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Cell Injury & Inflammation - Full Page
Cell Injury & Inflammation - Full Page
Cell Injury & Inflammation - Full Page
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the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act).
Innate Adaptive
(non‐specific) (specific)
…There will be a lesser role for adaptive immune cells
(B and T cells) and antibodies
So what happens if there is no pathogen involved?
E.g. In the case of a tissue injury
Immune Responses – how are they triggered?
1. Tissue damage occurs
2. Distressed, damaged and dying cells release DAMPs (danger‐
associated molecular patterns)
3. DAMPs are recognised by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)
present in the cells walls of:
– Innate immune cells (dendritic cells, tissue resident macrophages, mast cells)
– Parenchymal cells
4. DAMPs are captured by innate immune cells and presented to
other immune cells…
– Resident and non‐resident innate immune cells
– In this case, NO B and T lymphocytes as NO pathogen involved
… which initiates the immune/ inflammatory response
In this case, an immune response involving
innate immune system only
So what happens if a pathogen is involved?
E.g. Viral influenza
Immune Responses – how are they triggered?
1. Pathogen invades host
2. Pathogen releases PAMPs (pathogen‐associated molecular
patterns)
3. PAMPs are recognised by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)
present in the cells walls of:
– Innate immune cells (dendritic cells, tissue resident macrophages, mast cells)
– Parenchymal cells
4. PAMPs are captured by innate immune cells and presented to
other immune cells…
– Resident and non‐resident innate immune cells
– In this case, B and T lymphocytes as a pathogen is involved
… which initiates the immune/ inflammatory response
In this case, an immune response involving both
the innate and adaptive immune systems
Note: it is the innate immune system (PRRs on cell walls
of innate immune cells) that instructs the adaptive
immune system to respond to microbial infection
Cell Injury and Inflammation
Prepared and presented by Tara Binnie
School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science
Curtin University
Acknowledgements to Evan Coopes
Learning Objectives
• Describe the inflammatory “spectrum” including the key
types of inflammation and the features of each
• Describe the sequence and function of vascular, cellular
and chemical responses during acute & chronic
inflammatory processes
• Relate the classical clinical signs & symptoms of inflammation to
the cellular, vascular and neurogenic responses observed during
both acute and chronic inflammation
• Describe the possible outcomes of acute inflammation
Additional Readings
1. Chovatiya & Medzhitov, (2014), Stress, inflammation &
defence of homeostasis. Mol. Cell, Vol 54
2. Medzhitov (2008). Origin and physiological roles of
inflammation. Nature, 454(7203)
Overview
• Cell Injury
• Reversible vs Irreversible
• Necrosis vs Apoptosis
• Cell senescence
• Inflammation
• The traditional view of inflammation
• The inflammatory spectrum
• The physiological events of the (acute) inflammatory response
• The outcomes of acute inflammation
Overview
• Cell Injury
• Reversible vs Irreversible
• Necrosis vs Apoptosis
• Cell senescence
• Inflammation
• The traditional view of inflammation
• The inflammatory spectrum
• The physiological events of the (acute) inflammatory response
• The outcomes of acute inflammation
Is cellular injury all or none?
Cell injury can be:
• Reversible
• Non‐lethal cell injury
• Leads to cellular adaptations – alterations in structure and function
• If stressor is removed, cell returns to normal
• Irreversible
• Lethal cell injury – leads to cell death
• Cell death/breakdown initiates inflammatory response
Examples of Reversible Cell Injury
Reversible Cell Injury Musculoskeletal Reversible Cell Injury
• Hypoxia • Tendinopathy
• Angina • Fasciopathies
• Transient ischaemic attack (TIA)
• Enthesopathies
• Transient neuropraxia
• Bone stress reactions
• Chemical injury
• Alcohol • Transient neuropraxia
• Transient loss of sensation or power due
• Trauma to nerve trunk compression
• Minor contusion
• Exercise‐induced muscle cramp
• Acute muscle spasm
• Exercise induced compartment
syndromes
Reversible Cell Injury
Do reversible cell injuries trigger an
inflammatory response?
Reversible Cell Injury
Do reversible cell injuries trigger an
inflammatory response?
