CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

As humans continuously evolving, progress in Technology, Agriculture,

Farming and other forms of living evolve as well. Transportation, specifically, has

done a great milestone of improvement. From means of animals to steam-

powered engine vehicles to internal combustion engine powered cars and now

electric-powered vehicles, humans consistently innovate transportation in a more

reliable and convenient way for easier way of living.

As automobiles greatly help to ease the daily lives of every people, they

are patronized in every part of the world. Most of the cars operate through the

use of Petroleum products as fuel. Petroleum products come from Crude Oil. It is

a naturally occurring fossil fuel which is composed of hydrocarbon deposits and

other organic materials. Once Crude Oil is extracted from the ground, it is

transported and refined in Petroleum Refineries to produce different Petroleum

products. Motor Gasoline, Diesel fuel and Kerosene are some of its products.

These fuels are burned to operate ship, aircraft, cars and other vehicles.

When you burn oil, coal and gas, you don’t just meet our energy needs but

we also drive the current Global Warming crisis as well. Fossil fuels produce

large quantities of carbon dioxide when burned. Carbon emissions trap heat in

the atmosphere and lead to climate change. Furthermore, fossil fuel powered

cars, trucks and ships are the main contributors of poisonous carbon monoxide

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and nitrogen oxide which produces smog that causes respiratory illnesses.

Moreover, burning fossil fuels change the ocean’s basic chemistry making it

more acidic than usual. As the acidity in our waters go up, the amount of calcium

carbonate, a substance used by oysters, lobsters and countless marine

organisms in forming shells, goes down. This can slow growth rates, weaken

shells, and imperil entire food chains.

Background of the Study

As the world faces environmental problems and natural deposits start to

deplete, researchers identified the need to find the solution to this problem.

Considering the depletion of natural deposits, maximization of the energy

produced from burning these fuels is very important. Regenerative Braking

System for Automobiles is therefore one of the viable way of maximizing the

energy it produces. Automobiles need a lot of fuel to accelerate. The most

efficient way of maximizing the energy from burned fuel is never hit the brake

pedal but it is not practical and safe. Moving cars have a lot of Kinetic Energy. In

conventional way, to stop it from moving, friction from brakes is applied and

kinetic energy is transformed into heat which will be dissipated in the atmosphere

as a waste energy. In such manner, large amount of energy is being wasted.

Regenerative braking is the conversion of the vehicle’s kinetic energy into

chemical energy stored in the battery, to be reused by the vehicle. It is also

serves to slow the vehicle down. It is regenerative because the energy is

recaptured in the battery where it can be used again. To improve the vehicle’s

efficiency, the researchers will conduct a study prior to the regenerative braking

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system to maximize the energy produced by the car and to lessen the waste

energy produced through conventional braking.

The researchers will include a regenerative brake drum on the system. It

is a drum-like brake and serves as a generator as well. It is located inside the rim

which contains four dynamos for each drum that will help the traction motor to

generate electricity during braking to extend car mileage and to also add the

car’s braking torque. Since dynamo is just a small scale generator and the

battery of the RBS is high voltage, it needs a high output voltage for the battery

to recharge. For this matter, the researchers put a DC-DC converter connected

to four regenerative brake drums to amplify their output voltage generated during

the braking.

Regenerative braking is a system in which the electric motor that normally

drives a hybrid or pure electric vehicle is essentially operated in reverse during

braking or coasting. Instead of consuming energy to propel a vehicle, the motor

acts as a generator that charges the on board batteries with electrical energy that

would normally be lost as heat through traditional mechanical friction brakes. As

the motor acts in reverse, it generates electricity which can be used to accelerate

the car again after it stops.

By using this braking system, you can lessen the energy being wasted

during braking and recoup energy which can be used to extend the mileage of

your car. Through this, the fuel consumption of your car will somehow lessen due

to an alternative source of energy which is more clean and safe to environment.

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 However, the actual experimentation of such regenerative braking system

can be costly and complicated especially for student researchers since there is a

limitation on the accessibility of industries with this kind of braking system. Also,

fabrication of different components of the system and testing it on different sites

will require a long period of time, a huge amount of funds, and lots of manpower.

