Sensors & Actuators (PDFDrive)

Sensors & Actuators
Force, torque and pressure sensors
Helena Sarmento
2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento

Outline
• Force sensors
• Torque sensors
• Pressure sensors
2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 1

Force, torque and pressure
• Force: pull or push reaction between two physical bodies.

• Torque: force that causes twisting of a body.
F – force (Newton)
T  F d
d – distance from axis of rotation to
the point of applied force (m)
• Pressure: a contact force per unit area.
F F – force (Newton)
P
A A – Area (m2)

Force sensors
• Quantitative: measure the force and represents its value in

terms of an electrical signal.
– Strain gauge (or gage): piezoresistive.
– Piezoeletric sensors.
• Qualitative
– Tactile sensors: merely indicate whether a sufficiently
strong force is applied or not.

Strain gauge classification
• Power supply requirements: active (modulating).
• Stimulus perception: contact.
• Stimulus detection: absolute.
• Complexity: direct sensor.
• Type of stimulus: mechanical.
• Transduction principle: (piezo)resistive.
• Energy conversion: mechanical  electrical.

Strain gauges
• Strain gauges detect deformations (strain e) converting them

into resistance.
R
 G e G is the gauge factor.
R
• Variation of the resistance:

l
R
S
– change in length and the cross section (geometry);
– change in the resistivity.

Strain
• Deformation along an axis:
L
strain e
L
micro - strain e  e  10 6

Axial and lateral strain
• If a material deforms along an axis, it also deforms along other

axis lateral to that axis.
e lat is the strain in the lateral direction

e axial is the strain in the axial direction.

Poisson´s Ratio
• The strain developed in the lateral and axial directions have a

fixed ratio based on the material.
e lat

e axial
• The ratio is known as Poisson’s Ratio.

Change in resistance
• Resistance:
l
R  l
S Pz 
 l
• If , l and S change due to a deformation
  S 
R l  S  
R l  
    1  S 
R l  S R l  l l 
 l 
 l
S t w S l l l
S tw       2
S t w S l l l

Gauge factor
R l
 1  Pz  2 
R l
• Pz is a measure of the variation of resistivity with strain.
• G is the gauge factor of a strain gauge
R
 e G G  1  Pz  2
R

Metallic and Semiconductor strain gauges
• In metallic strain gauges the change in resistance is due to

changes in geometry.
l
R
S
• In semiconductor strain gauges the change in resistivity is

much stronger than the change in geometry.
l
R
S

Stress and strain
• Stress is the force.

F
stress 
A
• Hook’s law: in an elastic material
  Ee
σ is the axial/normal stress

ε is the axial/normal strain
• Strain gauges can be used to measure force.

Young´s module
• Hook´s law:
  Ee
• E is the elastic modulus (or Young´s module)

Generalized Hooke´s law (1)
• To predict deformations caused in a given material by an

arbitrary combination of stresses.
• Force in x direction
ex e y  e x e z  e x
• Force in y direction
ey e x  e y e z  e y
• Force in z direction
ez e x  e z e y  e z

Generalized Hooke´s law (2)

• For an isotropic linearly elastic material e  in all directions:
E
x
ex   e y  e z
E
x y z
ex   
E E E
e x   x   y   z 
1
E

Metal vs semiconductor
Material Gauge factor Resistor(W) TCR (/ºC×10-6)

57% Cu – 43% Ni 2.0 100 10.8
Platinum Alloys 4.0 – 6.0 50 2160
Silicon -100 – +150 200 90000

TCR temperature coefficient of resistance
• Semiconductor:
– higher sensitivity;
– more sensitive to temperature.
Strain gauge configuration
Metal: A fine electric resistance wire or photographically etched

metallic resistance foil bonded to an electrical insulation base.
Semiconductor
Metal: wire, foil and thin film.

Commercial strain gauges
• Rosette: arrangement of two or more closely positioned gauge

grids, separately oriented to measure the normal strains along
different directions in the underlying surface of the sensing
part.

Strain gauge advantages
• Accurate.
• Small.
• Inexpensive.
• Wide range of gauge configurations and lengths.

Strain gauge disadvantages
• Non-linear.
• Need to be calibrated.
• Strain gage installation needs practice.