Not quite…
There is no “classical” inflammatory response but…
Stressed and distressed cells can and will produce
more pro‐inflammatory mediators
States of sustained cell distress is clearly undesirable
for this reason (more on this later)
Examples of Irreversible Cell Injury
Irreversible Cell Injury Musculoskeletal Irreversible Cell Injury
• Hypoxia • Muscle strains
• Myocardial infarction • Ligament sprains
• Stroke
• Acute tendon tears
• Severe immune reactions
• Acute fascial tears
• Asthma attack
• Bony fractures
• Trauma
• Contusions
• Chemical injury
• Acid burn
• Alcohol
Irreversible Cell Injury
Do irreversible cell injuries trigger an
inflammatory response?
Irreversible Cell Injury
Do irreversible cell injuries trigger an
inflammatory response?
Yes indeed!
Dead and dying cells release lots of pro‐
inflammatory mediators +++
This triggers an inflammatory response
Musculoskeletal Cell Injury
Cell injury from a musculoskeletal
perspective?
Its all about load!
Either too much, too hard, too often, too quickly,
insufficient recovery…
… or a combination of these!
Disruption of Tissue Homeostasis
High energy traumatic injuries
Zone of loading beyond
physiological limits
= homeostasis disrupted
Lower energy repetitive
loading injuries
Apoptosis vs. Necrosis
• Related to these notions of cell injury are apoptosis
and necrosis
Apoptosis = endogenously induced cell death
Necrosis = exogenously induced cell death (i.e. cell death
and breakdown due to tissue damage)
Necrosis
• Exogenously induced cell death
• Due to factors external to the cell or tissue
• Trauma, infection, toxins
• Cell membrane integrity compromised
• Results in uncontrolled release of cell contents into extracellular
space (= DAMPs)
• Necrosis is detrimental but the release of cell
contents triggers the classical inflammatory immune‐
mediated response, which is beneficial and desirable
Apoptosis
• Programmed or endogenously induced cell death
• Winding down of cell functionality leading to programmed cell death
• Often beneficial (normal cell turnover)
• Occurs under various circumstances
• Programmed (or scheduled) apoptosis
• Natural cell turnover (e.g. bone, skin, tendon)
• Unscheduled (induced) apoptosis due to:
• Excessive and/or prolonged tissue stress (SIPS)
• Infection
• inflammation (or para‐inflammation) of the local tissue
When apoptosis goes wrong
Dysregulated apoptosis
1. Too late and/or too slowly (cells don’t die when they should)
• E.g. Neoplasia
2. Too early and/or too quickly (cells start dying when they shouldn’t)
• Neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson's, Alzheimer's)
• Overuse musculoskeletal disorders of tendon and bone
Disruption of Tissue Homeostasis
High energy traumatic injuries
Necrosis
Lower energy repetitive
loading injuries
Apoptosis
Cell Senescence
• The winding down and (potential) cessation of cell
functionality
– Often includes a change in phenotype or “cell personality”
• Shift to catabolic > anabolic phenotype
• Cell senescence occurs naturally but can also be
induced to occur earlier than scheduled due to
sustained and/or elevated stress
– Known as stress induced premature senescence (SIPS)
– Can be reversible (if stress removed) or irreversible
Tissue homeostasis = constant
dynamic remodelling
Normal cell turnover
Net catabolic Net anabolic
phenotype phenotype
Dysregulated homeostasis
Stress Induced Premature Senescence
Cell expresses more:
• Pro‐inflammatory Net anabolic
cytokines (e.g. proteolytic
enzymes, MMPs, DAMPs)
phenotype
Net catabolic
phenotype Cell produces less:
• Proteoglycans (Aggrecan)
• TIMP’s (inhibitor of MMPs)
• Growth factors
Stress Induced Premature Senescence
Sustained and/or elevated levels of stress
numbers of senescent cells expressing
a catabolic phenotype
expression of pro‐inflammatory cytokines
pro‐(para)inflammatory environment within the tissue
What factors contribute to SIPS?
• Increasing age
• Sedentary lifestyle
• Obesity
• Diabetes
• Hypertension
• Malnourishment (over‐ and undernourishment)
• Cytotoxic agents (cigarette smoke, alcohol)
• Psycho‐emotional stress
• Load (physical stress)
Back to cell injury…
What is the body’s response to cell injury?
