CHAPTER – 6

ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION

The piston pushed inward slowly to compress the gas and, at the same time, heat be taken away
via the cylinder walls (by a water-jacket or other means) to avoid any rise in temperature.

If the gas could be compressed at constant temperature, the process would be referred to as
isothermal compression and the relationship between pressure and volume would follow Boyle’s law.

pV = constant p1V1 = p2V2

ADIABATIC COMPRESSION

The piston pushed inward quickly so that there is insufficient time for any heat energy to be transferred
from the gas to the cylinder walls.
All the work done in compressing the gas appears as stored up heat energy.

The temperature at the end of compression will therefore be high and, the pressure will
consequently be higher.
No heat energy transfer takes place between the gas and an external source, is known as
adiabatic compression.
The relationship between pressure and volume for adiabatic compression is:

pV = constant  p1V1= p2V2

 (gamma) is the ration of the specific heat of the gas at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant
volume.

POLYTROPIC COMPRESSION

Some heat energy is always lost from the gas through the cylinder walls, more especially if the
cylinder is water cooled, but this is never as much as the whole amount of the generated heat of
compression.

The relationship between pressure and volume lies between the two theoretical cases of isothermal
and adiabatic.

Such compression, a partial amount of heat energy exchange takes place between the gas and an
outside source during the process, is termed polytropic compression and the compression curve follows the
law:

pVn = constant  p1V1n = p2V2n

1
 ISOTHERMAL ADIABATIC POLYTROPIC UNITS

p1V1= p2V2 p = kN/m2

Pressure and ratio of the specific 𝑉 = 𝑚3

p1V1 = p2V2 p1V1n = p2V2n
Volume heat
𝑐𝑝
𝛾=
𝑐𝑣

Work done, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝒑𝑽𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑘𝑁

pressure and 𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝2 𝑉2 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 2
× 𝑚3 = 𝑘𝑁𝑚
= 𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝2 𝑉2 𝑚
volume 𝑉2 𝛾−1 = = 𝒌𝑱
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑛−1
𝑉1
Work done, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
pressure, volume, 𝑚𝑅(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑅(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
mass = =
𝑉1 𝛾−1 𝑛−1
=
𝑉2

FORMULA UNITS
𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 log 𝑝
𝑛=
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 log 𝑉

log p = log C – n logV

𝑝𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑟
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
=
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑟
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
=
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑇1 𝑉𝟐 𝑛−1
={ }
𝑇2 𝑉1

𝑛−1
𝑇1 𝑝1 𝑛
={ }
𝑇2 𝑝2
expansion of gas
Heat supplied in the gas = Increase in
W=+
internal energy + Work done by the gas
Q=+
Q = E+ W
E = -
𝑚𝑅(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) +
𝑛−1

2
 𝛾−𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 ×
𝛾−1

CHAPTER – 5

LAW OF PERFECT GASES

cp > cv.

cp is a higher value than cv because, when the gas is receiving heat it must be allowed to expand in
volume to present a rise in pressure and, whilst expanding, the gas is expending energy in doing external
work, hence extra heat energy must be supplied equivalent to the external work done.

JOULE’S LAW
Joule’s law states that the internal energy of a gas depends only upon its temperature and is
independent of changes in pressure and volume.

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

By the principle of the conservation of energy, i.e., that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it
follows that the total heat energy (Q) transferred to a gas will be the sum of the increase in its internal
energy (E2 – E1) and any work (W) that is done by the gas during the transfer of heat energy to it, thus:

Heat energy transferred to the gas = Increase in internal energy of the gas + External work done by the
gas
Q = (E2 – E1) +W

This is known as the First Law of Thermodynamics.

FORMULA UNITS/REMARK
Boyle’s
𝑝1 × 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 × 𝑉2

Charles’ 𝑉 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑇1
, 𝑇1 = or =
1 𝑇2 𝑉2 𝑇2

Charles’ 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑇1
= or =
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑇2

Combine gas law 𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2

=
𝑇1 𝑇2

Characteristic equation of Perfect pV = mRT 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈𝑲

Gas

𝑘𝐽
𝑄[𝑘𝐽] = 𝑚[𝑘𝑔] × 𝑐 [ ] × (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )[𝐾]
𝑘𝑔𝐾

3
 W= pV
W = p  (V2 – V1)

Q = (E2 – E1) + W Expansion process

mcv(T2 – T1) = (E2 – E1) + 0 Compression process

(E2 – E1) = mcv(T2 – T1)
Gas constant and specific heat R = cp - cv cp > cv.

RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS 𝑐𝑝

𝛾 =
𝑐𝑣

𝑹
𝒄𝒗 =
𝜸−𝟏

4
 CHAPTER – 4

HEAT TRANSFER

Heat is transferred from one system to another by one of the three methods known as Conduction,
Convection, and Radiation or by a combination of these.
CONDUCTION
Conduction is the flow of heat energy through a body, or from one body to another in contact with
each other, due to difference in temperature.

CONVECTION

Convection is the method of transferring heat through a fluid by the movement of heated particles
of the fluid.

Natural circulation of the fluid and is referred to as free convection.

When the motion of the fluid is produced mechanically, such as by means of a pump or a fan, it is
referred to as forced convection.

RADIATION

Radiation is the transfer of heat energy from one body to another through space by rays of electro-
magnetic waves.

The rays of heat travel in straight lines in all directions at the same velocity as light.

The emissivity of a radiating body is the ratio of the heat emitted by that body compared with the heat
emitted by a perfect black body of the same surface area and temperature in the same time.

STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW

The STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW state that the heat energy radiated by a perfect radiator is
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

𝑸 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 ×  𝑨 𝒕 (𝑻𝟒𝟏 − 𝑻𝟒𝟐 )

Where, Q = quantity of heat energy radiated,

A = surface area radiating heat [m2]
t = time of radiation, [s]
T = absolute temperature [K],
A constant = 5.6710-11 kJ/m2 s K4

FORMULA UNITS/REMARK
quantity of heat energy  𝐀 𝐭 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐 ) Q = quantity of
transferred by 𝐐= heat energy conducted, in
𝐒
conduction joules [J]
A = area through

5
 QS/At(T1-T2) =  which heat flows, in
squares meters [m2]
J𝐦 𝐉 W t = time of heat
= = = W/mK
𝐦𝟐 𝐬 𝐊 𝐦𝐬𝐊 mK flow, in seconds [s]
T1 – T2 =
temperature difference
between the two faces [K]
S = thickness of
wall, in meters [m]

quantity of heat energy 𝑸 = 𝑨𝒕𝑻𝟒 × 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 Q = quantity of heat

radiated energy radiated,
𝑸 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 ×  𝑨 𝒕 (𝑻𝟒𝟏 − 𝑻𝟒𝟐 ) A=
STEFAN- surface area radiating heat
BOLTZMANN LAW [m2]
t = time
of radiation, [s]
T=
absolute temperature [K],
A constant = 5.6710-11
kJ/m2 s K4