97 1055

Ahmad Shah 0 16.35 1888 8.72 4.75 1357.7 0.95 7.75
Baba Mena 715.5
Bagrami 0 15.75 5811 8.44 0.07 4586.7 3.13 0 1170
Shuhada-e- 0 15.98 1827 8.89 113.9 1169.1 0.88 11.2 1055
Salehin

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10803
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

Chehel Sutun 0 16.25 1049 8.96 83.8 671.3 0.48 0 297.5

Darul Aman 0 14.5 893 8.20 1.5 621.3 0.38 0 417.5
Company 0 14.72 545 8.58 88.5 348.6 0.18 2.5 375
Taimani 0 14.25 1193 7.87 49.5 763.7 0.53 0 870
Khair Khana 0 16.88 1169 7.93 37 747.4 0.53 0 360
Makroryans 0 14.2 1262 8.13 55.6 807.7 0.57 0 585

4.2. Chemical Parameters of Kabul City Water Quality

The Chemical Parameters ofWater quality of Kabul City isshown in Table 2.The
Alkalinity, Bicarbonates(HCO3), Chloride, Fluoride, Sulphate, Phosphate, Nitrite, Nitrate,
Ammonia, Iron (Fe), Aluminum (Al), Arsenic (Ar), and Cyanide (Cy) are within the
acceptable range of WHO (2011) and ANSA (2010). The mean value of Calcium in the
Bagrami was 215 mg/l, which exceedsthe acceptable range of ANSA (200 mg/l.
However; the mean value of Calcium were (215 mg/l, 179 mg/l, 154 mg/l, 142 mg/l, 129
mg/l, and 91 mg/l) in Bagrami, Khair khana, Taimani, Shuhada-e-Salehin, Macroryans,
and Company areas respectively, all of them exceeds the acceptable range of WHO,
which 75 mg/l.
The maximum mean value of Magnesium (Mg) is 218 mg/l at Puli-e-Charkhi, and the
minimum mean value is 29.2 mg/l recorded at Chehel Sutun.The detected values of
Magnesium in other areas of Kabul City are 29.2 mg/l, 170 mg/l, 166 mg/l, 153 mg/l, 130
mg/l, 63.9 mg/l, 54.8 mg/l, 54.2 mg/l, and 49 mg/l, which is recorded in Chehel Sutun,
Shuhada-e-Salehin, Bagrami, Taimani, Ahmad Shah Baba Mean, Macroryans, Company,
Darul Aman, and Khair khan areas respectively. All these values exceed the acceptable
limits of ANSA (2010) and WHO (2011).
The mean detected values of Sodium(Na) were 655 mg/l, 610 mg/l, 545 mg/l, 445
mg/l, 368 mg/l, 335 mg/l, 243 mg/l, 275 mg/l, 198 mg/l, and 140 mg/l in Ahmad Shah
Baba Mena, Puli-e-Charkhi, Bagrami, Taimani, Shuhada-e-Salehin, Macroryans, Khair
khana, Darual Aman, Chehel Sutun, and Company areas respectively. The comparison of
the above-mentioned values with the ANSA and WHO standard guidelines show that only
Khair khana, Darul Aman, Chehel Sutun, and Company areas are within the ANSA and
WHO acceptable ranges.
The mean detected value of Chloride in only one sampling area (Shuahada-e-Salehin)
of Kabul city was 751 mg/l thatexceeded the ANSA and WHO guidelines, while the rest
of the sampling areas were reported acceptable.
The mean detected value of Sulphate in only one sampling area (Bagrami) of Kabul
city was 276 mg/l that exceeded the ANSA and WHO guidelines, while the rest of the
sampling areas were reported acceptable.
Potassium is one of the important chemical parameters for water quality. The mean
detected values of Potassium are 40.9 mg/l, 49 mg/l, 37.5 mg/l, and 23.7 mg/l, at
Bagrami, Shuhada-e-Salehin, Ahmad Shah Baba Mena, and Macroryans respectively, and
they all exceeded the ANSA and WHO guidelines.
The maximum mean detected value of Manganese is 2.65 mg/l in Macroryans, while
the minimum detected mean value is 0.43 mg/l in Shuhada-e-Salehin. The ANSA and
WHO acceptable standard value for the Manganese is 0.2 mg/l, and 0.3 mg/l,
respectively, so we can report that the detected values of Manganese in all sampling areas
of Kabul City are beyond the acceptable range.