Classically:
1. Clotting (if bleeding is involved)
2. INFLAMMATION!!
Overview
• Cell Injury
• Reversible vs Irreversible
• Necrosis vs Apoptosis
• Cell senescence
• Inflammation
• The traditional view of inflammation
• The inflammatory spectrum
• The physiological events of the (acute) inflammatory response
• The outcomes of acute inflammation
Inflammation
Is inflammation a good guy or a bad guy?
Inflammation
• A key arm of the innate immune response
• Adaptive (protective) response to acute tissue
malfunction and homeostatic imbalance
• But it is only adaptive where acute and not excessive
• Maladaptive states are possible & common
• Functions
– Degrade, eliminate or isolate the source of homeostatic
disturbance
– Enable the host (or part thereof) to adapt to altered conditions
– To enable restoration of function and return to normostasis
The traditional view of inflammation
Complete
resolution
Chronic
inflammation
The traditional view of inflammation
But this “classic” understanding of inflammation is too
simplistic!
• In all tissue injuries there will be an array of cells in the
affected tissues in different states
– Some dead, some dying, some damaged, some only distressed
– Recall irreversible and reversible cell injuries
• Hence an array of different responses
– Response to injury/ insult is never all or none
• Contemporary view of inflammation being a spectrum of
responses
The Contemporary View:
An inflammatory spectrum
Stress Para‐ Chronic
Normostasis Inflammation
response inflammation inflammation
Degree of deviation from normostasis
Normostasis = optimal cell, tissue, organ function
Degree of deviation from normostasis
An inflammatory spectrum
Stress Response= Cell or tissue stress
response due to noxious conditions
Degree of deviation from normostasis
Cell and Tissue Stress Response
• Stressed/distressed cell states will result in activation of a
“stress response” within affected cells and tissues
• Expression of signaling proteins/growth factors will change thus…
• Cell and tissue functionality may change
• Result = reversible responses/adaptations to altered inter‐
and intra‐cellular conditions
• Common types of adaptations:
– Atrophy (↓ in cell size and func on)
– Hypertrophy (↑ in cell size and output)
– Hyperplasia (↑ in cell number)
– Metaplasia (changes in cell morphology and function)
– Dysplasia (↑ in cell number, changed morphology, differen a on)
If adaptive stress response mechanisms are
overwhelmed the response begins to come under
the next band of the spectrum…
Para‐inflammation
A tissue‐level stress response that is not equivalent to
the classical acute inflammatory response in that it does
not typically involve exudate formation and recruitment
of non‐resident immune cells ( e.g. neutrophils)
An inflammatory spectrum
Para‐inflammation = Cell or tissue stress response due to
prolonged and/or heightened noxious conditions
Degree of deviation from normostasis
Para‐inflammation
• The primary purpose of the inflammatory response is
to resolve tissue injury
– Thereby allows the tissues to:
• Adapt to abnormal conditions in the short‐term, and
• Ultimately to restore homeostasis and optimal function in long‐term
• If abnormal conditions are sustained, then a chronic,
low‐level inflammatory state can develop in tissues
• This state is now referred to as para‐inflammation
Para‐inflammation
• A state of tissue stress between normostasis and
(classical) inflammation
• A stress response that is not equivalent to the
classical acute inflammatory response in that it does
not typically involve:
• Exudate formation; and
• Recruitment of non‐resident immune cells ( e.g. neutrophils)
Para‐inflammation
• Para‐inflammation is a graded response that can restore
tissue homeostasis (i.e. it can be an adaptive response)
• Allows affected tissues to adapt to noxious environments and
to maintain functionality
• Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS): Generalised, low‐grade
stiffness, soreness, tightness after periods intense exercise reflect low
level/sub‐clinical tissue “injury” or stress
• Acute “reactive” tendinopathy: increased reactivity of tenocytes in
response to period of heightened mechanical loading = an adaptive
response that allows for temporary thickening of the tendon and
