Managing the Indian coast in the face of disasters & climate change: a review and

analysis of India's coastal zone management policies

Author(s): R. R. Krishnamurthy, Rajarshi DasGupta, Ranit Chatterjee and Rajib Shaw
Source: Journal of Coastal Conservation , December 2014, Vol. 18, No. 6 (December 2014),
pp. 657-672
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24760673

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of
Coastal Conservation

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
J Coast Conserv (2014) 18:657-672
DOI 10.1007/sl 1852-014-0339-7
Managing the Indian coast in the face of disasters & climate
change: a review and analysis of India's coastal zone management
policies
R. R. Krishnamurthy • Rajarshi DasGupta <
Ranit Chatterjee • Rajib Shaw
Received: 1 July 2014 /Revised: 5 September 2014 /Accepted: 7 September 2014 /Published online: 18 September 2014
1 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abstract Serious attempts have been made to manage the
highly populated Indian coast during the last 25 years in terms
of regulating the activities and managing disasters. This has
lead to formulation of various policies to maintain environ
mental quality and sustainably manage the coastal resources.
Basically, the coastal zone needs to address the demands of all
the stakeholders starting from traditional local communities,
administrators, to academic researchers etc. India has faced
tremendous challenges in implementing regulatory measures
like Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) issued in 1991 by de
marcating countries coast in to four different zones with
provisions and prohibitions for various activities. The concept
of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) has been
taken with the support of spatial decision-support tools de
rived from satellite data including national programmes on
inter-sectoral approaches towards ICZM. 2004 onwards a
series of disasters have reminded the necessity of having
regulatory measures through implementable approaches.
Subsequently, the CRZ 2011 notification has been a new
addition to the list of policies using bottom-up approach as a
good governance tool. The country has strengthened its po
tential in coastal management, disaster management and sev
eral community based field projects to enhance participation
of stakeholders. This paper is aimed to critically review the
processes that are made during the last two decades including
the future challenges towards sustainable management of
R. R. Krishnamurthy
Department of Applied Geology, University of Madras, Chennai,
India
R. DasGupta (0) • R. Chatteijee • R. Shaw
International Environment & Disaster Management Laboratory,
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto
University, Kyoto, Japan
e-mail: rajarshidgl@yahoo.co.in
This content downloaded from
122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
coastal zone with special emphasis on the three coastal areas
from eastern, western and southern coast of India.
Keywords Coastal regulation zone India • Disaster & climate
risk reduction
Introduction
As emphasized by Gibbs (2009), marine policymakers are
facing increasing calls to consider the resilience of communi
ties that rely on coastal and marine ecosystem goods and
services, and the resilience of natural systems themselves.
These calls are in response to increasing threats to coastal
communities from external factors such as coastal hazards,
possibly associated with climate change, and drivers that act to
change local and regional economic conditions leading to
changes in employment and inequality. While the global coast
is trying to accommodate high concentration of populations,
the government machineries are struggling to control, regulate
and monitor the activities including those in several developed
countries. Due to dynamic nature of the coast, there is no
established method to be recommended for the global coast
to uniformly demarcate the coastal zone and its appropriate
management. Under this circumstance, India is making vari
ous attempts to manage its coastal zone by introducing regu
latory measures during the last two decades and more specif
ically from 1991 by introducing the Coastal Regulation Zones
(CRZ) by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF).
This top-down regulatory approach has faced several con
straints towards its implementation which has lead to dilution
of its vigour in order to satisfy the stakeholders. However,
major disasters like Orissa Cyclone in 1999, Indian Ocean
tsunami in 2004 and floods in 2005 at both east and west coast
of India reminded the importance of strict coastal regulations
like CRZ 1991 after witnessing huge life and economic losses.
Ô Springer
 658 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

Performance Audit of Disaster

Regulatory Pr
appro
strongly criticised the MoEF for
CRZ notification effectively,
The res
Coastal Regula
struction in the coastal areas due
(Controller & Auditor
The Coastal
GeneralRegulat
of Ind
Government ofIndia
the year
has introduce
1991 by t
(DM) Act in 2005 and started
(MoEF) the E
under the
system for tsunami and cyclone,
Although, prioryet
to
tive effects of devastations
tions / Acts by
anddisa
rul
implementation of CRZ
this there was se
notification a
guidelines
the regulatory approaches for
based ma
on s
taking in to account peoples' of
notification aspirat
1991
issuance of revision
ofof CRZ
500 m notificatio
from the
Consequently, the CRZ Notification
further four zones
by a new set of coastal zone
permissible regulat
activit
cation, 2011) coastal
which zone has
is considered tobb
nature, however, CRZ
not before
-1 (ecologically
of being
times in consideration
developmental
of requests
acti
m
holders includingdeveloped
provincial
urban
govern
co
coast
requests were often where
backed bycertain
the le
oping the coast and
special
mostly
category
judged
ino
perspectives. Andaman
While, &hue
it is also Nicob
th
significant mental
progress issues
through are ve
Initiativ
management, national programm
are restrictions liste
Remote Sensing Service
be given(MARSIS) an
for the act
development on Integrated
and foreshoreCoast
facil
(ICZM). For example, over
by the the last
Ministry ofd
used satellite technology very effect
ing the fishing
villages about the
(PFZ), Implementation
development ch
of village resourc
programmes. Yet, the country's polic
coast was largely Adopting
restrictivea without
top-dow
requirements of 1991 communities
local notification f
While one hand, enforcement
population of th
growth
ended up in ing controversies,
serious industrial devel
o
sustainable Vohra Committee
development of coast in (
ters & (1996), Arcot
climate
change was Ram
not adequ
this backdrop, this paper attempts &
Committees (1996
progress of activities made
(2000) and in Ind
others h
management and Disaster
(1991) Risk
and subseque
coastal areas including future c
the following:
focusing on entire India's coast w
• Promotion
to three maritime of c
states i.e. Tam
Maharashtra in Development
the Zone
west (in specific
Region) and West Bengal in the m
bodies from 100 e
tives of this paper amendment are (a) To ident
was qu
MoEF,
implementing regulatory approac
al management • (b)
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas was granted per
Differences be
1991) and management
mission to store petroleum products (CRZ
in CRZ area, 2011
to examine the • Permission
extent of in CRZ
for withdrawal of groundwater interlin
area
Regulation ZonefromNotification,
0 to 200 m only by manual method, In
Management and Disaster
• Mining of sand in CRZ area for a short period of 1-2Risk
years, R
the revised and
framework.