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10804
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

The mean values of Aluminum (Al) detected in Puli-e-Charkhi, and Bagrami is 0.45
mg/l, and 2.5 mg/l, respectively, and both are exceeded the ANSA and WHO standard
guidelines.

Table 2. The Chemical Parameters of Water Quality in Kabul City

Sampling Areas

Puli-e-Charkhi

Mena
Ahmad Shah Baba

Bagrami

Shuhada-e-Salehin

Chehel Sutun

Darul Aman

Company

Taimani

Khair Khana

Macroryans
Parameters

Calcium (Ca) 64 73 215 142 71 78 91 154 179 129

Magnesium (Mg) 218 130 166 170 29.2 54.2 54.8 153 49 63.9
Sodium(Na) 610 655 545 368 198 275 140 445 243 335
Alkalinity 418 519 525 394 363 344 281 313 131 463
Bicarbonates(HCO3) 481 519 525 394 369 344 281 313 131 463
Chloride 64 137 54 751 67 16 44 25 4.22 12.2
Fluoride 1.27 0.68 1.05 0.38 0.32 0.17 0.46 0.38 0.70 0.31
Sulphate 144 192 276 112 65.2 48.2 11.8 101 130 89.2
Phosphate 0.29 0.42 0.21 0.27 0.07 0.13 0.1 0.45 0.08 0.17
Potassium 7.38 37.5 40.9 49 4.78 3.7 2.4 7.25 7.23 23.7
Nitrite 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.33 0.01 0.01 0.25 0.01
Nitrate 1.65 1.35 1.6 3.75 3.12 3.2 1.33 2.7 2.7 1.23
Ammonia 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.02 0.82 0.03 0.19
Iron (Fe) 0.06 0.13 0.08 0.10 0.03 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.08
Manganese (Mn) 0.9 0.5 1.35 0.43 0.6 0.95 0.53 0.58 0.65 2.65
Copper (Cu) 0.04 0.10 2.13 0.35 0.12 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.20 0.09
Aluminum (Al) 0.45 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00
Arsenic (Ar) 0 0 2.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cyanide (Cy) 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

4.3. Total and Fecal Coliform Analysis

Biological analysis determining significant contamination in Bagrami, Puli-e-Charkhi,
Khair khana, Shuhada-e-Salehin, Darul Aman, Ahmad Shah Baba Mena, Taimani and
Macroryans, that is shown in figure 3. A high number of total coliform colonies were
observed in the studynamed site’s samples.
The result of fecal coliform shows significant contamination in Shuhada-e-Salehin,
Khair Khana, Puli-e-Charkhi, and Ahmad Shah Baba Mena,as stated in figure 4. The high
number of colonies of the Fecal coliform was determined in the water samples. Fecal
coliform is a subgroup of total coliform bacteria, which live and reproduce in the intestine
of humans and other animals. Most fecal coliform bacteria are harmless, but a few can
cause mild to serious illness (ANSA, 2010).

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10805
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

45

40

35

30

25
MPN

20

15

10

Locations

Total Coliform

Figure 3: Total Coliform in Kabul City’s Water

The existence of fecal coliform has a direct relationship with seasonal temperature
variation (Hamdard et al., 2020). The fecal coliform has declined when the temperature
decreases seasonally. The bacterial contamination in Kabul city were caused by the
unplanned rapid urbanization without a proper sewage system and sanitation practices.
TheBacterial detected contamination is higher than international drinking water standards.
The Impenetrable populated parts of Kabul city suffer from poor water quality; this
contamination is caused by human activities, the nonexistence of wastewater and water
treatment services. Consequently, the water quality is better in less populated areas
comparatively (Mack et al., 2010).