reduced intra‐tendon stress
• But where sustained it can morph into a maladaptive
response known as dysregulated para‐inflammation
If cell and tissue malfunction persists for a sustained
period, para‐inflammation can evolve into a chronic
and maladaptive response…
Dysregulated para‐inflammation
… a persistent state of (low‐level) tissue dysfunction
Dysregulated Para‐inflammation
• Many contemporary conditions are driven by
dysregulated para‐inflammation
– Cardiovascular disease
– Articular cartilage degeneration (osteoarthritis)
– Metabolic disease
– Type II diabetes
– Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
– Macula degeneration
– CNS degenerative diseases
• Alzheimer's
Dysregulated Para‐inflammation
• Musculoskeletal conditions
• Tendinopathies
• Fasciopathies
• Enthesopathies
• Bone stress injuries (BSI)
These pathologies are principally associated with
sustained and/or repeated mechanical loading
All of the factors listed on the previous slide PLUS
Sustained and/or elevated levels of mechanical
stress/loading
Typical ‘overuse’ injuries
Take home message…
Para‐inflammatory responses are often short‐term,
adaptive and helpful
But if the response becomes persistent and
dysregulated it can become maladaptive and unhelpful
An inflammatory spectrum
Inflammation = A response to infection, injury/trauma or
situations where noxious conditions exceed upper limits
Degree of deviation from normostasis
Inflammation
• Also known as ‘classical’ or ‘acute’ inflammation
• A tissue state that is activated by overt injury or
infection
• In this case, tissue‐stress and para‐inflammatory responses are
insufficient
• Acute inflammatory response involves:
• Hyperaemia: increased blood flow to the region
• Exudation: changes in structure of blood vessels to allow
plasma proteins and immune cells to leak out into the
extracellular space
• Emigration and aggregation of immune cells to site of injury
Examples of classical inflammation
• Musculoskeletal • Burns
• Acute ligament sprains • Chemical
• Acute muscle tears/strains • Thermal
• Acute tendon tears/ruptures • UV (sunburn)
• Bony fractures
• Contusions
• Pathological
• Acute viral infection
• Conjunctivitis
Another take home message…
Acute inflammatory responses are a normal
and necessary adaptive responses to tissue
injury or infection
But if the acute response becomes persistent
and dysregulated it typically evolves into
maladaptive and unhelpful
= Chronic inflammation
Possible outcomes of ‘classical’
inflammation
Complete
resolution
Chronic
inflammation
An inflammatory spectrum
Chronic inflammation = a maladaptive response that evolves
from an acute inflammatory response that fails to resolve
Degree of deviation from normostasis
Chronic Inflammation
• A potential outcome of acute inflammation
• Or can be chronic in nature from outset
• Can be systemic or localised
• The key feature is inflammatory and repair processes
occurring concurrently
• Ongoing tissue destruction coupled with simultaneous attempts
at healing
• Balanced catabolic and anabolic processes but
without resolution
• Progressive tissue damage (and associated ongoing inflammatory
responses) & attempts at healing/scar formation
Chronic Inflammation
• Macrophages become the predominant cell type
• Activated macrophages release + + enzymes & growth factors an
that keep driving the inflammatory response including
• MMP’s = + + tissue breakdown
• Growth factors = neo‐angiogenesis
• Fibroblast recruitment & activation
• Attempts at healing with + + granulation tissue (due to + +
growth factors)
• (Adaptive) Immune system activation
• Therefore infiltration by + + lymphocytes
Causes of Chronic Inflammation
Conditions favouring return to homeostasis not
achieved due to…
1. Failure to eliminate the cause of acute inflammation
• E.g. persistent infection or noxious stimulus
2. An autoimmune response to a self‐antigen or self‐cell
• The immune system attacks healthy tissue, mistaking it (them) for
harmful pathogens (e.g. Rheumatoid arthritis)
3. Prolonged exposure to potentially toxic agents
• A chronic irritant of low intensity that persists
• Foreign bodies, tobacco smoke, coal dust
• Continued exposure to insult
• E.g. mechanical loading of an already inflamed joint
Dysregulated Para‐inflammation vs.