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 659

• Construction of dwelling units in

drainage in the CRZ-ITI
project for
areas and die exit bonafide
points to the sea choked,
the the
traditional settlers subject to cloud burst on 26th July 2005
condition caused extensive
that the flooding
area inis
adequately protected with flie
sea-wall,
low lying areas ofthe
the city proposed con
(Concerned Citizens' Commission
struction is on the landwarddraft
side of
report). the
On the otherexisting buildings
hand the 1991 CRZ notification was
somewhat
and the construction shall not be successfid
more in controlling
than 100 the boomsq
of coastal
m with aquacul
4.5 m height (MoEF, 2005) ture but was plagued by litigations from NGOs and other CBOs
which at a later stage triggered the Coastal Aquaculture
The above relaxations have Authority
beenAct made considering
in 2005. Even though coastal tourism that
and aqua
CRZ boundary was not made through scientific
culture are considered methods
to be more revenue generating sourcessince
but
the designated 500 m CRZ boundary was
there is no direct benefit to theempirically based
coastal environments. Majority of
on old Survey of India (SOI) the
topographical mapscommunities,
stakeholders especially local fishermen of 1970s,
NGOs
which lost its scientific validity over the
and environmentalists years.
have considered bothMore so,
these revenue gen the
boundary of 500 m from HTL
eratingwas fixed
sources are in an
long term potential arbitrary
threats to environmental
quality and of
manner without the considerations hencecoastal
severely opposed towards their further
geomorphology,
land elevation, tidal amplitude etc. which has widespread
expansion.
geographic variation all across the Indian coast. The CRZ
notification lists lagoons as tidal
History ofinfluenced water
advocacy regarding Integrated bodies but
Coastal Zone
the water part of the lagoon is Management
not (ICZM) in India
covered in the notification
and hence constituted N. Balakrishnan Nair committee in
1996 to study and recommend for Kerala coast. In 2000 theAt the same time when the CRZ 1991 notification was facing
MoEF has constituted D. M. Sukuthankar Committee as a first several challenges towards its implementation, a strong advo
time to formulate National Coastal Zone Policy of Indiacacy on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) was
(NCZP) by studying the coastal zone issues in the countryinitiated in the country, with an intention of incorporating
including the recommendations of the Centre for Earth community participation in planning and management of the
Science Studies (CESS) in Trivandrum. The CESS has reccoast for the first time in the country. At that time the Council
ommended that the coastal zone should be demarcated based of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
on risk perspective by taking in to consideration of shoreline Development (OCED) has adopted a series of recommenda
erosion and flooding. Also listed out areas / features that havetions towards coastal zone management by incorporating en
to be protected and the high-risk zone and low risk zone in thevironmental and socio-economic aspects and also the
coastal areas including the various developmental activities,Intergovernmental Océanographie Commission (IOC) had
which can be taken up in low risk and high risk areas.convened its Second International Conference on
Additionally, the CESS has suggested the environmentalOceanography: Toward Sustainable use of Oceans and
clearance as a mandatory procedure to be adopted for suchCoastal Zones and re-affirmed the long-term commitment o
developmental activities. However, this has not been taken upthe international marine science community in achieving su
by the MoEF in 2000. Finally, the regulatory approach of CRZ tainability in ocean use. In India, efforts were made to do
1991 has not been implemented in the field and its impacts canstakeholders management in order to participate in CRZ 1991
be witnessed in the aftermath of 2004 Tsunami and 2005 implementation and to realize about the importance o
Mumbai floods. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) through train
The Mumbai floods of2005 highlighted the gaps in the CRZ ing and capacity building in different levels such as Integrate
notification of 1991 and its implementation challenges in terms Coastal Zone Management Training (ICZOMAT) supported
of coordination with the state government and other stakeholders. by the UK Department for International Development (UK
The Coastal Zone Management Plan of 1995 for Maharashtra DFID) and coordinated by the MoEF. Several decision
failed to designate Mangroves as CRZ-I and hence construction makers in the country were trained through this programme
were allowed on the pretext of slum redevelopment and garbage on the importance of ICZM by providing field training in both
dumps along the coast In addition to this, the development of India and UK coasts. While conducting ICZM training and
Bandra Kural Complex and Andheri on reclaimed land narrowed stakeholders management programs it was noted that CRZ
the Mithi River's opening into the sea. In a coastal city like notification 1991 has also affected in putting shoreline erosion
Mumbai, wetlands, wastelands, saltpan lands and mangroves control measures along the erosion prone coasts. Strong rec
act as natural barriers against tidal movements. Dumping of the ommendations were made for community participation in
construction waste, sewage and industrial effluents in these areas
coastal management including the implementation of CRZ
lead to choking of the wetlands and creeks (Ministry of 1991. At this stage the MoEF came forward to revise the
Environment and Forests, 2010a, b). As a considerable part of CRZ 1991 by constituting an expert committee under the
Mumbai is below high tide level, inadequate storm water chairmanship of M. S. Swaminathan in 2004 to carry out a

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 660 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

comprehensive review
• CMZ -IV: Pertains to the on
Andaman & CRZ
Nicobar Islands 199
amendments. Prior to this
and Lakshadweep Islands. an expert
chairmanship of Arcot Ramachandran
recommendations Due
with details
to the variations on
in terrain, geography, zon
climate etc. all
starting from LTL
along up
the Indian coast, to
the expert territo
committee felt that there is a
Regulation Zone (ORZ) I to
need of micro-level IV.
survey based Buttools
on technology unf
like
never taken up. remote sensing data to enable the listing of coastal assets in
By that time greater details.
India's space But till the completion of such micro-level
technology h
and the end user surveys, CRZ 1991 notification shouldwere
organizations be strictly adhered.
cap It
coastal ecosystems was
andfelt more environments m
useful by the scientific community in order to
poral multispectral remote
manage sensing
the coastal areas including data
the potential threats posed
tional by disasters
programmes such since the scientific
as Marineoutcomes on tsunami vulner
Re
Information Services (MARSIS),
ability and inundation mappi
mapping were carried out along east
coral reefs, coast have
shoreline highlighted that etc.
change the maximum damage wasbee
have caused
ICZM. Spatial within
details the 500 m from HTLfrom
derived (Krishnamurthyremo
et al. 2014).
quantify the coastal resources
Several stakeholder apart
felt that unregulated f
developmental activ
underlying causes ities
for on the degradation
coast without the strong implementation
and of CRZ
t
ing. Remote 1991 have
sensing resulted in several life loss, damages
technology has to properties,
real
up to the level of demarcating
environment Poten
damages etc. But there were others like local
using the Sea Surface Temperature
communities especially the fisher folk and their unions (S
who
thermal sensors strongly opposed
together the recommendations
with primary made by M.p
S.
in coastal waters to forecast
Swaminathan the
expert committee PFZ
as CMZ did inf
not address the
fishing villages all conservation
over and the
preservation of the environment and 19
country. socio
decade for India economic needs advancement
with of coastal communities and traditional fish in
coastal ocean applications, which
ermen. This lead to constitution helped
of a second expert committee
pertaining to by MoEFecosystems
coastal under the chairmanship of M. S. Swaminathan
likeandma
based on 1970's the committee brought
Survey of out revised
India recommendations entitled
(SOI) t
other field based "The Final Frontier" in With
surveys. My 2009 (MoEF, the
2009) with the
imp
spectral following
resolutions of positive recommendations to sensing
remote satisfy the coastal s
ably to understand communities:
the coastal ecosystem
underlying causes for degradation, co
change-detection, I.quantifying
Inclusion of marine areas including the the sea-bed up topoll
12
ters, shoreline changesnautical etc.
miles and intertidal water bodies in the ambit of
Additionally,
combined use of coastal regulation,
spatial information to
sensing outputs the
II. Formally end users
recognising the used
rights of traditional fisher com th
Decision Support Systemmunities in and to coastal
(DSS) spaces, and in plan
III. Expressing concern on the cumulative impacts of ports
on the coast, the report called for a comprehensive study
Revision of CRZ (1991)
on shoreline changes
and and a mechanism
itsto revisit
address and
control the excessive proliferation of ports. Importantly,
M. S. Swaminathan the need for the formulation
expert of a 'ports policy' with an
committee
made in the environmental focus
backdrop of has now
thebeen accepted
26thby the D
Ocean Tsunami. This led to modification in 500 m HTL MoEF.

boundary with coastal vulnerability and set back boundary

as detailed below: With these recommendations the revision of CRZ 1991
notification came in My 2009. In order to make this as a
• CMZ I : Areas designated as ecologically sensitive, bottom-up approach, the MoEF issued a draft notification first
• CMZ II : Areas identified as Areas of particular Concern in September, 2010 by inviting objections and suggestions
such as economically important areas, high population from the public by declaring coastal stretches as coastal reg
areas and culturally/strategically important areas, ulation zones and listing restrictions on industrial activities,
• CMZ-Itl: All other open areas, including the coastal areas, operations and processes in the CRZ (MoEF 2010a, b).
excluding those areas classified as CMZ-I and CMZ-II, Finally, CRZ-2011 notification was issued on 6th January,
and 2011 after careful consideration of the objections and

Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 661

suggestions made by the public Tamil Nadu coast

and in super session of the
original notification issued on 19th February, 1991 (MoEF,
2011). Subsequently, the MoEFAbout
conducted
1100 km lengthseries
Tamil Nadu of
coast consulta
has a designated
Ramsar
tive meetings and public hearing in site, UNESCO's World Heritage
important coastal Site and UNESCO's
cities
and invited the participation of MAB site apart from reserve
stakeholders. The forests, wild lifefeed
salient sanctuaries,
back received from various public
touristhearings include
spots etc. on its coast. the
The state coast strict
commences from
the mouth part ofby
implementation of 1991 CRZ notification Pulicat Lake, which is the
changing it second
as an largest
brackishwater
Act to prevent frequent amendments and body in thethe
also country next to Chilika lagoon in
participation
of local community representatives
Odisha. Thein
stateCRZ
has a population
implementation
of 72 million with almost
initiatives. Also the issues likeequal
non representation
proportion of Chennai
of urban and rural population. local is the
community representatives
state in
capitalState Coastal
(earlier called as "Madras") Zone
is located about
60 kmincluding
Management Authority (SCZMA) south of Pulicat lake mouth,
the which has a com
expert dense indus
mittee under M. S. Swaminathantrial
etc. came
complexes out
on its northand
and newdeliberated
developments, especially
in various consultative meetings. Finally
IT industries, CRZ 2011
residential complexes etc. on its has
south and
western parts. Buckingham
emerged as a new participatory regulatory measure canal iswith
an inland waterway,
more
which connects
scientific basis for implementation. Chennai city to the Pulicat
A comparative mouth and
analysis isalso
furnished in Table 1. carries the industrial effluents being discharged in to this canal
The recent disasters like Indian Ocean
by the industries located Tsunami
in northern part of 2004,
Chennai. Recent
Mumbai floods 2005 and Cyclone Aila
study has confirmed 2009
that the played
occurrence a of
of highest level
decisive role in the transition trace
from a Buckingham
metals in regulatory approach
canals, which are mainly contrib
to a management approach utedas shown
by the in Fig.
industrial discharges 1. etThe
(Jayaprakash al., 2012).
CRZ 1991 notification
disaster impact to the coastal zone due to hasnon-adherence
demarcated the coastal stretch from
to the CRZ norms is a commonPulicat factor which
upto Ennore Creek highlights
as Zone -1, which is ecologically
the weak implementation and need
sensitive for frequent
due to occurrence amends
of coastal water bodies,in
rich in
the 1991 notification. The new notification
biodiversity and also subjecttries to of
to inundation bridge
future SLR as
the gaps by taking up a scientific approach
per the description and
of MoEF. imbibing
The coastal stretch between
good governance indicators to bring
Ennore and NorthinChennaipublic participa
has rural coast i.e. undeveloped
tion and strengthening the institutional mechanism.
coastal zone (Zone - III). In Zone - ID upto 200 m The
from HTL
integration of the CZM and DRR concerns is accentuated
is designated as "No Development Zone" (NDZ) and no new
by categorizing the risk reduction techniques
construction laidare
/ developmental activities down
permitted in
except
the CRZ notification of 2011 under the priorities
repair and maintenance areas
of existing buildings. Aboutof60 km
action as suggested by Hyogo coastalFramework for
stretch of Kanchipuram coast Actions
has the East Coast Road
2005-15. with the scenic beauty of Bay of Bengal with clusters of
fishermen hamlets, backwaters, shore temple at
Mamallapuram, which is the UNESCO's World Heritage site
use to receives large number of national as well as interna
Coastal issues and CRZ in Tamil Nadu, maharashtra
tional tourists. Mamallaupiram coast is facing the threat of
and west Bengal severe shoreline erosion and several part of this site has been
already swallowed by the Bay of Bengal. A straight coastline
In the present study three maritime states has been chosen
goes up to Vedaranyam through Puducherry (earlier called as
i.e. Tamil Nadu in the south, Maharashtra on the West and
"Pondicherry" Union Territory, which is an old French colony,
West Bengal on the eastern coast which are having similar
has a coastal length of 45 kms. During the last 10 years
as well as diversified issues such as coastal flooding,
Puducherry coast is experiencing severe shoreline erosion
after the construction of new harbour facilities two decades
coastal ecosystems degradation, coastal ocean pollution,
tsunami and cyclone impacts as sample sites to provide an (Krishnamurthy et al., 2014). Along the straight coast
before
in-depth analysis and interpretation on coastal manage
line between Puducherry and Vedaranyam this low-lying
ment challenges. Additionally, these three maritime coastal
states plain contains another important industrial hub in
are housing the three major Indian metropolises namely Cuddalore and the important estuarine mangroves in
Chennai (Madras), Mumbai (Bombay) & Kolkata Pichavaram. Extensive devastation by 2004 Indian Ocean
(Calcutta) which has received global attention for its high tsunami with maximum life loss along Indian coast, the
disaster & climate vulnerability. A comparative profile of Cuddalore and Nagapattinam are appeared in global vulnera
these three coastal states have been furnished in Table 2 & bility map and received international importance including the
Fig. 2. visit of former US President Bill Clinton as a UN special

4ü Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 662 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

Table 1 Comparison ofCRZ 1991 and

Components CRZ Notification, 1991 CRZ Notification, 2011

CRZ boundary • Stipulates uniform boundary for the entire • Boundary is based on coastal vulnerability lin
coast based on old topographic maps of will be prepared based on scientific data and the
1970s with reference to HTL. vary from site to site.
• Hazard line will be prepared through SOI for the entire country on
1:25,000 scales for macro level planning and 1:5,000 scales i.e.
on cadastral scale for micro level planning while taken in to
consideration of land use plan.
Traditional coastal communities • There were no direct restrictions on traditional • Commercial activities by traditional communities including their
coastal communities including fisher folk, dwelling units shall be regularized,
tribal to do commercial activities.
Regulation • Regulation is only to control / regulate the • Regulation includes seaffont
seafront up to 12 nautical miles in the
activities pertaining to intertidal area and territorial waters and tidal influenced water bodies,
upto 500 m on the landward side from HTL. • In creeks and other water bodies such as bays, backwaters, lagoon,
ponds etc. which are influenced by tidal action the landward
boundary is taken in to consideration up to which the tidal
effects are experienced based on salinity concentration of 5 parts
per thousand (ppt) measured during the driest year.

Disaster measures • No regulations with reference to natural • Taken into consideration of potential threats of natural as well as
disasters as well as man-made disasters man-made hazards based on scientific principles,
such as coastal pollution, shoreline erosion • Disposal of untreated wastes and effluents in to coastal waters are
etc. prohibited. Dumping solid waste will be phased out.
• Entire India's coast will be demarcated as moderate and hi
shoreline erosion prone areas and stable areas and control
measures will be recommended.
• Slum rehabilitation schemes are recommended in order to
safe and decent dwellings for the people living in high risk
disaster prone areas.
• New projects have to be submitted with disaster managem
report and risk management report for obtaining clearance

Coastal ecosystem protection • No direct regulations / control measures • Mangrove areas exceeding 1000 sq mts
in or to protect the coastal ecosystems its boundary.
like mangroves, coral reefs etc. • Also the importance of coral reefs, salt marshes e
account.