Piezoelectric force sensors (1)
• A piezoelectric material develops an electrical output when it

is compressed by the application of a force.
[Source: wikipedia] [Source: bestech] [Source: machinedesign.com]

• This deformation of crystal lattice results in crystal acquiring a

charge q , proportional to deformation.
q  Kx
• Deformation is proportional to the force.

1
x f
k
• Charge proportional to the force
K
q f
k

Force measurement system
Charge  Voltage
[Source: PCB Piezotronics]

• Typically used to measure dynamic force events.
q
q
Vout 
Cf

Operation of Piezoelectric Materials
• If a material is stress there is a strain and a charge will build up

on opposite faces of the crystal.

Commercial piezoelectric force sensors

Force sensors applications
• Weighing of an object
• Dynamics of vehicles
• Control applications such as deployment of air bag in a vehicle
• Study of behavior of materials under different types of loads
• Vibration studies
• Seismology or monitoring of earthquakes
• Medical Diagnostics Sports Medicine
– Leg force measurement
– Hand force measurement

Strain gauges applications
• Airplane wings
• Civil structures (buildings, bridges, dams).
• Rails.
• Vehicles.
• Medical equipment (mammography, computed tomography))

Strain gauge load cell
• Load cells are used to measure forces in weighing equipment.
• A force is applied to a bending beam.

• There is a strain due to the bending.
• Strain gauges measure the strain of the material that is
proportional to the applied force.

Commercial load cells

Tactile sensors
• Special class of force or pressure transducers that are

characterized by small thickness.
• Switch, piezoelectric, piezoresistive, capacitive and optical.

Switch sensors
• Detection of a contact force at a defined point.
[source: J.Fraden, 2010]
• With enough force the top leaf flexes and the upper conductor
reaches the lower conductor. The an electric contact makes the
output signal = “0”.
• Touching of a particular area on a sensor will cause the
corresponding row and column to join thus indicating force at a
particular location.
Capacitive tactile sensors (1)
• The applied force changes the distance between the electrodes.

• Capacitive sensors can be made very small, which allows the
construction of dense sensor arrays.

Piezoresistive tactile sensors
• Elastometer:
• When the elastomer is squeezed between the plate and the pusher,
contact area increases and thickness decreases, decreasing the
resistance.

Optical tactile sensor
• An array of infrared (IR) light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and

photo detectors to determine a touch event.
• An object that touches the screen changes the reflection due to
a difference between refractive properties of air and a finger:
light intensity at the detector decreases.

Tactile sensors: computer applications.
[Source: Daskeyboard]
[Source: Omagnatta] [Source: Screenencounter]

Tactile sensors: biomedical applications (1)
• Biomedical
– Dentistry (oclusal forces).
[Source: tekscan]
• Analysis of impact and crash for testing applications.
[Source: tekscan]
• Analysis of contact surfaces of articulating bones functioning

and loading (shoulder, wrist, knee, ankle, etc).

• Body Pressure Measurement
[Source: tekscan]

• Tactile sensor built into a glove: measurement and evaluation

of static and dynamic pressures from grasping objects.
[Source: tekscan]

Tactile sensors: robotics applications
tactile sensing elements covering possible contact surfaces
[Source: pressureprofile]

Normal and shear stresses (1)
• When external forces act on a solid body, each infinitesimal
cube in the body may have a set of small local force F acting
on it.
• F forces can be decomposed in components according to a

referential x, y, z.
• In a plane normal to the xx axis:

– Normal stress xx =xx
– Shear stresses xy and xz
Fx dFx
 xx  
A dA
Fy dFy
 xy  
A dA
Fz dFz
 xz  
A dA

• Plane normal to xx axis:
– Normal stress xx =xx
– Shear stresses xy and xz
• Plane normal to yy axis:

– Normal stress yy =yy
– Shear stresses yx and yz
• Plane normal to zz axis:  xx  xy  xz 

– Normal stress zz =zz
 
T   ij

  yx  yy  yz 

– Shear stresses zx and zy   zx  zy
  zz 

Stress tensor (1)
 xx  xy  xz   x  xy  xz 
 
T   ij

  yx  yy  yz 
  
T   ij
 
  xy  y  yz 
  zx  zy  zz   xz  yz  z 
  
• For the cube to be in static equilibrium in rotation:
 xy   yx
 xz   zz

Stress tensor (2)
• Alternative way to represent the stress tensor.
 x  xy  xz  T1   x 
T   
 