Chronic Inflammation
• Both are maladaptive states
• Dysregulated para‐inflammation = maladaptive form of para‐
inflammation
• Chronic inflammation = a dysregulated, maladaptive outcome of
acute/classical inflammation
• Hallmarks of classic inflammation are evident in chronic
but NOT evident in para‐inflammation
• Para‐inflammation: Less activation of the vascular system therefore
less oedema evident and less non‐resident immune cells recruited
• Chronic inflammation: Activation of the vascular system therefore
oedema evident (humoral system involvement is significant) and
non‐resident immune cells recruited
Acute versus chronic
inflammation summary
Self‐directed review
Acute inflammation Chronic inflammation
Speed of onset Rapid onset (minutes-hours) Gradual/insidious inset (can evolve quite
rapidly over a few days but typically over a
number of weeks)
Duration Short (days, maybe 1-2 weeks) Long duration (weeks to months)
Causative agents • Infection via harmful organisms and/or • Non-degradable pathogens that cause
• Injury to tissue persistent inflammation
• Infection with some types of viruses
• Persistent foreign bodies
• Overactive/hypersensitive immune
system reactions
Principle cells involved In the context of immunity tends to In the context of immunity involves the
involve the innate immune response & adaptive immune response to a
therefore the following cells: greater extent & therefore the following
Neutrophils cells:
Tissue-resident Mast Cells Lymphocytes
o ie. the “first responders” o T cells
Tissue-resident Macrophages o B cells
o With the above assist with Macrophage presence persists
clearance of dead, dying
cells & other tissues
Timeframes for & balance of tissue Resolves within 48-72 hours & rapidly Typically balanced amounts of
destruction versus repair transitions into tissue repair stage catabolic (tissue destruction) &
anabolic (tissue repair) processes
Key features of each 1. Increased blood flow: 1. Infiltration of Mononuclear phagocytic cells:
a) Transient vasoconstriction upon a) Macrophages:
endothelial injury (i) Circulate as monocytes & reach site of
b) Followed by released of cytokines that injury within 24 – 48 hrs & transform
promote vasodilation - leads to warmness (ii) Activated by numerous cytokines from
& redness of injured area the injured site
b) T & B cells:
2. Increased capillary permeability: (i) Recruited & activated by Antigen
a) Increased volume of blood passes the Presenting Cells like macrophages &
capillary, increasing endothelial dendritic cells
permeability (ii) B cells will be become Plasma Cells &
b) IVF moves into ICF, leads to increased produce Antibodies
concentration of RBC’s in the blood (iii) T cells will produce cytokine to activated
vessels (margination) the B cells & also macrophages
c) Stasis of blood leads to exudation
2. Tissue destruction:
3. Migration of neutrophils: a) Due to massive production of
a) Rolling of neutrophils (i) Reactive oxygen species
b) Adhesion (ii) Hydrolytic enzymes
c) Diapedesis into site of injury b) Inflammatory responses
Overuse injuries (involving cell senescence +/‐apoptosis)
Acute injuries (involving necrosis)
The inflammatory pathway
Inducers
Sensors
Mediators
Effectors
As it relates to all points of the inflammatory spectrum
The inflammatory pathway – inducers
Inducers
Endogenous Exogenous
(Intrinsic triggers) (Extrinsic triggers)
• Non‐microbial inducers
– Allergens (e.g. pollen)
– Noxious irritants (asbestos, nicotene, zinc‐oxide ‐ tape)
– Foreign bodies
Endogenous inducers
• Endogenous inducers = signals produced and
expressed by stressed, distressed or damaged tissues
– Not from foreign microbes
• Pro‐inflammatory proteins released from cell
– Can be released passively (cell membrane disruption) or
actively (secreted by sensitized/stressed cells)
• AKA – DAMPs
– Initiate and perpetuate immune system responses following;
• Trauma, ischemia, cancer or other settings of tissue stress or damage
• And in the absence of overt pathogenic infection
The inflammatory pathway
Inducers
Sensors
Mediators
Effectors
The inflammatory pathway – sensors
Sensors
(cells that initiate inflammatory response)
Platelets
Parenchymal cells (if damaged blood vessels)
and ECM
Tissue-resident Cells of vascular
macrophages Cells of epithelium
(if skin involved) Endothelium
and mast cells (if damaged blood vessels)
The inflammatory pathway
Inducers
Sensors
Mediators
Effectors
The inflammatory pathway – mediators
Sensors release mediators
Mediators =
Cytokines (chemicals)
Vasoactive amines Chemokinesza
Lipid mediators
Mediators of acute inflammation
Summary of key roles
• Vasodilation
– Histamine, prostaglandins