Unorganized living population • Not taken in to consideration of slum dwellers • Slum clearance measures are included
and people living in unsafe buildings
Scientific data for management • Introduced without the understanding of • Much consideration is given to demarcate boundary and to c
scientific data including the Coastal Zone disaster impacts based technology tools like multidate satellit
Management either in State wise or data, spatial information tools etc.
for the entire country • State wise CZM plan is strongly advocated for future planning
through experienced scientific institutions or the agencies
including the National Centre for Sustainable Coastal
Management (NCSCM).
• Clearance of projects except CRZ-I the project layout
superimposed on 1:4000 scale map indicating HTL and LTL by
one of authorized agency by covering 7 km radius of project site.

Time period for project clearance • There is no stipulated time for • Sixty days based on the recommendation of concerned C
clearance of new projects
Areas requiring special • No mention about areas requiring • Developmental activities in the CRZ area of Greater Mum
consideration special consideration apart from which is felling under municipal limits is given special
making amendments. consideration for developmental plans without affecting free flow
of tidal waters. Special permission to cut mangroves with a
condition to replant mangroves five time more than original area
in alternate sites.
• Also redevelopment of dilapidated, cessed and unsafe buildings
in the CRZ area of Greater Mumbai is permitted due to their
age and structures, which are extremely vulnerable to disasters.
• Similarly Kerala, Goa, Chilika lagoon and Bhitarkanika in
Odhisa, Sundarbans of West Bengal etc. shall be given special
considerations due to its uniqueness in terms of ecological
sensitiveness.

Consultation of stakeholders • No public hearing and consultations were • Series of public hearing and consultations were made befo
conducted to draft the notification preparation of draft in 2010.

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 663

Fig. 1 A comparative analysis of CRZ Notification of 1991 & 2011

Table 2 Highlights of the coastal profile of maharashtra, Tamil Nadu

Maharashtra Tamil Nadu West Bengal

Capital City Mumbai Chennai Kolkata

Coastline in Km 720 1100 220

Salient features of the • 45 estuaries and 186

186 km
km of
of •• 39
39 km
km of
of mangrove
mangrove cover
cover •»2,155
2,155 sq. km of mangrove cover,
Coast mangrove cover. UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Western ghats running across the • Pulicat Lake - de
Konkan coast is a UNESCO world delta
heritage site.
• Sanjay Gandhi national park is • Mamallapuram - UNESCO World
located along the coast Heritage
• 48 minor ports in Maharashtra of which • SitePichavaram & Muthupet - Mangrove
Reserve Forests

• Oil rigs in Bombay High • Vedaranyam - Wild Life Sanctuary

• 6. Gulf of Mannar - Marine Biosphere
Reserve

Capital city's • Mumbai is a WRI World Mega city • Chennai is a WRI World Mega City • Kolkata is a WRI World Mega city
significance . Mumbai is the economic hub of the country • 7th most hazard prone city of the
8th most hazard prone city of the world world (Swiss Re)
(Swiss Re)
• Greater Mumbai Region has 40 Sq. Km, the
densest mangroves in the state.
Disaster history • Tsunami in 1524 along Ratnagiri coast • Indian ocean Tsunami 2004 • Cyclone Sidr, 2007 & Cyclone
(Major)
(Major) (UNESCO (UNESCO document document) ) Aila
Aila 2009 2009
• Tsunami 1945

• Mumbai floods 2005

Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
664 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

Map
Map showing
showing
the Coastline
the ofCo
three selected States in India

The rediine
redline shows the coastlin
of West Bengal, Maharashtra
and Tamil Nadu

Scale- NTS Tamil Nadu

Fig. 2 Coastline of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra & West Bengal

envoy for tsunami reliefDepartment

and also the
inSwiss tennis pl
Pichavaram th
UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador Roger
Mangrove Federer in(JMM
Management 200
CRZ has played a cmcial grove
role in the are
areas hands of civil
witnessed wis
organizations in barrier
controlling at the
the boom of time of indu
shrimp tsu
this region through the Knowledge
litigations CentresAlso,
and agitations. (VKC)
th
taken up by research (VRC) by NGO's
institutions, the M.and
S. Swamin
the Sta

Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 665

1992 along this coastal regionlevel

have helped
the to effectively
impacts dis
of sea level rise
seminate tsunami warning in 2004
city. Inand
the saved lives in these
past, violation of coast
villages (ISRO, 2007). The coastal
rampant
stretch
and
between
was considered
Puducheny
as o
Mumbai
and Vedaranyam is an important deltaicflooding in 2005. River,
plain of Cauvery It is re
which has clear markings of paleo-channels. It's ideal geomor
40 % of all its mangroves in the p
in land mangrove
phic set up with lagoon and associated use to meet increasing
wetlands tend d
sewage
attract migratory birds and serves astreatment and wild
an important garbage
life d
exposure
sanctuary in the mid-part of Tamil Naduto natural
coast hazards.
has the Last
influence
of both biophysical and human wave action
factors has eroded
in order 500 m of
to survive.
Undeveloped coastal zone i.e.Mumbai
CRZ-III and is constantly
covers major part deplet
of
south Tamil Nadu along Thiruvarur, Thanjavur
works along the and o
coast. In light
Pattukottai Districts. The coastal beltthe
consider of implication
Ramanathapuram
of the n
District, which borders Gulf of Mannar
city's Marine
resilience Biosphere
to disasters.
Reserve (GMMBS) are majority
Asofper
CRZ-I
Mumbai's
category.
official
This recor
is
another important coastal "hot spot" inapproximately
Mumbai, terms of ecology
147 and
are e
locations
ecosystem services are concerned are exposed
and contains to cyclon
21 islands
located half a kilometre to 4 kms from
et al. the
(2010) coast that
states are bordered
due to reg
slums in says
with fringing coral reefs. Literature Mumbai,
that these slums ha
3600 marine
species are in GMMBS, whichprone
is oneareas.
for the
As richest
per the marine
interim
biodiversity in the world (Kumaraguru et al., 2006).
Mumbai's population livesHence
in slum
GMMBS is being considered2009 as marine paradise,
states 16,000 which is a
old buildings
listed in UNESCO's MAB Directory
The new and
CRZ received funding
notification of 201
from GEF to the State Forest alarming
Department. The reserve
situation covers
and makes sp
velopment schemes by State gov
about 10,500 sq.km of area, which spread in to coastal districts
of Ramanathpuram, Tuticorin and on
areas Thirunelveli and Partnersh
Public Private approxi
mately 100,000 people live inand
44 reconstruction work
coastal villages tothe
along ensure
(IV) allows
Reserves' coastal area. GEF funding construction
to the of storm
State Government
has paved way for introducing better
area, whichgovernance and
is crucial for com
prevent
munity participation to ensure conservation
Mumbai and asustainable
port plays pivotal role
use of coastal marine resources by the
national local communities
economy, trade & comm
(UNDP, 2014). At the time of taking good shape to recover
up warehouses and other offices
its ecology and environmentand during last two decades,
Subramanian the th
(2007) states
commencement of Sethusamudaram Shipping
susceptible Canalwhich
to oil spill Projectove
(SSCP) by the Government of India has
extensive received
damage wide
to the criti
mangrov
cism on its impact on GMMBS. As per
Thane- the CRZ
Belapur belt, 2011 maps
Kalyan- Ulh
and the area calculation provided
Thanebycreek
the Institute for Ocean
and Amba-Patalgan
Management, Anna University, majority
India's of the
industries coast is1999
(Zingde de
marcated as CRZ-III followed2007,
by CRZ-I. Both these
379 chemical catego
industries a
ries are strictly regulating thelocations.
new developmental activities
The provision 3 (ii)if
in
the same will be implemented hibits
effectively.
setting up of industries, oil
handling units and dumping of c
Maharashtra coast line. This is a major step in reduci
to the livelihood of the coastal communities and ensures
Maharashtra has 720 km of coastline along
protection of the the
environment Konkan
specially belt of
the mangroves.
which the Great Mumbai Region (GMR)
Moreover, identification occupies
of critical the
infrastructure in the most
coastal
significant portion. The GMR
zoneis takenmap
management up
willas a special
support the City andcase
State in
the new CRZ notification of 2011 considering
Disaster Management its and
Plan (CDMP/SDMP) environmen
help in strat
tal concerns, mangroves protection, limiting
egizing for relief and response. pollution of
coastal areas specially the creeks, solid
The Mangroves act aswaste management
a natural barrier to cyclones and
and for sustainable housing for the
Tsunami andpoor community.
provide effective control over the Mumbai
crumbling
is among the top 20 cities with exposure
shoreline to extreme
and tidal waves making sea
it essential to protect level
them.
Wide consensus and case studies
and tropical cyclones (OECD 2008). Considering most part of across the world are avail
Mumbai is reclaimed, and at an average
able regarding of 10-15
the protective m above
role of mangrove forests & its sea