T   ij
 
  xy  y  yz   2  y
 xz  yz  z  T3   z 
  T   
T4   xy 
T5   yz 
   
T6   zx 

Strain tensor (1)
 s xx s xy s xz 
  
S  sij   s yx s yy s yz 

 s zx s zy s zz 

• For the cube to be in static equilibrium in rotation.

  xy  xz 
 ex 
 2 2 
 yz 
 
S   ij 
 2
xy
ey
2 
  xz  yz 
 ez 
 2 2 

Strain tensor (2)
• Alternative way to represent the strain sensor

 ex 
 xy  S1   e y 
  xz  S   
 ex   2  ez 
 2 2 
 yz   S 3    xy 
 
S   ij 
 2
xy
ey
2 
S  
S4   
2
  xz  yz   S 5   yz 
 ez 
 2 2     2 
 S a    zx 
 
 2 

Stiffness Matrix
• The stiffness matrix C is analogous to the modulus of elasticity

(Young´s modulus E): T  CS
• C includes all elasticity information for all normal and shear
stresses with respect to all normal and shear strains.
C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 

C C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 
 21
C31 C32 C33 C34 C35 C36 
C 
C41 C42 C43 C44 C45 C46 
C51 C52 C53 C54 C55 C56 
 
C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 66 

Equations of Piezoelectric Effect
• The effect of piezoelectricity (simplified):

T1 
T 
D  dT
 D1   d11 d12 d13 d14 d15 d16   
2
 D   d d d d d d  T3 
D - Electrical Polarization (C/m2)  2   21 22 23 24 25 26  T 
T - Stress Vector (N/m2)  D3   d 31 d 32 d 33 d 34 d 35 d 36   4 
d -Piezoelectric Coefficient Matrix T5 
 
T6 
e - dielectric constant d ij 
D   e E 
V - Voltage T  T 
E - Electric Field
t - distance of interest through E
V  Et

Cantilever beam (1)
• The stress within the beam increases linearly (c), as we move

from the beam neutral plane to the top and bottom faces.
Mc

I

Cantilever beam (2)
• The stress within the beam is proportional to the moment (first

moment M=Fx), at that position on the beam.
Mc

I

Cantilever beam (3)
• The stress within the beam depends on the Area Moment of

Inertia (second moment I).
Mc

I
• The Area Moment Of Inertia of a beam measures the beam´s
ability to resist to bending.
• The larger the Moment of Inertia the less the beam will bend.

Cantilever beam (4)
• The Area Moment of Inertia of a beam depends on its cross-

sectional shape and thickness. For a rectangular shape:
• For a rectangular are wh 3

Ix 
12

Cantilever beam (5)
• Equal stress or strain at all points.
F F
 e
wh whE

Cantilever beam (6)
• Maximum stress or strain at points A,B,C, E.
h
FL
Mc 2  6 FL
 
I wh 3 wh 2
12
6 FL
e 2
wh E

Cantilever beam (7)
• Maximum stress or strain at points A (compression) and

points C, D and E (tension):
w
FL
Mc 2 6 FL
  3

I hw hw 2
12
6 FL
e 2
hw E

Cantilever beam (8)
• Beam in torsion (twist) about the y-axis. Shear stress or shear

strain greatest at points B and G.
T
 2
t
  w
2

Cantilever beam (9)
• Beam deflection for bending less than 5% of beam length

(pure bending):
F  kbeam d
FL3
d
3EI
E – Young’s Modulus (stiffness coefficient)
I - Moment of inertia

Torque
• Torque (moment of force) is the effective force which tends to
accelerate the rotation of an object about an axis.
• Torque equals the applied tangential force multiplied by the
distance.
  
  rF
• Like force it is many times measured by the deformation of an

elastic object.

Dynamic vs static torque
• Static torque is torque that remains constant. There is no

rotation and no angular acceleration.
• Dynamic torque is that associated with angular acceleration.

Torque measurement
• Dynamic torque can be calculated indirectly from the electrical

power and speed of rotation.
• Direct measurement with:
– Reaction sensors (static torque) ) measure torque where it is
restrained from rotating..
– In-line sensors (dynamic torque) are incorporated directly
into rotating elements.

Torque sensors (1)
• Torque sensors include:

– a structure where torque is applied;
– a sensor.
• The most common sensor used is a strain gauge.
• Reaction torque sensors have rigid structures with no moving

parts and are typically mounted in a fixed position.
• In-line sensors employ a freely rotating shaft.