In relation to this, creating a design and analysis of a system that can generate

electricity from car’s kinetic energy or momentum would be of great benefit since

the characteristics of such system and its corresponding output parameters can

be observed and optimized using simulation analysis. Hence, this study

introduces a simulation analysis of the design of regenerative braking system for

automobiles which will greatly advance the existing researches about upgrading

vehicular performances.

The aim of simulating the RBS is to ensure that it will be safe and efficient

if ever be fabricated. They will input the standard conditions of the system in

doing so and make further adjustments to get the best result of the simulation.

The result will be provided to see which design options will regenerate more

power. They will set minimum and maximum parameters where the system will

be most efficient.

The existing design of the typical Regenerative Braking Systems have

minimum RPM requirement to generate power back to the battery. If the vehicle

did not meet the minimum output voltage requirement during braking, no power

will be regenerated back to the battery.

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 The Researchers included a DC–DC converter on the system to solve this

problem as it will amplify the DC output voltage from the dynamos to provide a

DC output voltage enough to make the battery in charging state. The DC-DC

Converter will provide enough voltage to regenerate power even at low RPM. It is

series connected to regenerative brake drums which are added by the

Researchers to the usual regenerative braking system design to improve power

generation during braking.

The Researchers included a DC – DC converter on the system as it will

accept a DC input voltage and also provides a DC output voltage. The output

voltage is used to match the power supply required to the loads so it will

regenerate power even at low RPM. The Researchers also included a

regenerative brake drum to generate more power back to the battery.

In addition to improving overall efficiency of the vehicle, regeneration can

significantly extend the life of the braking system as the mechanical parts will not

wear out very quickly.

Savings of 17 % and less wear on friction braking components, are

claimed for Virgin Trains Pendolinos. The Delhi Metro reduced the amount of

carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by around 90000 tons by

regenerating 112500 Megawatt-hours of electricity through the use of

regenerative braking systems between 2004 and 2007. It was expected that the

Delhi Metro would reduce its emissions by over 100000 tons of CO per year once

its phase II is complete, through the use of regenerative braking.

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 Electricity by regenerative braking may be fed back ino the traction power

supply; either offset against other electrical demand on the network at that

instant, used for head end power loads, or stored in line side storage systems for

later use.

The above results are remarkable, but still, studies prior to regenerative

braking are ongoing to upgrade its current results and performance.

The success of this study will help future researchers to develop an actual

model of a regenerative braking system so that harmful impacts to the

environment of burning fuels will be lessen and fuel economy will be improved.

Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to design and simulate a regenerative

braking system for automobiles.

Specifically, the proponents seek to achieve the following objectives:

Determine the design considerations of the regenerative braking system which

includes:

a. system components;

b. material specifications;

c. availability of materials;

d. functionality;

e. performance and efficiency;

1. Design regenerative braking system components for simulation

considering the following parameters:

1.1 regenerative brake drums;

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 1.1.1 material of the drum;

1.1.2 material of the rod;

1.1.3 material of the cylinder;

1.1.4 material of the piston;

1.2 dynamo;

1.2.1 material of the coil;

1.2.2 diameter of coil;

1.2.3 number of turns;

1.3 dimensions of regenerative brake drums;

1.3.1 size of the rod;

1.3.2 length and diameter of the cylinder;

1.3.3 length and diameter of the piston;

1.4 electric motor/generator specifications;

1.5 size of the high voltage battery;

2. Provide a 3D Model of the system through SolidWorks;

3. Simulate the system design using ANSYS Software to establish the

following parameters:

3.1 for regenerative brake drums;

3.1.1 maximum and minimum power generated;

3.1.2 braking torque;

3.1.3 heat generated;

3.2 for electric motor/generator;

3.2.1 maximum and minimum power generated;

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 3.2.2 braking torque;

3.2.3 maximum RPM;

3.3 high voltage battery specifications;

3.4 regenerative braking scale coefficient;

3.5 lowest regenerative braking speed;

3.6 extended driving range;

4. Analyze the data gathered from ANSYS Simulation and plot the following

relationships in a graph using Microsoft Excel:

4.1 power generated vs:

4.1.1 speed of the automobile;

4.1.2 load of the automobile;

4.2 heat generated vs:

4.2.1 speed of the automobile;

4.2.2 load of the automobile;

4.3 efficiency vs:

4.3.1 power generation;

4.3.2 heat generation;

5. Optimize system design of the regenerative braking by choosing the best

results from conducted simulation;

Significance of the Study

The study which aims to design and simulate a regenerative braking

system will be of great contribution to the continuous studies of engineers and

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other researchers about the development of systems that will maximize the

energy produced by burned fuels and improve longer mileage.