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 666 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

impeccable services in
fragile region disaster
characterized risk
by high rate of coastal erosion,
ticularly emphasized by a number
frequent natural disasters and poor socio-economic conditions o
Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 with case evidences where of the inhabitants. The low lying delta of Sundarban is home
mangroves substantially decreased Tsunami loss (Kathiresan
to some of the extra-ordinary biological diversity in the coun
& Rajendran, 2005, Danielsen et al. 2005, EJF, 2006). The
try; however, it is also the home for 4.5 million people living
State Government of Maharashtra has declared 3000 ha of in close association with the mangroves. These coastal com
Mangrove as protected forests and is in a process to declare it munities suffer from extreme poverty and therefore vastly
as reserve forest under section -4 of the forest act. The depend on the land and natural resources of the coastal areas.
Maharashtra Coastal Zone Management Authority has set up
While the earlier CRZ notification (1991) was mostly against
a mangrove cell in 2012 and created Coastal Conservationthe traditional human environmental interaction in this region,
Fund (CCF). The Urban Development Department,the implications of CRZ notification 2011, in many ways,
Government of Maharashtra has issued standardized develop
provide a unique opportunity to sustainably develop this area.
ment control and promotion regulations for regional plans for
While, one of the defined objectives of the 2011 notification is
the urban local bodies (ULBs) in 2013. Moreover, Regulatory
to improve the livelihood security of the fishing communities
bodies like Bombay Chamber of Commerce and Industry which can benefit a good number of the traditional fishing
have setup Sustainability Committee to bridge the gap becommunity facing adverse economic starvation due to reduc
tion of fish catches in the Sundarban delta, on the other hand,
tween the user industries and government. Considering that
1860 hectors of mangrove still remains with the private sector
the area significantly lack basic infrastructure. Therefore, sus
and there is an extensive demand for land in Mumbai. The tainable development of coastal areas in contrast to the earlier
resilience of Greater Mumbai Region to future disasters willconservative policy would majorly benefit the coastal com
depend highly on the integration of the disaster managementmunities living in this delta. The most important consequence
and coastal zone management. of the revised notification would be a special status of Critical
Vulnerable Coastal Area (CVCA) to the entire Sundarban
West Bengal coast delta. An integrated management plan for this region is further
proposed. As per the guidelines laid in the CRZ 2011, this
The state of West Bengal in the eastern India has a relativelymanagement plan should take up conservation and protection
small yet highly diverse coast line stretching from mouth ofecological diversity in consultation with the dwelling commu
rivers Harinbhanga on the Indo-Bangladesh border in the eastnities. This also envisages the housing and daily needs of the
and river Subarnarekha in the west. These consist three dis local communities including fisher folks who are living in
tinctive regions, firstly the great Sundarban delta with its such ecologically sensitive areas. Further, the area will be
extraordinary mangroves, a highly industrialized zone and ascientifically investigated in order to understand the impact
port in Haldia and a popular tourism destination in Digha. of climate change and natural disasters. This has been a clear
After the formation of the West Bengal coastal zone manageand paradigm shift of the earlier coastal zone management
ment authority in 1998, the coastal stretch in the state has beenstrategy with more involvement of the community & promo
classified into three categories under the CRZ notification oftion of community based bottom up approach. However, in
1991. As per this classification the entire stretch of Sundarbanwhat way the communities can be more successfully involved
delta including the national park, wildlife sanctuary and thein conservation as well as uplifted both socially and econom
Sagar islands has been demarcated under the CRZ-I (Eastern ically -needs significant participatory research.
sector), the developed and the industrial areas near and around
the Haldia coast has been put under the CRZ-II (Central
sector) and areas which are not particularly developed and
do not fall under CRZ-I & CRZ-II has been earmarked under
Coastal management, environmental degradation
the CRZ III. According to the Integrated Coastal Zone and disaster risk reduction linkages
Management Plan of West Bengal (CPCB, 2001), approxi
mately 8185 sq. km belongs to CRZ I while 3.41 sq.km & The above three cases from three different province of India
1970 sq. km qualify for CRZ II & CRZ III respectively. has strong resemblance in degradation of coastal ecosystem
Therefore, the state offers an exceptional setting with respect services under the continuous human intervention which has
to the diversity & management of its coast line. As per the lead to the increased vulnerability of the coastal communities.
recent census, the coastal zone hosts a population of nearly 7 Anthropogenic interventions in form of environmental pollu
million people-more than half of which remain highly ex tion, despite of several restrictive legislations, are majorly
posed to all sorts of coastal hazards such as tropical cyclones, responsible for this. Although, specific legislations were
tidal surges and severe coastal erosion. Precisely, the entire adopted to curtail such massive environmental deterioration
area of the Sundarban delta remains as an extremely eco in coastal areas, however, the environmental pollution in