• Vascular Permeability
– Histamine, leukotrienes, kinin and complement system
• Recruited immune cell adhesion
– Complement system
• Chemotaxis
– Compliment system, bacterial agents
• Pain
– Prostaglandins, bradykinin, serotonin
The inflammatory pathway
Inducers
Sensors
Mediators
Effectors
The inflammatory pathway – effectors
Effectors
Endothelial cells Tissue-resident
of vessel wall macrophages
Epithelial cells Tissue-resident
Mast cells
Cells of the ANS
T and B-Lymphocytes
Smooth muscle cells
e.g. local blood vessels
Overview
• Cell Injury
• Reversible vs Irreversible
• Necrosis vs Apoptosis
• Cell senescence
• Inflammation
• The traditional view of inflammation
• The inflammatory spectrum
• The physiological events of the (acute) inflammatory response
• The outcomes of acute inflammation
The physiological events of
(acute) inflammation
The events that are enacted by the “effectors”
Consists of chemical, vascular and cellular
responses
Haemostasis
• Most acute cell injuries will also involve blood vessels
• Where bleeding occurs, the body needs a process for
re‐establishing haemostasis
• Just before the inflammatory phase is initiated, the clotting
cascade occurs
• Stops blood loss by way of a fibrin clot that plugs the injured
vessel wall
• **Discussed in more detail next lecture**
• Following haemostasis, the inflammatory phase begins
• Consists of chemical, vascular and cellular responses… to be
explored further…
Inflammation ‐ Chemical responses
Chemical mediators (cytokines) are released
(by platelets, tissue‐resident macrophages,
and mast cell degranulation)
Vasoactive mediators Chemotactic mediators
(lead to vascular responses) (lead to cellular responses)
Inflammation – Vascular responses
1. (Brief) vasoconstriction of arterioles (to limit blood loss)
2. Vasodilation of arterioles and capillaries (to bring more blood to the injury site)
↓
Engorgement and Hyperaemia
↓
Increased hydrostatic pressure
↓
Transudate (fluid forced through small cell junctions in vascular wall)
↓
Increased concentration of cells in blood
↓
Stasis (slowing of blood) ‐ assists with cellular events including
endothelial activation, margination, adhesion and diapedesis)
3. Increased vascular permeability (endothelial cells retract to form
gaps in vessel wall allowing immune cells to migrate into tissue)
↓
Formation of exudate (fluid and cells leak through gaps in vascular wall)
Exudate and Transudate
• Due to increased hydrostatic pressure, plasma can be
“pushed” out into the extravascular space
• The fluid that is “pushed” out of a vessel is known as transudate
• Due to endothelial retraction, plasma (and cells) can
“leak” out into the extravascular spaces
• The fluid and cells that leak out of a vessel is known as exudate
2. Endothelial activation (endothelial cells become sticky)
3. Adhesion of WBCs to endothelial cells
4. Endothelial retraction (adhesion of WBC causes endothelial
cells to retract to form gaps in vessel wall, increasing permeability)
5. WBC diapedesis (migration of immune cells through vessel wall)
6. WBC migration to injury site (movement of immune cells to injury site)
6. WBC action (destruction of offending agent
and/or necrotic tissue via phagocytosis)
5 cardinal signs of inflammation
“PRISH”
• Pain: chemical mediators also induce abnormal sensitivity
of the sensory neurons in the affected area(s)
• Redness: caused by hyperaemia at the affected site (due to
local vascular changes)
• Impaired mobility: potential loss of function as a short‐
term adaptive response to injury (to allow recovery)
• Swelling: caused by the vascular response and subsequent
accumulation of oedema
• Heat: due to hyperaemia at the affected site and increased
local metabolic activity
Winding down of Inflammation
• What induces the winding down of inflammation?
• Resolvins and Protectins (produced by macrophages and
neutrophils)
• Block further neutrophil infiltration
• Induce spent neutrophils to commit suicide (apoptosis)
• Induce non‐apoptotic cells to “go home”
• “Satiated” macrophages to become “sleepy” and shuffle off home via
lymphatic drainage
• Phenotypic switch of remaining cells to pro‐resolution and pro‐reparative
expression
• Activate the re‐building teams (tissue‐resident and recruited fibroblasts)
Overview
• Cell Injury
• Reversible vs Irreversible
• Necrosis vs Apoptosis
• Cell senescence
• Inflammation
• The traditional view of inflammation
• The inflammatory spectrum
• The physiological events of the (acute) inflammatory response
• The outcomes of acute inflammation
Outcomes of acute inflammation
Complete
resolution
Chronic
inflammation
Up next?
Tissue Repair and Healing