Reaction torque sensors
• In reaction torque sensors the output signal varies

proportionally to an applied torsional force.
• Applications include:
– torsional testing machines
– brake testing
– bearing friction studies
– dynamometer testing
– and viscosity and lubrication studies.

In-line torque sensors (1)
• Applications include:
– electric motor testing
– automotive engine testing
– dynamometer testing
– drive train measurements,
– gearbox testing.
• Difficulty in supplying power to the sensors and in getting the

output signals.

In-line torque sensors (2)
• Output of sensors collected by:

– Slipping rings (direct contact).
– Rotary transformers
(inductive coupling).
– Infrared links.
– FM telemetry.

Strain gauges based sensors (1)
• Measurement of torsion.
[Source: Datum Electronics]
• Shear stress in a plane normal (x,y) to the axis of the shaft (z)
is accompanied by tensional and compressional strains with a
maximum at ±45º to the axis.

• A pair of strain (Gauge 1 and Gauge 2) on the shaft can
measure torque.
[Source: Sensor Solutions]
• Using a second pair of gauges (Gauge 3 and Gauge 4) pasted

diametrically opposite, wired to form a Wheatstone bridge,the
sensitivity increases and variation with temperature are
compensated.

• Shearing stress
xz - shearing stress

Td
 xy  T - torque
d - diameter of the shaft
2J
J - Polar moment of inertia

• Circular solid shaft
Td d 4
d 3 xy
 xy  J T
2J 32 16
d 3 Ee xy
 xy  Ee xy T
16
• Polar Moment of Inertia of an Area (J) is a measure of a

beam's ability to resist torsion.

Commercial torque sensors
[Source: Datum Electronics]

[Source: Magtrol]

Pressure sensors
• Diaphragms and membranes.

• Deflection measurement

Pressure measurement
• The measurement of pressure is generally associated with

fluids (liquid or gas).
• Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted by the fluid
on any surface
– Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect
vacuum.
– Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between
two points of measurement.
– Gauge pressure is measured relative to ambient pressure.
Blood pressure is one example.

Diaphragms and membranes (1)
• A deflecting device (elastomer) forming a wall to divide the
capsule:
[source: efunda]
• The pressure difference, PExt - PRef, mechanically deflects the

diaphragm.

Thin plate Membrane
[Source: J.Fraden, 2010]
• If the thickness (t) of the diaphragm is not negligibly small (r/t

ratio is 100 or less), it is called thin plate.
• If the thickness of the bending device is much smaller than its
radius (r/t higher than 200), it is called a membrane.

• Stress is generally uniform over the membrane area.

• When pressure is applied, it shapes spherically.
• At low-pressure p across the membrane, the centre deflection
zmax and the maximum at the circumference and stress max are
quasilinear functions of pressure.
S
 max 
t
g - thickness
S - radial tension
r2 p
z max 
4S

• For a thin plate, the maximum deflection is also linearly related

to pressure (p).
• For a deflection small (relative to diaphragm thickness):
g - thickness
3r 2 p
E - Young’s modulus  max 
 - Poisson’s ratio 4t 2
r – membrane´s radius
z max 
 
3 1 2 r 4 p
16 Et 3

Deflection measurement
• The diaphragm deflection can be measured with:

– Piezoresistive sensors (strain gauges).
– Capacitive sensors.
– Other: piezoelectric, optoelectronic, using LVDT, etc.

Piezoresistive pressure sensors (1)
• Strain gages measure the deformation of the diaphragm.

• MEMS pressure sensor: micro-machined thin silicon

diaphragm and piezoresistive strain gauges made by diffusive
impurities into the diaphragm.
• Resistors positioned on the diaphragm to have the longitudinal

and transverse coefficients of the opposite polarities.

R1 R
 2
R1 R2
R
 l l t t
R
• Piezoresistive effect results in change in the initial

resistance R.
• l and t are the piezoresistive coefficients in a
longitudinal and transverse directions

• Usually strain gauge wired in a Wheatstone bridge.

• Example: micro-machined silicon diaphragm with
piezoresistive strain gauges diffused into it, fused to a silicon
or glass backplate.

Capacitive pressure sensors (2)
• Consist of a membrane and a rigid reference plane.
[source: M.Meuwissen]
• Membrane and reference plane act as two electrodes of

capacitor.
• Deflection of the membrane leads to change in capacitance.

Bibliography (1)
• Jacob Fraden, “Handbook of modern sensors: physics, designs, and applications”,
Springer, third edition, 2010
• Jon S. Wilson, Sensor Technology Handbook, Elsevier, 2005
• Measuring Strain with Strain Gages, National Instruments tutorial. Available at:
http://www.ni.com/white-paper/3642/en
• FBG Optical Sensing: A New Alternative for Challenging Strain Measurements,
National Instruments. Available at: http://www.ni.com/white-paper/12338/en
• Roland Siegwart, Force Sensing Technologies, Studies on Mechatronics report ETH,
2010.
• Karl Hoffmann, An Introduction to Stress Analysis and Transducer Design using Strain
Gauges, HBM Test and Measurement. Available at: www.hbm.com.
• Shunt Calibration of Strain Gage Instrumentation, Tech Note TN-514, Vishay Precision
Group.
• Strain gauges or piezoelectric sensors? A comparison, HBM. Available at:
www.hbm.com.
• Robert Howe, Mark Cutkosky, Sensing skin Acceleration for slip and Texture
perception. Available at: http://www-cdr.stanford.edu/Touch/publications/howe_icra89.pdf.

Bibliography (2)
• Force and Position Sensing Resistors: An Emerging Technology, Interlink
Electronics Europe. Available at:
http://staff.science.uva.nl/~vlaander/docu/FSR/An_Exploring_Technology.pdf
• Pradeep Kumar Dhiman, Kirat Pal and R. K. Sharma, Strain Gauge Based
Displacement Sensor, Journal of Physical Sciences, Vol. 10, 2006, 164 – 166.
• Spoilt for choice: piezoelectric or strain gauge based force transducers?Available
at: http://www.hbm.com/en/menu/tips-tricks/force-measurement/spoilt-for-choice-
piezoelectric-or-strain-gauge-based-force-transducers/
• Walt Kester, “Strain, force, pressure, flow measurement”, section 4, Analog
Devices.
• MicroElectromechanical systems, University of Victoria, Available at:
http://www.engr.uvic.ca/~mech466
• How multi-axis load cells and sting balances work, Sensor Solutions. Available at:
http://www.sensorsolutions.co.uk/news/multi-axis-load-cells-and-sting-balances

Bibliography (3)
• Datum electronics. http://www.datum-electronics.co.uk/news/experts-in-
torque-measurement/
• David Schrand, The Basics of Torque Measurement, Technical Notes and
Articles Sensor Developments Inc. Available at:
http://www.sendev.com/catalog/pdf/torque-measurement.pdf
• A. Brodgesell, B.G. Lipták, P.m.b. Silva Girão, Torque and Force
transducers, Process Measurement and Analysis, Instruments Engineer´s
Handbook, CRC Press, 2003

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Sensors & Actuators

Force, torque and pressure sensors

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 1

• Force: pull or push reaction between two physical bodies.

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 2

• Quantitative: measure the force and represents its value in

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 3

2014-2015 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 4

• Strain gauges detect deformations (strain e) converting them

• Variation of the resistance:

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• Deformation along an axis:

micro - strain e  e  10 6

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• If a material deforms along an axis, it also deforms along other

e lat is the strain in the lateral direction

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• The strain developed in the lateral and axial directions have a

• The ratio is known as Poisson’s Ratio.

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• Pz is a measure of the variation of resistivity with strain.

• G is the gauge factor of a strain gauge

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• In metallic strain gauges the change in resistance is due to

• In semiconductor strain gauges the change in resistivity is

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• Stress is the force.

• Hook’s law: in an elastic material

σ is the axial/normal stress

• Strain gauges can be used to measure force.

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• E is the elastic modulus (or Young´s module)

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• To predict deformations caused in a given material by an

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Material Gauge factor Resistor(W) TCR (/ºC×10-6)

Silicon -100 – +150 200 90000

Metal: A fine electric resistance wire or photographically etched

Metal: wire, foil and thin film.

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• Rosette: arrangement of two or more closely positioned gauge

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• A piezoelectric material develops an electrical output when it

[Source: wikipedia] [Source: bestech] [Source: machinedesign.com]

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• This deformation of crystal lattice results in crystal acquiring a

• Deformation is proportional to the force.

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[Source: PCB Piezotronics]

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• If a material is stress there is a strain and a charge will build up

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[Source: PCB Piezotronics]

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