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 667

coastal areas remains far beyond a complicated

ridges. This issue.fea
geo-morphological
Unfortunately, the coastal communities, specially, the
cial role in determining itsindige
vulnera
nous coastal dwellers remain climate
highly exposed to a wide range
change. Consequently, the
eastern
of natural disasters under the face & western
of the coast
decreasing of India r
ecosystem
services even though they are climate
not always responsible
induced disastersfor
andsuch
sea lev
consequences. In this section an
ofattempt has been
the eastern coast made to high
is quite link c
the major issues pertaining to the
For environmental
example, and social
it is predicted that 1 m
as about
sustainability of the Indian coast with a478 km2emphasis
strong in Paradip
oncoasta
the
Disaster Risk Reduction priorities.
zone extending to more than 40 km
eastern coast Similar observation h
Linking river to coast which may loss up to 169 sq km fo
2010). Undoubtedly, this will have
Functioning of coastal ecosystems especially
the coastal the mangroves
ecological settings, prec
coastal
need to receive sufficient quantity ecosystem services.
of freshwater Unless
through river
discharge and rainM in order to maintain
made, its lying
the low ecology and species
coastal areas, pa
diversity. In Cauvery delta, which housesto
are bound two important
receive man
adverse envir
climate
grove patches - Pichavaram and induced
Muthupet sea of
is one level
therise.
idealMo
cases for linking of river toecological
coastal management policies.
functioning of the India
threatened
Cauvery River is the main supplier by a number
of freshwater ofman
to these envir
serious
grove areas, however, the detailed of the
analysis oflot has been asupply
freshwater drastic
through Cauvery River from 1939 to 1990
in the and
major its changes
Indian due
rivers. to
While it
construction of dams, reservoirs in the
exotic upstream
mangrove areas and
species, the
over the
reduction of freshwater coming led tothe
in to collapse of fisheries
mangrove in alm
areas of Tamil
Nadu clearly shows its linkage severely affecting
with change biodiversity
in areal spread and a
species diversity (MSSRF, 2002). The
areas. frequent
These occurrence
has not of
only adversely
drought during the period 1975-1995, the mangrove
fishing population patches
living in the
along Tamil Nadu coast have faced the natural felling
disappearance of some apart from
commerciall
the anthropogenic pressure. Due forever.
to the absence
Despiteof
ofproper mixing
the feet that the
of freshwater and seawater, Plans
both have
water and soil quality
recognized has
the problem,
deteriorated, leading to natural felling.
coastal A prolonged
zone regulationneglect of
surprising
mangroves and its improper maintenance has major
count. Another resulted in degra
drawback of t
to address
dation of this resource to a greater the
extent. key environmenta
Initiatives on Joint
Mangrove Management (JMM) have created
coastal a strong sense
origin. Countries of
with larg
awareness in the local community and the
repeatedly made introduction of th
it a point that
artificial regeneration has resulted
tweenin the
recovery of the
land and degraded sites
sea is mainta
research
along the east coast of India. A study and out
carried development to al.
by Selvam et stre
(2003) has proved this with the
US comparison temporal
has dismantled remote
its large dams. W
sensing data. Also the improved rainfall with
ecological monsoonal
connectivity floods th
between
in Tamil Nadu and adjoining emerging,
states from 2005policymakers
Indian onwards has an
helped to maintain the recovered mangrove
fortunately, areas
overlook through
such intense
JMM, which are funded by international agencies.
from fire land. Similar
Instead, ob
the India
servation for the Sundarban accumulate
Mangroves industrial
has been waste
statedof50x
by 1
DasGupta & Shaw 2013 (a) as they mentioned
garbage thattonnes
of 34x106 inadequacy
and un
of the freshwater flow has largely impacted
109 m3 the
causing annihilation
large of
scale damag
major dominant mangrove species from
coastal the Sundarban
ecosystems. delta in
The three ma
West Bengal (DasGupta and Shaw 2013a).
Mumbai, Chennai & Kolkata dispo
waste water into the sea. Several re
Climate and environmental changes in coastal
high level areas
of heavy of India
metal concen
marine sediments. Apart from the fe
India's long coast line of over 7500 km
coast has large
from beingspatial diversity
polluted, a chance
with respect to its environmental settings.largely
tal disaster While, exists
the Eastern
along t
Coastal plain runs smoothly from the north
sustainable to the
coastal south,
zone the
managem
western coast, in some places,approach in upstream
is intersected river
by the mountain

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 668 R R. Krishnamurthy et al.

environmental caxried for the hazardous locations andcontrol.

pollution integrated with the city, Un
CRZ notification fails to focus on the tremendous human district and state disaster management plans. In addition, the
environmental interactions that are not confined to the coast CRZ notification mandates earmarking of helipads, cyclones
shelters and other important infrastructure as a part of the CZM
which will slowly but surely have an adverse consequence on
the coastal ecosystems as well as the communities living in theplan which can be integrated with the response plan of the State
coast. or local authorities.
Further, section 30 (2) xxiii of the DM act, empowers the
district authority to examine constructions within their admin
Disaster risk reduction and costal regulatory zone legislation
istrative boundary and may ensure compliance to various
Approximately 40 % people of India's population live in the standards as deemed necessary to ensure safety is met.
Similar provisions are made in the CRZ notification for re
coastal areas and are highly susceptible to hydro-meteorological
(i.e. cyclones, floods, drought etc.) hazards. Disaster Risk construction and redevelopment of old buildings along the
coastline. The actual work will be dependent on the economic
Reduction (DRR) legislation is an important tool to mitigate
feasibility and onsite viability of such building and hence
the risk of the vulnerable Indian costal line by guiding the
there is need to detail the scope of such work on case basis.
State, local institutions and community on aspects of planning,
operations and monitoring. The Disaster Management Act Considering
of the urban local bodies (ULB) with their limited
capacities are not able to leverage the spiralling hazard risk in
2005 in India recognizes the damage or degradation of the
the urban areas. As at present only a few states have a
environment as a potential cause of disaster. In addition, the
recent national action plan for climate change has included standardized Development Control Regulations (DCR) hence
'ecosystem services enhancement' under the Green India most of the DCRs are dependent on the city administration.
Hence compliance to the local town and country planning
Mission with a target to increase mangrove cover of more than
regulations may not ensure a uniform implementation of
1000 sq. km by 2020. In India, more than 200 laws and acts
minimum safety standards across the country.
regulate the developmental activities in relation to environment
(NIDM Report 2011). One of the main reasons for the modifiConsidering the importance of early warning and monitor
cation of the CRZ notification of 1991 in 2011 was to introduce
ing for disaster risk reduction for setting effective up of a
communication systems in case of a disaster. The DM act of
policies to cope with and adapt to the fixture dangers from sea
2005 and DM policy 2009 stress that developing contempo
level rise and increased vulnerability of the coasts. However,
many sectoral policies of various government departments and forecasting and early warning systems is a prerogative of
rary
ministries either overlap with disaster management policy every
or State in India. This is to ensure efficient response and
have disaster management as an integral component of the relief to the vulnerable sections of the society. In conjunction
to this, CRZ notification under section 8 (III) iii permits
policy. Hence it is essential that these legislations are integrated
installation of weather radars in the no development zone
and brought under one umbrella for a comprehensive under
(NDZ), which will be essential in weather monitoring and
standing. The Disaster management policy of 2009 put in guide
cyclone forecasting specially for the coastal areas.
lines for the disaster management plans to have issues relating to
raising coastal belt plantation under section 5.1.6. The CRZ The CRZ notification of 2011 in a way creates scope for the
government to use the land for tourism industry and for setting
notification of 2011 compliments this by making provisions for
up of various critical infrastructures in the coastal areas. Sarkar
increasing the mangrove cover along the coast. The notification
suggests cutting of one unit mangrove within the CRZ for and Sharma (2006) states that in India, individual States are
responsible for responding to disasters with mitigation and
developmental work could require planting five units elsewhere.
prevention as overarching ideas for disaster management. On
This has its own shortfalls as the notification doesn't suggest
where to plant these mangroves and hence there is a high the other hand, CRZ notification unlike the DM act is central
ized with very less role played by the States. Hence unless
possibility of unequal distribution of mangrove cover along the
coast line as the developmental plans doesn't earmark such areas State comes up with their respective costal management
each
at present. zone plan, the integration and implementation of both these
The DM act under section 18 (2) g and 30 (2) xii makes acts will remain a challenge.
provision for the State and district authority respectively to
review development plans of various departments. In addition
to this, the disaster management policy of 2009 spells out the Discussion and concluding remarks
need for carrying out hazard zonation, mapping and vulnerability
to be done by State and local authorities The CRZ notification Towards implementable management approach
under section 4.2 (d) makes disaster report, risk assessment report
and management plans mandatory for project clearance. These The coastal zone is not easily defined but serves interest of
together will ensure that a scientific hazard risk assessment is multiple stakeholders such as government, academia, coastal