16

14

12

10
MPN

Location

Fecal Coliform

Figure 4: Fecal Coliform in Kabul City’s Water

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10806
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

The standard of drinking water required the absence of microorganisms because they
can pose a danger to human health. The total coliform and fecal coliform are the main
groups of these microorganisms. The WHO and ANSA guidelines for drinking water in
the coliform group are similar. Therefore, no colony of bacteria should be available in any
100 ml of water (ANSA, 2010; WHO, 2011).
5. Conclusion
Safe drinking water is an essential need and basic right of humans; the drinking water
quality is a major issue nowadays in Kabul city. The problem is increasing with rapid
population growth and unplanned urbanization. In addition, most of the wastewater
disposed of surface water bodies can infiltrate to the groundwater. While most of Kabul
residents depend on groundwater sources as water supply, which is contaminated with
different germs. Consequently, water with poor quality leads to potential threats to human
health.
This study found that the physical parameters are in permissible range except for TDS.
TDS is in high range in the groundwater of all sampling areas of Kabul City, which
causes some changes in the physical properties of water and affects the taste of water.
However, pH is in the acceptable range, but in some sites, the mean pH values are
increasing from ANSA and WHO standards.
Most of the chemical parameters of water quality analyzed during the study are in an
acceptable range. However, the Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sodium(Na), and
Manganese (Mn) vary and slightly excessthe ANSA and WHO standards. The rest of the
chemical parameters are in the permissible range, and there is no serious consequences of
these variations. While biological parameters are not within the permissible limits of
ANSA and WHO standards, but there are still some sites that are free of fecal coliform
and total coliform;therefore, the presence of total coliform and fecal coliform has become
a serious issue in the groundwater of Kabul City
In conclusion, the underground water of Kabul city is not very safe for human
consumption without any purification;the water needs treatment and purification prior to
use it for drinking purposes. The most severe cause of water contamination in Kabul City
is the rapid and unplanned urbanization and development. The sewage and wastewater
produced in these unplanned and unsustainable urban areas are infiltrating down the
ground and joins the groundwater. The researchers recommend that the Government of
Afghanistan, especially the Kabul Municipality, should strongly prevent the unplanned
sprawl of urban areas in the city. Furthermore, Kabul City is suffering from lacking a
well-managed channelization system and centralized sewage treatment plant, and people
discharges their wastewater to unpaved septic wells; therefore, these sewages are leaching
to the groundwater and resulting to groundwater pollution. So the establishment of well-
managed channelization and centralized treatment plants in different parts of the city will
prevent the wastewater management problem in the city.
6. Acknowledgement
The researchers are acknowledging the fund provided by the Higher Education
Development Program (HEDP) in the Ministry of Higher Education of Afghanistan for
support for this research.
7. References
1. Annachhatre, A. P. Water Quality and Wastewater Management. Environmental Management Tools: A
Training Manual, (2006), 125-129.
2. ANSA. National Pollution Control and Management Development and Implementation of National
Quality Standards for Water Resources Suggestions for Interim Standards, (2010).
3. Avvannavar, S. M., & Shrihari, S. Evaluation of water quality index for drinking purposes for river
Netravathi, Mangalore, South India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 143(1-3), (2008), 279-
290.

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10807
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

4. Brati, M. Q., Ishihara, M. I., & Higashi, O.. Groundwater level reduction and pollution in relation to
household water management in Kabul, Afghanistan. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 5(3),
(2019). 1315–1325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-019-00312-7
5. Bugica, K., Sterba-boatwright, B., & Wetz, M. S. (2020). Water quality trends in Texas estuaries. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 152(March 2019), 110903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.110903
6. Burrows, A. Clean water for mums and babies at Kabul hospital. Filtration + Separation, 54(2),
(2017).18–19. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0015-1882(17)30079-4
7. Chang, Nini et al. 2020. ―Science of the Total Environment A Novel Index for Assessing the Water
Quality of Urban Landscape Lakes Based on Water Transparency.‖ Science of the Total Environment
735(13): 139351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139351.
8. Gupta, N., Pandey, P., & Hussain, J. Effect of physicochemical and biological parameters on the quality
of river water of Narmada, Madhya Pradesh, India. Water Science, 31(1), (2017). 11–23.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsj.2017.03.002
9. Hamdard, M. H., Soliev, I., Xiong, L., & Kløve, B. Drinking water quality assessment and governance in
Kabul: A case study from a district with high migration and underdeveloped infrastructure. Central Asian
Journal of Water Research 6(1): 66-81,(2020). https://doi.org/10.29258/CAJWR/2020-R1.v6-1/66-
81.eng
10. Haroon, M. and S. A. Unnisa. Performance and Evaluation of Sewage Treatment Plant based on UASB.
World Journal of Engineering Bioscience. Volume 5, Issue 1: 1-9. (2016). © 2016 eISSN 2277-8047.
11. Halder, J. N., & Islam, M. N. Water pollution and its impact on the human health. Journal of
environment and human, 2(1), (2015). 36-46.
12. Houben, G., Niard, N., Tünnermeier, T., & Himmelsbach, T. Hydrogeology of the Kabul Basin
(Afghanistan), part I: Aquifers and hydrology. Hydrogeology Journal, 17(3), (2009). 665–677.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-008-0377-z
13. Houben, G., Tünnermeier, T., Eqrar, N., & Himmelsbach, T. Hydrogeology of the Kabul Basin
(Afghanistan), part II: Groundwater geochemistry. Hydrogeology Journal, 17(4), (2008). 935–948.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-008-0375-1
14. Kazemi, S. R. Blue Gold: The quest for household water in Kabul city. Reliefweb, (2018, August). (8).
15. Khalil, M., Ahmed, S., Kumar, M., Khan, M. H., & Joshi, R. K. A Need for City-Specific Water Policies
— A Case Study of Kabul City: Afghanistan. Smart Cities—Opportunities and Challenges. Lecture
Notes in Civil Engineering-Springer Singapore, 58,(2020). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
981-15-2545-2_66
16. Kahlown, M. A., Tahir, M. A., Rasheed, H., & Bhatti, K. P. (2006). Water quality status, national water
quality monitoring programme. Fourth Technical ReportPCRWR, 5.
17. Krishan, G., Singh, S., Kumar, C., Garg, P., Suman, G., Ghosh, N. C., & Chaudhary, A. Assessment of
groundwater quality for drinking purpose by using water quality index (WQI) in Muzaffarnagar and
Shamli Districts, Uttar Pradesh, India. Hydrol Current Research, (2016). 7(227), 2.
18. Kumar, A., Ahmad, R., Adimalla, N., Ali, S., Singh, D., Roy, S., & Kumar, A. Groundwater for
Sustainable Development Spring water quality and discharge assessment in the Basantar watershed of
Jammu Himalaya using geographic information system ( GIS ) and water quality Index ( WQI ).
Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 10(March), (2020). 100364.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100364
19. Lashkaripour, G. R., & Hussaini, S. A. Water resource management in Kabul river basin, eastern
Afghanistan. Environmentalist, 28(3), 253–260, (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-007-9136-2
20. Mack, T. J., Chornack, M. P., & Taher, M. R. Groundwater-level trends and implications for sustainable
water use in the Kabul Basin, Afghanistan. Environment Systems and Decisions, 33(3), 457–467, (2013).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-013-9455-4
21. Mautner, M. R. L., Foglia, L., Herrera, G. S., Galán, R., & Herman, J. D. Urban growth and groundwater
sustainability : Evaluating spatially distributed recharge alternatives in the Mexico City Metropolitan
Area. Journal of Hydrology, 586(April), (2020). 124909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124909
22. Medicine, T. Water Quality Interventions to Prevent Diarrhoea : Cost and Cost-Effectiveness. (2008).
23. MRRD. (2016). WASH Policy. Kabul: Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and development.
24. Mohsin, M., Safdar, S., Asghar, F., & Jamal, F. Assessment of drinking water quality and its impact on
residents health in Bahawalpur City. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(15), 114–
128, (2013). Retrieved from http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_15_August_2013/14.pdf
25. Mukhtar, S., Wafa, W., Halimzai, H. and Shams, A.K. Planning for the Solid Waste Management of
Central Park in New Capital Development of Afghanistan. Journal of Environmental Protection, 7, 805-
815, (2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2016.76073
26. Pires, N. L., Muniz, D. H. D. F., Kisaka, T. B., Simplicio, N. D. C. S., Bortoluzzi, L., Lima, J. E. F. W.,
& Oliveira-Filho, E. C. Impacts of the urbanization process on water quality of Brazilian savanna rivers:
the case of Preto River in Formosa, Goias State, Brazil. International Journal of Environmental Research
and Public Health, 12(9), (2015). 10671-10686.
27. Rajendran, A., Mansiya, C., & Kumar, G. V. (2015). Assessment of Ground Water Using Heber Water
Quality Index (HWQI-1) in the Selected Places along the Coastal Areas of North Chennai. Journal of
Chemistry, 2(4), 102-109.

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10808
 International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology
Vol. 29, No. 4, (2020), pp. 10796–10809

28. Rashid, H., Manzoor, M. M., & Mukhtar, S. Urbanization and its effects on water resources: An
exploratory analysis. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, 15(1), (2018). 67-74.
29. Ravish, S., Setia, B., & Deswal, S. Groundwater quality in urban and rural areas of north-eastern
Haryana (India): a review. ISH Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, (2018). 1-11.
30. Shi, B., Bach, P. M., Lintern, A., Zhang, K., Coleman, R. A., Metzeling, L., … Deletic, A.
Understanding spatiotemporal variability of in-stream water quality in urban environments – A case
study of Melbourne, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 246(May), (2019). 203–213.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.06.006
31. Szita, R., Horváth, A., Winkler, D., Kalicz, P., & Gribovszki, Z. A complex urban ecological
investigation in a mid-sized Hungarian city – SITE assessment and monitoring of a liveable urban area ,
PART 1 : Water quality measurement. Journal of Environmental Management, 247(January), 78–87,
(2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.06.063
32. Trussell, R. R. (1989). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (Vol. 17).
American Public Health Association.
33. Udeshani, W. A. C., Dissanayake, H. M. K. P., Gunatilake, S. K., & Chandrajith, R. Assessment of
groundwater quality using water quality index (WQI): A case study of a hard rock terrain in Sri Lanka.
Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 11, 100421, (2020a).
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100421
34. Udeshani, W. A. C., Dissanayake, H. M. K. P., Gunatilake, S. K., & Chandrajith, R. Groundwater for
Sustainable Development Assessment of groundwater quality using water quality index ( WQI ): A case
study of a hard rock terrain in Sri Lanka. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 11(March),
(2020b). 100421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100421
35. Udhayakumar, R., Manivannan, P., Raghu, K., & Vaideki, S. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety
Assessment of physico-chemical characteristics of water in Tamilnadu. Ecotoxicology and
Environmental Safety, 134, (2016).474–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.07.014
36. Van der Gun, J. (2012). Groundwater and Global Change: Trends, Opportunities and Challenges |
International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre. In Unesco.
37. Wang, Qian, Rui Zou, Alvi Khalid, T. Y. ScienceDirect Uncertainty-based parameter estimation for
urban pollutant buildup and washoff simulation using a multiple pattern inverse modeling approach.
Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matcom.2019.07.009
38. World Health Organization (WHO), 2011. Guidelines for drinking water quality, 4th edition. World
Health Organization, Geneva
39. WHO/UNICEF Joint Water Supply, Sanitation Monitoring Programme, & World Health Organization.
(2015). Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2015 update and MDG assessment. World Health
Organization.
40. Wu, D, Wang, H., & Seidu, R. Smart data driven quality prediction for urban water source management.
Future Generation Computer Systems, 107, (2020). 418–432.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2020.02.022
41. Zahid, S., Asmawi, M.Z., & Abdullah, M. F. Assessment of the Groundwater Quality and Pollution in
Kabul City, Afghanistan. Advanced Journal of Technical and Vocational Education, 3(2), (2019).20–26.
https://doi.org/10.26666/rmp.ajtve.2019.2.4
42. Zhang, F., Huang, G., Hou, Q., Liu, C., Zhang, Y., & Zhang, Q. Groundwater quality in the Pearl River
Delta after the rapid expansion of industrialization and urbanization : Distributions , main impact
indicators , and driving forces. Journal of Hydrology, 577(January) (2019), 124004.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124004

ISSN: 2005-4238 IJAST

Copyright ⓒ 2020 SERSC 10809