Moreover, the results and discussions made in this study will benefit the

following sectors;

To the Department of Energy (DOE), this study may promote a new and

advanced energy technology to lessen fuel consumption and manage the

maximization of fuel energy.

To the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), this

study would help solving the increasing problems in emission of carbon dioxide

and other harmful gases on the ozone layer and the continuous arise of Global

Warming through the use of other alternative source of energy aside from

burning fossil fuels.

To the Batangas State University, this study could be a literature pattern

for university that will further enhance the coaching and guidance of the students

and their instructor on the energy conversion, and mechanical and electrical

equipment principle through presenting conducted design and analysis to the

simulation.

To the Mechanical Engineering Department, this study would be a great

avenue for the students to be exposed in engineering design processes,

engaged in design thinking, and introduced to experimental learning

opportunities.

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 To future researchers who will conduct similar and related studies

regarding regenerative braking system and power generation, this study will

serve as a foundation and reference material in their researches.

Lastly, to the proponents, this research will further augment the knowledge

and skills which were attained while establishing the design and analysis of the

study, and will prepare them as mechanical engineers in the future.

Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The study will primarily focus on the design and simulation of a

regenerative braking system for automobiles utilizing the principles of

conservation of energy, by analysis of the design set up, materials and its

specifications. However, it will not focus on the speed performance and energy

delivery in transmission lines.

Some features of RBS are Kinetic Energy Storage System or Flywheel

Energy System where the mechanical or rotational kinetic energy of the wheels is

stored in a heavy rotating mass or the flywheel. Another one is the Ultracapacitor

Storage where special capacitors which have the capacity to store considerable

electrical energy at low voltage are used for storage. On the other hand, the

Electrochemical Energy Storage is where energy is stored in the form of

chemical energy and released in the form of electrical energy. It is the most

common feature of RBS. Other feature is Hydraulic and Pneumatic Storage

where energy is stored by compressing a fluid and storing in an accumulator

being operated either mechanically or pneumatically.

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 Behind these features and advantages, they have also limitations. One of

the primary drawbacks is the regenerative braking effect drop off at lower

speeds. There is no energy recovery when braking at low speed due to low

output voltage. Another major drawback is the incapability to immobilize or fully

stop a moving vehicle.

Early applications commonly suffered from a serious safety hazard. In

many early electric vehicles with regenerative braking, the same controller

positions are used to apply power and to apply the regenerative brake, with the

functions being swapped by a separate manual switch. This led to a number of

serious accidents when drivers accidentally accelerated when intending to brake,

such as the runaway train accident in Wadenswil, Switzerland, which killed 21

people.

The selection of Regenerative Brake Drum design will be based on

different factors. First is the selection of appropriate materials to be used for the

rod, cylinder, and piston which have sufficient strength to withstand the stress

and pressure of braking rigidly during operation. Availability of the materials in

the market is also taken into consideration. Dimensions of the RBS components

will also be adjusted based on rigidity and optimal operation of the design during

simulation. Lastly, the specifications of the dynamo including the material of the

coil, diameter of the coil, and number of turns will be selected based on output

voltage and current generated during simulation process which leads to the most

optimum design.

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 The clearance between the regenerative brakes from the drum surface

should be little so that even with light braking the regenerative brakes still touch

the drum surface and recuperate electricity. The required clearance is still being

studied, further testing and trials are needed to come up to the right

measurement. The material of regenerative brake that touches the drum surface

should be soft but has high friction and has high melting point so that it can be

compressed during hard braking to avoid bending of the rod which holds and

directs the regenerative brake or dynamo towards the drum surface. The primary

design is 1 inch inside diameter for every piston cylinder but it may be adjusted

depending upon different conditions like maximum and minimum load capacity of

the car used as reference for inputs. It may also be changed depending upon the

material to be used in making the piston cylinder. The regenerative brake drum

operates hydraulically by means of brake fluid. The selection of high voltage

battery will be based on the electricity generation capacity of regenerative

braking system while doing brake. Lithium-ion type battery is the most probable

choice of the researcher since it has high energy density which can store large

amount of electricity without compromising the space of the automobile.

To make an efficient motor or generator, windings should be packed tight

together, minimizing air spaces. To produce higher voltage and current, the

armature needs stronger magnetic field which is achievable by either using

stronger magnet or adding more turns of coil on the windings. So, it is advisable

to use small diameter of wire in order to make many turns in small space inside

the dynamo to create stronger magnetic fields. Diameter of the wire should be

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observed carefully because wires having too small diameter have greater

resistance which results to greater heat dissipation. Too much heat in the coil will

melt the insulation which may lead to short circuit or burning of electrical pars. It

would the limiting condition in dynamo’s design parameters. For the material of

the regenerative brake drum, the cost of materials will be the main focus but it

should still be suitable for the application despite its lower price.

The inputs which will be used for the system design flow simulation are

gathered from the researcher’s car capacity and specifications that is used as the

design basis. These include maximum speed, gross weight, net weight and

maximum number of passengers. If necessary, other car models that are suitable

for the limitation of the proposed design can also be used as basis of input speed

and load. The data and results of simulation will be collected and analyzed. A

graphical representation of simulation results will be provided through MS Excel

to show the efficiency of the design. The system design can be adjusted if the

results are not yet considerable. If ever, the simulation is rerun to test the new

solution and to validate it to ensure an optimal design.

A full overview of the model and simulation will be done through

SolidWorks and ANSYS Software. Specification and operation of the

regenerative braking system components will be provided including its assembly.

ANSYS has been widely used in the field of engineering especially in design and

manufacturing industry in simulating the system designs to check the durability

and feasibility without the need of fabricating the design. To determine the

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performance of the system, the efficiency and power generation will be the focus

of the simulation process.

The study is limited on the size of the rim. The regenerative brake drum is

designed for a 15 in rim only because the researcher based the dimensioning of

system components on his automobile which has 15 in rim. The tires should be

tubeless due to the design of the drum. Since it is tubeless, too heavy load is not

prescribed for this system design. This system is applicable only for small or

medium size automobiles. Moreover, the regeneration or the amount of power

generated from braking is not constant, it depends upon different conditions. In

lower speed, regenerative braking doesn’t work well. While car is moving in fast

speed, when you fully hit the brake pedal to stop the car, it needs help from

friction-based brake because regenerative braking can’t fully stop the car from

moving. With this manner, there is still energy unrecovered.

Lastly, this study will only be focusing on a simulation model of the system

and no fabrication of an actual regenerative braking system will be conducted.

Testing of the system design will be conducted through software application. All

the data required in the study will be gathered through researches and conducted

studies about regenerative braking system and energy transformation to serve as

a guide in conceptualizing this project.

Conceptual Framework

The study will follow a Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate Framework to

achieve the stated objectives of the study.

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 The input stage consists of knowing the various knowledge requirements

regarding the design of a regenerative braking system and its operating

parameters. This includes the principles of energy transformation and principles

of mechanics and the corresponding formulas to be used, the principles of

electrical winding, and the important parameters that will be needed in the design

and simulation of the system considering different design specifications and

materials to be used in the system.

The process stage includes the design of the regenerative braking system

with the selection of system components and material specifications as well as

the operating parameters to be tested. A 3D model of the system will be

designed and simulated using SolidWorks and ANSYS software. Data gathered

will be used to plot variable relationship graphs using Microsoft Excel. The output

of this study is the design of regenerative braking system for automobiles and

accessing the results to come up to an optimized system. Figure 1 shows the

conceptual paradigm of the study.

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 CONCEIVE DESIGN IMPLEMENT OPERATE
Knowledge Hardware System Components and
Requirements Requirements Material Specifications

 Principles of  PC/Laptop Design of the system

considering parameters:
Energy
Design  Regenerative Brake Regenerative
Transformation Requirements Drum Dimensions Braking System
 Specifications of
 Principles of Design
Dynamo
 Design Lay-out
Regenerative  Materials of
 Materials Regenerative Brake
Braking
Drum and Dynamo
Specification
System  High Voltage
 System Battery
 Operating
Specifications 3D Model and
Components
Parameters  Electric Process Simulation
Motor/Generator
 Research on
Software Specifications
existing Requirements  3D modeling
studies through SolidWorks
 SolidWorks  System Simulation
 3D Modeling through ANSYS
 ANSYS  Data Gathering
 Process
 Microsoft Excel  Analysis of Results
Simulation

Figure 1 Conceptual Paradigm of the Study

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Definition of Terms

The study will incorporate terms that are necessary for the simulation and

design of the system. Hence, the following terms with their corresponding

meaning are enumerated below:

Automobiles. In this study, it is a road vehicle, typically with four wheels,

powered by an internal combustion engine or electric motor and able to carry a

small number of people.

Hybrid Cars. In this study, it is a vehicle that uses two different forms of

power such as an electric motor and an internal combustion engine, or an electric

motor with a battery and fuel cells for energy storage.

Torque. In this study, it is a twisting or turning force that tends to cause

rotation around an axis, which might be a center of mass or a fixed point.

Horsepower. In this study, it is the rate at which work is done. A unit of

power used for measuring how powerful an engine is.

Fuel. In this study, it is the material such as coal, gas, or oil that is burned

to produce heat or power.

Internal Combustion Engine. In this study, it is an engine that generates

motive power by the burning of gasoline, oil, or other fuel with air inside the

engine, the hot gases produced being used to drive a piston or do other work as

they expand.

Traction Motor. In this study, it is an electric motor used for propulsion of

a vehicle such an electric locomotive or electric roadway vehicle.

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 Generator. In this study, it is a dynamo or similar machine used for

converting mechanical energy into electricity.

Dynamo. In this study, it is an obsolete electrical generator that

creates direct current using a commutator.

Hydraulic. In this study, it is a process using pressurized water or other

fluid to generate great mechanical power, without the wear and tear of gears or

levers.

Conventional Brakes. In this study, it is a braking system consists of a

basic hydraulic system which sends fluid to each wheel when the brake pedal is

applied. It uses friction to stop the momentum of the vehicle.

Kinetic Energy. In this study, it is a form of energy that an object has or a

particle has by reason of its motion.

Regenerative Braking. In this study, it is a braking system which uses an

electric vehicle’s motor as a generator to convert much of the kinetic energy lost

when decelerating back into stored energy in the vehicle’s battery.

Energy Conversion. In this study, it is when energy changes from one

form to another such as from kinetic energy to electrical energy, or from potential

energy to kinetic energy.

Electrical Windings. In this study, it is one or more turns of wire forming

a continuous coil through which an electric current can pass as used in

transformers, generators, etc.

Drivetrain. In this study, it is comprised of a collection of components in a

vehicle that transfer power from the transmission to the wheels to drive it forward.

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The drivetrain includes the transmission, the driveshaft, the axles, and the

wheels.

Vehicle Controller. In this study, it exposes the settings for the center of

mass, inertia, axles, steering, brakes, tires, powertrain (engine, clutch, gearbox,

retarder, driveline), driving aids and safety aids.

Motor Controller. In this study, it is a device or group of devices that

serves to govern in some predetermined manner the performance of an electric

motor.

Brake Controller. In this study, it is an electronic device that can

control brakes remotely, deciding when braking begins, ends, and how quickly

the brakes need to be applied.

State of Charge. In this study, it is the level of charge of an electric

battery relative to its capacity.

Regenerative Braking Scale Coefficient. In this study, it is the ratio of

regenerative braking torque and the total braking torque, in the range of 0 to 1.

Lowest Regenerative Braking Speed. In this study, it is the limit value

where regenerative braking no longer works.

SolidWorks. In this study, it is a CAD software which helps to create 2D

or 3D solid models without any complexity, faster and in the cost effective way.

Simulation. In this study, it is the theoretical modeling of a system and

conducting tests on the model for the purpose of analyzing the principles of the

system. This study defines simulation as the output theoretical analysis and

testing of the system using ANSYS.

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