fî Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 669

1991 has facedworkers

planners and managers, businesses, several litigations
andin the courts the
community
establishment
involved directly and indirectly. The of NGT under MoEF is much
boundaries ofhelpful
this in zon
may include social, biophysical and
implementing CRZ 2011 policy-oriented
since it is mandated to make and
definitions and uniformityendeavourinfor defining boundary
disposal of applications or appeals finally by
incorporating all aspects within
may not
6 months be
of filing possible
of the always.
same. In order to implement
However, there are arguments
CRZ 2011 like Srinivas
in full spirit including the and Nakagawa
DRR components like
(2007) stating that in order to mitigate
shoreline the
erosion the entire statecyclical linkages
coast has been mapped by the of
environmental degradation National
and theirCentre forexacerbation of a disa
Sustainable Coastal Management
ter's impacts, and of a disaster's impacts
(NCSCM) by on the
taking in to consideration lastenvironmen
30 years data
(1970-2010). The location
we need to bring all the priorities such of NCSM
as of MoEF is also one
development
environment and disasters especially for
way helpful in effective the developing
implementation of CRZ in the statecoun
tries. But the tsunami impact studies
apart from have
the NGT sitting been
in Chennai. On thecarried
other hand the out
along Tamil Nadu coast using remote sensing, GIS and
state of West Bengal has already prepared State Action Plan GPS
tools have proved that the inundation
on Climate Change (SAPCC), which has been endorsed by more
and damages are
within 500 m from HTL i.e. the
CRZNationalarea
Steering(Krishnamurthy
Committee on Climate Change. Theet al.
2014). Similarly, the violation
SAPCC of Westof BengalCRZ
has made anin Mumbai
assessment of the current by
encroaching mangrove areas, waterways
climate trends etc.
and the climate projection resulted
scenarios for the mid in
chocking up of Mithi River Century
during 2005
(2021-2050) flood
including (Bhagat
the likely et al.
climate change
2006). Also there are arguments
concerns andquoting that
the corresponding despite
adaptation the
and mitigation
coastal policies and programmes in
strategies that place,
would prior
ameliorate the to concerns,
climate change the 200
tsunami, there has been a general lack of implementation
for example, bridging the gaps in embankments bordering the o
ICZM. Also there has been considerable variation in the Sundarban, effective dissemination of warning messages for
interpretation and application of coastal policies and cyclones, flood etc. The SAPCC has taken in to consideration
programmes in various states (Sonak et al., 2007). The post all important components such as agriculture, horticulture,
tsunami rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes pro forest, biodiversity, water resources, human health etc. for
vide an opportunity for actions towards improved ICZM. the preparation of action plan and identified two vulnerable
Hence the necessity of reviewing the CRZ while regions in the state are Himalayan Datjeeling and Sundarban.
implementing rehabilitation measures by the government ofThe SAPCC of West Bengal has adequately addressed the
Tamil Nadu after the tsunami. Though the State Coastal Zoneissues and adaptation strategies for climate change. Signing of
Management Authority (SCZMA) has not been renewed at MoU between India and Bangladesh towards the conservation
that time the state government entrusted United Nation Sundarban including the Royal Bengal Tigers is also a good
Development Programme (UNDP) to review CRZ to makesign of transnational cooperation. Under this circumstance, it
sure that the rehabilitation and reconstruction activities are is highly possible to implement the CRZ 2011 in such a way
within the CRZ norms as precautionary measure to avoid that it is beneficial to all the stakeholders including enhancing
future litigation on this matter due to an increased attentionthe resilience of coastal communities in the near future.
by the coastal communities and others in an attempt to under
stand CRZ better (Sridhar, 2005). Therefore, the disasters in Future challenges in coastal management
2004 and 2005 are important in terms of taking up the regu
latory measures very seriously by incorporating ICZM andOccupational resilience of vulnerable communities
disaster management aspects in the new regulations.
In the recent past Tamil Nadu state has a well-establishedIn the wake of implementing participatory approach coastal
set up of District and State Coastal Zone Managementregulation measure there are new threats in the management of
Authorities and all issues pertaining to CRZ are being taken coastal areas due to increasing population concentration,
up systematically and clearance being given in a transparent hydro-meteorological disasters, demand for water, energy
manner. The details on meeting minutes containing important and other resources and so on. Chennai, Mumbai and
policy decisions including the CRZ maps prepared usingKolkata are being considered as world mega-cities and ex
remote sensing data merged with village cadastral maps onpected to exceed 8 million populations by 2015. Existing
1:25,000 scale are available to the public in the web siteglobal analyses of the world's coastal ecosystems reveal that
(http://www.environment.tn.nic.in/eia_authority 1 .html ) 18 % of all lands within 100 km are considered altered (urban
Additionally, the establishment of National Green Tribunal or agricultural use); 10 % are covered by a mosaic of crop and
in 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010 is helpful natural vegetation and 72 % fall within the least modified
in effective and expeditious in disposing cases related to category. Considering the coastal ecology the terrestrial eco
environmental protection and conservation. Since the CRZ systems were located within 100 km of the coastline has

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 670 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

influence to the Mahanadhi

coast (Martinez
coastet
of
tems have to provide resource
drawn. to the
It is observ
ties. Adaptive being cleared
mechanisms forth
for both o
income group families are
required tobecome m
monitor
otherwise are
future. there
alternative optio
In short, th
their occupational resilience. Regula
conservation initiat
successful when level.
adequate livelihoo
For example, providing employable
vulnerable coastal communities
Enhancing can
instituti
silience including their possible relo
state of Tamil Nadu (Krishnamurt
The costal regulatio
Additionally, the Village
ment Resource
whereas the
satellite based Potential
bringingFishing
in a syne
Zon
the Department of
its Space need
success to
will re
dep
communities in the
Disaster
country.
Managemen
Validat
Zone (PFZ) data from 2007 to
overlapping 2011 h
concer
catch in PFZ isfuture
3-4 times highe
amends to ac
(Nammalwar et concern
al., 2013). arising due
The adviso
disseminated by Indian
Disaster Nationa
Manageme
Information Services (INCOIS).
research New
institute s
in combining the zones to linkup
technology dis
output
edge in validation and management.
zone utilization in
hood security. better integration w
holistic approach to
Continuity of formation
coastal of distric
conservation pr
will help in creatin
India's response to coastalauthority
agement conservata
Integrated
traditionally sporadic and time Mana
boun
Management
the past several NGOs Plan
and CBOs hav(D
decision
management of coastal making
areas by
as well a
ecosystems etc. the
However, as revi
Comptroller an
DasGupta and Shaw
raise(2014),
concernalthoug
over t
have made great machinery
efforts in
in the the c
conse
of mangrove institutions
resources having
by securing e
ing the would
community act as a cons
and successful imp
the country, of
their the
roles CRZ guidelin
are mostly r
project period Taking
and a clue from
the extension o
programmes engage
solely respective
rest with s
the dep
was the also logue
topic and advocac
of discussion befo
JMM programmementation of
in the coastal the
con
the continuity, supporting
monitoring the
etc. C
aft
Scientifically it for
has violations
been by t
proved that
especially in of agencies
improving and r
the mangro
2003). Also ments
country wise within the
assessment
tions of duce
mangrove the
cover in overlaps
India up
is an increasing respective
trend of 3.5 depart
% (Das
which denotes strategy.
that Sectoral
considerable effo
government and and marine
forest ecolo
management
existingmangrove jectives
resourcesand outpu
and dev
However, in some important role
cases, it has in f
been
scheme has been the central
severely auth
disturbed a
Improved
period. For example, space t
the Landsat
highlights that monitoring throu
there are changes

â Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 671

Organization
in overcoming the implementation lacunaand Disaster
ofRisk
theReduction: The Asian Dilemma,
various
Disaster Risk Reduction: Methods, Approaches and Practices, doi
responsible authorities.
10.1007/978-4-431-54877-5J1
The CRZ regulations need to be aligned
Disaster Management with
Action Planthe millenni
for Mumbai (DMAP), Government of
Maharashtra (2007)
um development goal on environmental Accessed online http://www.
sustainability by fo
unitedwaymumbai.org/docs/mhl-disaster-actionplan.pdf
cusing on the long term impacts of all developmental work in Accessed
25 June, 2014
the notified zone. The notification though uses terminologies
EJF (2006) "Nature's defence against Tsunamis: a report on the impact of
like sustainable development, sustainable livelihood,
mangrove loss and shrimp ecolog
farm development on coastal defence", in
ically and culturally sensitive costal resources,
Mangroves. Environmental Justicebut fails
Foundation, Londonto
Gibbs MT (2009) Resilience:
detail the implementation strategies forwhat is it and what
each of does it mean for
them. marine
policymakers? Mar Policy 33(2):322—331
Moreover, top down instituted CRZ regulations is a big con
Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) (2010)
trast to a bottom up PPP measures suggested
Climate Change in India: as
a 4x4 a part of the
Assessment
new notification. One of the major
ISRO (2007)challenges of Village
Space Technology Enabled the Resource
earlier Centre (VRC)
available
notification was its multiple amends online http://www.isro.org/publications/pdf/
leading to the dilution of
VRCBtochure.pdf Accessed 25 June, 2014
the objectives. It is yet to be seen how the new notification will
Jayaprakash M, Nagarajan R, Velmurugan PM, Sathiyamoorthy J,
address the issues of development Krishnamurthy
while balancing the
RR, Urban B (2012) interest
Assessment of trace metal
of multiple stakeholder to achieve its desired
contamination goal.
in a historical freshwater canal (Buckingham canal),
Chennai, India. Environ Monit Assess 184(12):7407-7424
Kankara RS, Subramanian BR (2007) Oil spill sensitivity analysis and
risk assessment for gulf of Kachchh, India, using integrated model
Acknowledgments The author (RRK) is thankful to the Kyoto Uni
ing. J Coast Res 23(5): 1251-1258
versity, Japan, for offering visiting professorship to stay in the Graduate
Kathiresan K, Rajendran N (2005) Coastal mangrove forests mitigated
School of Global Environmental Studies (GSGES) and Inter-Graduate
tsunami. Estuar Coast Shelf Sei 65(3):601-606
School Program for Sustainable Development and Survivable Societies
Krishnamurthy RR, Kamala K (2014) Impact of Higher Education in
(GSS) during June 2014, which helped to compile this paper. Also he is
Enhancing the Resilience of Disaster Prone Coastal Communities -
thankfol to the University of Madras for granting permission to avail this
A Case Study in Nemmeli Panchayat, Tamil Nadu, India
programme. The second and third authors thankfully acknowledge the
Krishnamurthy RR, Chandrasekar K, D Shanmugam (2014) Coastal zone
Japanese Government Scholarship for conducting research in Graduate
management in Tamil Nadu, India: Challenges and Innovations, In:
School of Global Environmental Studies in Kyoto University.
Disaster Recovery: Used or Misused Development Opportunity. In
Shaw R (ed), p 225-240
Kumaraguru AK, Edwin Joseph V, Marimuthu N, Jerald Wilson J (2006)
References Scientific information on Gulf of Mannar - A Bibliography. Centre
for Marine and Coastal Studies. Madurai Kamaraj University,
Madurai, p 656
Bhagat RB, Guha M, Chattopadhyay AML,
Martinez (2006) Mumbai
Intralawan A, Vàzquez G, after 26/7
Pérez-Maqueo O, Sutton P,
deluge: issues and concerns in urban Landgrave
planning. R (2007) The coasts of
Popul our world: ecological,
Environ 27: economic
334-337 and social importance. Ecol Econ 63:254-272
Controller & Auditor General of India (2013). Performance reportMoEF
on (1991) Coastal Regulatory Zone (CRZ) Notification, 1991
MoEF
disaster preparedness in India, Report No. 5 available online at (2005) Report of the Committee Chaired by Prof.
http://saiindia.gov.in/ Accessed 25 June, 2014 M.S.Swaminathan to review the Coastal Regulation Zone
CPCB (2001) Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan for West Bengal
Notification, 1991 available online at http://iomenvis.in/pdf_
accessed online at http://www.ecacwb.org/editor_upload/files/documents/MSS_Report.pdf Accessed 25 June, 2014
Integrated%20Coastal%20Zone%20Management%20Plan%
MoEF (2009) Final Frontier- Agenda to protect the ecosystem and habitat
20for%20West%20Bengal.pdf Accessed 25 June, 2014 of India's coast for conservation and livelihood security, available
CRZ Notification (1991): Ministry of Environment & Forests,online at http://www.moef.nic.in/sites/default/files/cmz_report_2.
Government of India, available online at http://old.icsf.net/ pdf Accessed 25 June, 2014
MoEF (2010) Proposed coastal regulation zone (CRZ) amendments,
icsf2006/uploads/resources/legallndia/pdf/english/resource/
1119443024107 2010. Available online at https://www.elaw.org/system/files/CRZ_
CRZ Notification (2011): Ministry of Environment & Forests, DraftNotification_ConceptNote_April2010.pdf Accessed 21
Government of India available online at http://www.moef.nic.in/ August, 2014
downloads/publicinformation/CRZ-Notification-2011 .pdf MoEF (2011) Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2011 available
Danielsen F, Sorensen MK, Olwig MF, Selvam V, Parish F, Burgess ND, online http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/CRZ
Suryadiputra N (2005) The Asian tsunami: a protective role for Notification-2011.pdf Accessed 25 June, 2014
coastal vegetation. Sei (Wash) 310(5748):643 MSSRF (2002) Atlas of Mangrove Wetlands of India, Part 1 - Tamil
DasGupta R, Shaw R (2013a) Changing perspectives of mangrove man Nadu, available at IDRC web site idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/bitstream/
agement in India-an analytical overview. Ocean Coast Manag 80: 10625/33634/1/118816
107-118 Nammalwar P, Satheesh S, Ramesh R (2013) Application of remote
DasGupta R, Shaw R (2013b) Cumulative impacts of human interven sensing in the validation of potential fishing zones (PFZ) along the
tions and climate change on mangrove ecosystems of south and coast of North Tamil Nadu, India. Indian J Geo-Marine Sei 42:283
southeast Asia: an overview. J Ecosyst 2013 292
DasGupta R, Shaw R (2014) Role ofNGOs and CBOs in a Etecentralized
OECD (2008) Ranking Port Cities with High Exposure and Vulnerability
Mangrove Management Regime and Its Implications in Building to Climate Extremes: Exposure Estimates, Environment Working
Coastal Resilience in India. In Shaw R, Izumi T (eds.) Civil Society Papers No. 1

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 672 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

Patankar A, Sridhar A (2005)

Patwaidhan A, Statement on the CR2 Notification and
Andharia J Post-tsunami
et a
International Workshop
Rehabilitation in Tamil Nadu.on Climate
UNDP, Chennai
Assessment Urban and
Development
Srinivas H, Nakagawa Pla
Y (2007) Environmental implications for disaster
Cities preparedness: lessons learnt from the Indian ocean tsunami. J
Environ Manag 89:4-13
Sarkar S, Sharma A (2006) Disaster manage
waiting? Econ Polit
UNDP (2014)
WklyConservation and 41(35):3760-37
sustainable use of the Gul of Mannar
Selvam V, Ravichandran KK,
Biosphere Reserve's Gnanappazh
coastal biodiversity available online at http://
(2003) Assessment of community-b
www.in.undp.org/content/india/en/home/operations/projects/
Pichavaram mangrove wetland using
environment_and_energy/conservation_andsustainableuseofgulf
Current Sei 85:794-798 ofinannarbiospherereservescoa.html Accessed 1 July, 2014
Sonak S, Pangam P, Giriyan A (2007) Green reconstruction of the MD (1999) Marine pollution - What are we heading for? Ocean
Zingde
tsunami-affected areas in India using the integrated coastal zonescience: Trends and future directions, Somayajulu, B L K, p
management concept. J Environ Manag 89:14-23 229-245

Ô Springer

This content downloaded from

122.174.56.170 on Wed, 24 Feb 2021 08:06:36 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms