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Tissue Repair & Healing - Full Page
Tissue Repair & Healing - Full Page
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the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act).
• Irreversible
• Lethal cell injury – leads to cell death
• Cell death/breakdown initiates inflammatory response
Irreversible Cell Injury
Do irreversible cell injuries trigger an
inflammatory response?
Yes indeed!
Dead and dying cells release lots of pro‐
inflammatory mediators +++
This triggers an inflammatory response
Reversible Cell Injury
Do reversible cell injuries trigger an
inflammatory response?
Not quite…
There is no “classical” inflammatory response but…
Stressed and distressed cells can and will produce
more pro‐inflammatory mediators
States of sustained cell distress is clearly undesirable
for this reason
Apoptosis vs. Necrosis
• Related to these notions of cell injury are apoptosis
and necrosis
Apoptosis = endogenously induced cell death
Necrosis = exogenously induced cell death (i.e. cell death
and breakdown due to tissue damage)
Necrosis
• Exogenously induced cell death
• Due to factors external to the cell or tissue
• Trauma, infection, toxins
• Cell membrane integrity compromised
• Results in uncontrolled release of cell contents into extracellular
space (= DAMPs)
• Necrosis is detrimental but the release of cell
contents triggers the classical inflammatory immune‐
mediated response, which is beneficial and desirable
Apoptosis
• Programmed or endogenously induced cell death
• Winding down of cell functionality leading to programmed cell death
• Often beneficial (normal cell turnover)
• Occurs under various circumstances
• Programmed (or scheduled) apoptosis
• Natural cell turnover (e.g. bone, skin, tendon)
• Unscheduled (induced) apoptosis due to:
• Excessive and/or prolonged tissue stress (SIPS)
• Infection
• inflammation (or para‐inflammation) of the local tissue
Disruption of Tissue Homeostasis
High energy traumatic injuries
Necrosis
Lower energy repetitive
loading injuries
Apoptosis
Cell Senescence
• The winding down and (potential) cessation of cell
functionality
– Often includes a change in phenotype or “cell personality”
• Shift to catabolic > anabolic phenotype
• Cell senescence occurs naturally but can also be
induced to occur earlier than scheduled due to
sustained and/or elevated stress
– Known as stress induced premature senescence (SIPS)
– Can be reversible (if stress removed) or irreversible
The traditional view of inflammation
Complete
resolution
Chronic
inflammation
The Contemporary View:
An inflammatory spectrum
Stress Para‐ Chronic
Normostasis Inflammation
response inflammation inflammation
Degree of deviation from normostasis
Overuse injuries (involving cell senescence +/‐apoptosis)
Acute injuries (involving necrosis)
Tissue Repair and Healing
Prepared and presented by Tara Binnie
School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science
Curtin University
Acknowledgements to Evan Coopes
Learning Objectives
• Describe the functions and characteristics of healing
by secondary and primary intention
• Describe the functions and characteristics of the
haematoma, proliferative, repair and remodeling
phases of tissue repair and healing
• Define mechanobiology and describe its role in the
context of tissue adaptive and repair
Additional Readings
1. Guo, S., & DiPietro, L. A. (2010). Critical review in oral biology
& medicine: Factors affecting wound healing. Journal of
Dental Research, 89(3), 219‐229.
2. Soft tissue injuries simply need PEACE & LOVE ‐ BJSM Blog.
A key tenet of tissue healing…
“No injury can be made to heal faster than its
natural speed... all that can be done is to ensure
that all favourable conditions are encouraged”
Evans, P (1980)
Who or what induces tissue repair?
Chemicals (cytokines)!
• If tissue is damaged it will either:
• Regenerate ( = complete resolution), or be
• Repaired ("organized") by fibrous tissue
• If any repair by fibrous tissue occurs there will be a scar
• Scar tissue may be called "fibrosis", "adhesions” etc
Healing by Primary Intention
• A well‐approximated wound is ideal for wound healing
– Neat surgical wounds held tight by sutures and fibrin, or
– Surgically approximated broken bones (metal plates, screws)
• Since the edges are close together (if minimal necrosis
and no infection) healing occurs by primary intention
• Key point = no gap between the sides of the wound
Open wound Fractured radius and ulna
Phases of Tissue Healing
1. Bleeding‐clotting‐haemostasis
2. Inflammation
• Humoral, cellular, vascular, molecular,
physiological elements clinical signs
3. Proliferative phase
• Diffuse array of immune cells recruited
and activated
4. Repair phase
• Damaged and dead tissue catabolised
• Lost/damaged cells replaced with
viable cells and/or…
• Tissue rebuilt and integrity restored
– Though in most cases not with original
tissue (i.e. scar tissue)
5. Remodelling (and maturation)
• Return to normal (form and function)
Phase 1: Haematoma
• “Heme” (blood), “‐oma” (body) = a body of blood
• Typically has a negative connotation however…
• A measure of organised clotting is an important
precursor for tissue repair
• Provides for:
• Tamponade (plug) and thus haemostasis
• Early scaffolding for cell and neo‐vessel migration and proliferation
during both inflammation and early repair
Take home message: a haematoma can be necessary and normal but…
an uncontrolled, large and persistant haematoma can be unhelpful
When might a haematoma
be unhelpful?
• If excessive in size
• Excessive scar tissue a result
• Excessive in duration
• Constrained in a limited space
• Can lead to secondary ischaemic cell death
• e.g. Sub‐dural haematoma
• e.g. Intra‐muscular haematoma
Phase 2: Inflammatory Phase
• Discussed in detail in the last lecture
Phase 3: Proliferative Phase
• Diffuse array of immune cells recruited and activated
• The proliferative phase involves:
• Proliferation of resident and recruited immune cells
• Proliferation and activation of resident and recruited fibroblasts
• Fibroblasts = the builder cells involved in tissue healing and repair
Fibroblasts
• “Builder” cells
• Take on the major role during repair phase
• Migrate into the fibrin clot and proliferate + +
– Tissue‐resident fibroblasts also become activated
• Role(s)
– Secretion of extracellular matrix and collagen
– Also secrete pro‐reparative cytokines in response to
mechanical loading
Who are fibroblasts?
Myofibroblast
(differentiated fibroblast vastly up‐regulated after tissue injury)
Myoblast (differentiated myosatellite cell)
Progenitor fibroblast
(Mesenchymal cell) Osteoblast (specialised fibroblast for bone)
Tenoblast (immature tendon fibroblast)
Chondroblast (immature cartilage fibroblast)
Fibrocyte (inactive migratory fibroblast)
• Deposition of new tissue greatly exceeds degradation
• Hence the term “anabolic phase”
Matrix Deposition
• New granulation tissue (consisting of ECM and
immature collagen) is laid down by fibroblasts
• Early in wound healing, type III (immature) collagen
predominates but is later replaced by (more robust)
type I collagen
• At the same time the wound is suffused with
• Glycosaminoglycan's (GAGs) and
• Fibronectin
• Both are the key components of ECM
Re‐epithelialisation
• Re‐epithelization occurs with the migration of cells
from the periphery to the centre of the wound
– Occurs concurrently with formation of granulation tissue
• Provides a barrier to infection and fluid loss (healing
a remodeling continues underneath)
• Applies to wounds involving skin and the lining of the
airways, mouth and gut
Phase 5: Remodelling Phase
• Involves final aggregation, orientation and arrangement of
collagen fibers and ECM into “mature” form
• After repair phase, injury continues to undergo constant
alterations (i.e. remodeling)
– Collagen is degraded and deposited in an equilibrium‐seeking fashion
until no changes in the amount of collagen
– Collagen deposition reaches its peak 3/52 after the wound is created
– Process can continue for 1‐2 years after initial injury (bone especially)
– Once wound achieves a state of equilibrium, it begins to “mature”
• Healing tissues slowly develop enhanced mechanical
properties and architecture with this being driven by
graduated mechanical loading across the wound site
Phase 5: Remodelling Phase
The remodeling phase involves:
• Collagen maturation (conversion of type III to type I)
• Wound contraction
• Wound contraction is a feature of secondary >> primary
intention healing
• Results in part from the proliferation of specialised fibroblasts
known as myofibroblasts
• Resemble contractile smooth muscle cells in shape and can contract to
draw edges of the wound together
• MFB’s also produce collagen with high stiffness characteristics which
exerts + + contractile force as it matures
• Hence + + potential for contracture
Phase 1: Haematoma
Phase 2: Inflammatory Response
Phase 3: Proliferative Phase
Precursor and prerequisite for tissue repair and remodelling
Involves:
1. Proliferation/activation of resident and recruited fibroblasts
2. Proliferation of resident and recruited immune cells
Phase 4: Repair Phase
Involves dual anabolic and catabolic processes, but tissue anabolism clearly predominates
Catabolic Phase Anabolic Phase
Involves: Involves:
Breakdown of dead, dying and 1. Neo‐angiogenesis
damaged tissues by micro‐ and 2. Fibroplasia
macrophages 3. Matrix deposition
4. Re‐epithelialisation
Phase 5: Remodelling Phase
Final aggregation, orientation and arrangement of collagen fibres and ECM into mature form
Involves:
1. Collagen maturation (type III ‐> type 1)
2. Wound contraction (in secondary intention healing)
Factors affecting tissue healing
Local factors Systemic factors
Oxygenation (arterial supply) Increasing Age
Venous insufficiency Gender
Infection Psycho‐emotional stresses
Presence of foreign bodies CV and PVD
Lack of mechanical stability Diabetes
Wound edges (incision vs laceration) Obesity
Immuno‐compromising conditions
(AIDS, radiation therapy)
Medications
(NSAIDS, corticosteroids, chemotherapy)
Poor nutrition
Genetics/hereditary factors
Guo & DiPietro (2010)
Self‐directed study: timeline for
"the best possible wound" healing
(i.e. a clean, protected wound with edges apposed, in a well‐
nourished patient with good blood vessels)
Timeline for Wound Healing
• Timeline will vary (thus requires clinical interpretation)
• Dependent on magnitude of injury, initial Mx and patient
• Phagocytosis begins about 12‐24hr post injury, repair
begins shortly after
• Stable and well oxygenated injury site accelerates the
initiation of repair
• Fibroblasts cannot function anaerobically
• Disruption to injury site can lead to delayed repair, scarring or
chronic inflammation
• Delayed healing can be due to ischaemia, irritation of injury site,
local cortisone, older age, poor general health etc.
Timeline for Wound Healing
• Minutes:
• Fibrinogen from the severed vessels is activated via the clotting cascade
• Forms a meshwork, and stops the bleeding
• The meshwork also contains platelets
• 24 hours:
• Polymorphs (the “Shock troops”) enter the fibrin meshwork
• Epithelial cells are regenerating from the edges of the wound surface
• 3 days:
• The fibrin meshwork is extensively invaded by macrophages.
Granulation tissue is appearing at the edges of the incisions
• New blood vessels begin to grow across the gap
• A thin layer of epithelial cells now covers the wound surface
Timeline for Wound Healing
• 5 days:
• Granulation tissue fills the entire wound (lots of fibrin & collagen)
• 2 weeks:
• Fibroblasts continue to multiply, and collagen continues to be laid
down
• 4 weeks:
• The overlying epidermis is now normal
• Capillary involution and scar contraction well underway
• Red scar turns white
• The wound is still growing stronger, though it will never have the
tensile strength of uninjured tissue
Healing by Tissue Type
• Muscle tissue healing
Muscle Injury – Acute Response
• Immediate damage to the muscle fibres at injury site
(necrosis)
• Rupture of small blood vessels = haematoma forms
at injury site
• Chemotaxic stimuli from damaged cells attract WBC’s
into the injury site (neutrophils & macrophages ++)
• Phagocytosis of damaged muscle fibres & ECM
Central zone
of injury
Central Zone of Injury
• Where the injury occurs
• Myofibres (muscle cells)
and their basal lamina
are lethally injured
• Haematoma, necrosis,
inflammation and
phagocytosis occurs here
Survival zone
Survival Zone
• Area without damages
• Theses areas of the
myofibre will survive
Regeneration
zone
Regeneration Zone
• Area of extensive
damage BUT the
capillary supply and the
basal lamina are intact
• Potential here for
regeneration
Muscle Injury – Regeneration
1. Injury = torn myofibres and
basal lamina
2. Contraction band seals the torn
fiber ends to halt necrosis and…
• Satellite cells (SC) are activated
by growth factors released from
macrophages and injured tissue
begin to proliferate
3. SCs differentiate into myoblasts
and begin to produce collagens
and form scar tissue
Jarvinen (2013)
Muscle Injury – Regeneration
4. Myoblasts fuse into myotubes
5. Myotubes fuse with the surviving
parts of the torn fibers and start
to grow towards the central zone
• Myotubes attempt to grow
through scar tissue barrier but
not usually possible ‐ instead,
fibre ends blend into scar tissue
and form mini‐MTJ
6. Scar tissue contracts and brings
regenerated fibre ends closer
together = fully regenerated fibre
with organized scar tissue and
MTJs attached
Jarvinen (2013)
Recovery of Contractile Properties
• Contractile properties initially limited by acute
pain & swelling
• Recover quickly after 48‐72hrs
• Up to 70% of normal load can be transferred through
granulation/fibrin tissue at injury site (point of greatest
weakness)
• 95% of normal by 10 days but
• Passive tensile strength only at about 50% of normal
• Potential for re‐injury ++ at junction between connective
tissue scar and regenerated muscle fibres (mini‐MTJ)
Healing by Tissue Type
• Ligament healing
Ligament Injury
Bleeding and Inflammation (hrs – 3‐7 days)
• Extra‐articular ligaments (e.g. ATFL tear)
• Subcutaneous bleeding – quickly tamponade (histamine‐
dependant & platelet driven)
• Intra‐articular ligaments (e.g. ACL rupture)
• Bleeding can be unchecked until spontaneous clotting or intra‐
articular pressure reaches point that stimulates tamponade
• Clinical significance of this?
Ligament Injury – ACL Tear
Ligament Injury
Scar matrix formation
• Macrophages act early to debride
• Proliferating fibroblasts close the gap
• Collagen scaffold for neovascularisation
• New tissue is fragile, viscous>elastic, stiff and weak
• N.B. Minimal and non‐functional matrix is typically produced in
intra‐articular ligaments e.g. ACL
• Poor quality material
• Tends to bind to non‐functional places (eg. Cross link with PCL; bone insertion)
• Absence of a soft tissue net to direct scar formation.
Ligament Injury
Matrix remodelling
• Scar contraction
• Less viscous, dense, highly ordered
• Varied architecture and composition
• Ligament‐type stimulus directs matrix remodelling
to more ligament‐like composition and behaviour
• Mechanotherapy!
Healing by Tissue Type
• Tendon injury
Tendon Injury
• Macroscopic injury (e.g. tendon rupture)
• Similar healing response to ligament but slower as
tendons are relatively avascular
• Microscopic injury (e.g. overuse)
• A story we’ll explore more fully later
Healing by Tissue Type
• Bony injury (fracture)
Normal Bone Strength
• Bone is constructed the same way that reinforced
concrete is constructed
• Collagen fibres of bone = the steel of reinforced concrete
• Provides the tensile strength
• Calcium salts/crystals on bone = the cement, sand, and rock of
reinforced concrete
• Provides the compressional strength
• The compressional strength of bone is greater than
that of even the best reinforced concrete, and the
tensile strength approaches that of reinforced
concrete
Normal Bone Strength
However…
• Neither bone nor concrete has a very high level of
torsional strength
• Bone fractures often occur as a result of torsional
forces
• As bone is more vulnerable to rotational stresses…
Bone Healing
Bone healing has some unique characteristics…
1. Only tissue to heal by replacing itself like‐for‐like
• No healing by scar tissue
2. Has an additional stage – callus
• Callus is literally a “bridging” stage between the inflammatory
and repair phases
Bone Healing
• Mechanobiology
• Movement and loading of healing tissue is a good thing!
• Stimulates neovascularization and neo‐genesis in tissue
• Just so long as it is not too much, too intense, for too long a
time and is graduated
Mechanotransduction
• Process by which the body converts mechanical loading
into cellular responses, and therefore structural change.
• It is an ongoing physiological process in the human body
– Mechanotransduction is crucial for…
• Maintaining optimum the physiology of many tissue types
• Stimulating/initiating cell migration.
• In the absence of physical stimulus mechanotransduction
signals are weak, and connective tissue degrades.
Khan & Scott, 2009
Mechanotransduction – the basics
Khan & Scott, 2009
Immobilisation vs Early Mobilisation
How can movement impact healing?
• Immobilisation
• Short‐term is beneficial – especially for first few days
• < 1 week, minimizes adverse effects
• Allows formation of adequate scar tissue, and allows it to gain strength
• Long‐term
• Rapid deterioration of biomechanical properties = net loss of strength
and stiffness
• Homeostatic state Catabolic state Poor quality cell production
• Stiffer, less compliant, weaker Joint stiffness post‐ immobilisation
Immobilisation vs Early Mobilisation
How can movement impact healing?
• Early mobilisation
• Mechanical stimulation
• Induces rapid capillary in‐growth, fibre orientation,
quality tissue deposition
• Increase strength and stiffness
• Facilitates remodelling
• However, if began immediately it can promote
development of larger scar tissue with lesser tensile
strength.
.
How do we optimise tissue repair
and healing after an acute injury?
How do we optimise tissue repair
and healing after an acute injury?
How do we optimise tissue repair
and healing after an acute injury?
How do we optimise tissue repair
and healing after an acute injury?
How do we optimise tissue repair
and healing after an acute injury?
How do we optimise tissue repair
and healing after an acute injury?
• RICE
• RICER
• RICER and NO HARM
• PRICER
• POLICE
Soft tissue injuries need PEACE & LOVE
Next week?
Topic 5: Joint Disorders