LIVING IN THE IT ERA (Week 3)
Monitoring Application, Database, and
Overview of Computer Hardware and Software
Computer
- A machine that manipulates data according to a list
of instructions called a program.
A computer can also be defined as an electronic
machine that accepts input (data), processes it and gives
out results (information). A program or app (short for
application program) in memory manages the
processing. It can make use of data or information stored
in memory and remember the results of the processing
for later use, again in memory.
A computer is also a (fairly complicated) tool
intended to assist the user in accomplishing information-
based tasks ranging from locating and acquiring
data/information to processing it to presenting or
transmitting it.
In addition, it is an entertainment center allowing the
user to browse the web, read a book, play a video game,
watch a movie, etc. These devices (and the following)
are often left out of the definition of a computer because
they are not "general purpose" computing devices, that
is, a Kindle (tm) is used to read books, but not to create
a classroom presentation. They are included here
because the lines separating such devices are becoming
blurry.
In certain specialized instances, such as embedded
real-time computers (as found in your car or microwave),
it is part of a more complex tool or device.
In a sense, a computer is ultimately a simple,
generic device that can be used to accomplish a wide
variety of tasks. This leads to the first two generic
definitions provided above.
Computer-based System
- A system in which a computer is involved and
consists of three major elements: Hardware,
Software, and User (where the user may be another
computer system). The elements of a computer-
based system are described in the three following
scenarios:
1. Patient monitoring system
Hardware
Electrode leads, Micro-computers,
Network platform, and a Server
computer
Software
Operating System
User
Medical staff, Administrators
2. Controlling a section of an Assembly Line
Hardware
A specially embedded system which is
developed for this purpose
Software
The machine code loaded on the
embedded system Memory
User
Other Machine, Supervisor
3. Playing a game with a Computer
Hardware
Game consoles such as Xbox and
Playstation
Software
The game itself
User
The game player
Types of Computers
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are fast because they are actually
many computers working together.
Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960's as
the world's most advanced computer. These computers
were used for complex calculations such as forecasting
weather and quantum physics. Today, supercomputers
are one of a kind; they are fast and very advanced. The
term supercomputer is always evolving as tomorrow's
normal computers are today's supercomputer. As of May
2011, Sunway TaihuLight is ranked on the TOP500 list
as the fastest supercomputer. It consists of 40,960 CPUs
each with 256 processing cores (a quad-core has four).
Although it is energy efficient, supercomputers are still
room-sized machines.
Mainframe
Mainframes are computers in which all the
processing is done centrally, and the user terminals are
called "dumb terminals" since they only input and output
(and do not process). In modern systems, a PC or a web
app often acts as the dumb terminal.
Mainframes are computers used mainly by large
organizations for critical applications, typically bulk data
processing such as a census. Examples: banks, airlines,
insurance companies, and colleges. They support
hundreds of users simultaneously.
At SRU, the mainframe handles registration,
records, reports, and various Human Resource
functions. You are much more likely to use a mainframe
in your professional career (today) than a
supercomputer.
Today, mainframes exist as a concept more than as
hardware. (NASA unplugs last mainframe.)
Server
Servers are similar to mainframes in that they serve
many uses with the main difference that, usually, the
users (called clients) do much of their own processing.
The server processes are devoted to sharing files and
managing access rights.
A server is a central computer that contains
collections of data and programs. Also called a network
server, this system allows all connected users to share
and store electronic data and applications. Two
important types of servers are file servers and
application servers.
An application server hosts various applications or
programs that you can use without having to install them
directly on your system. At SRU, once you have installed
the Citrix client interface the Citrix server(s) provide
access to many applications used across campus. Web
apps, like Google Docs, work in essentially the same
way.
A file server manages your files. At SRU, the H:
(home drive) and I: (class works) drives show up on any
computer you log into as "network drives". These files
are not actually located on your computer's hard disk but
appear to be so.
A web server is essentially a file server located
somewhere in the Internet. You request files (or web
pages) by clicking on a (hyper)link or typing in a URL.
The file is displayed by your browser as a web page.
Much of the web has been developed using this client-
server model.
A server with clients. This diagram
could also be used for the
mainframe, if the client computers
were dumb terminals.
Cloud Computing
Although "the cloud" is not a single computer
system, it seems that this is a good place to discuss it.
First, it is worth noting that servers are also often not a
single computing system. All of our Google queries
aren't sent to a single machine on the Internet, but it acts
that way. This is somewhat like cloud services (in
fact Google offers cloud services).
In cloud computing, your PC acts as a client,
perhaps with little more hardware and software than is
needed to run an operating system and a web browser.
Cloud applications are run on some (unknown)
application server in the Internet and your data is stored
on some (unknown) file server in the Internet.
This offers the potential of significant costs savings,
especially in business settings where you otherwise
have to have many computers, each with their own
hardware and software.
Workstation
Workstations are high-end, expensive computers
that are made for complex procedures and are intended
for one user at a time. Some of the complex procedures
consist of science, math and engineering calculations
and are useful for computer design and manufacturing.
Workstations are sometimes improperly named for
marketing reasons. Real workstations are not usually
sold in retail.
Perhaps the first computer that might qualify as a
"workstation" was the IBM 1620.
In current terminology, a desktop personal computer
(or even a terminal) connected to a server, mainframe,
or network is often called a workstation. In addition, the
line separating workstations from personal computers is
blurring as PCs become more powerful and workstations
become cheaper.
Personal Computer or PC
PC is an abbreviation for a Personal Computer, it is
also known as a Microcomputer. Its physical
characteristics and low cost are appealing and useful for
its users. The capabilities of a personal computer have
changed greatly since the introduction of electronic
computers. By the early 1970s, people in academic or
research institutions had the opportunity for single-
person use of a computer system in interactive mode for
extended durations, although these systems would still
have been too expensive to be owned by a single
individual. The introduction of the microprocessor, a
single chip with all the circuitry that formerly occupied
large cabinets, led to the proliferation of personal
computers after about 1975. Early personal computers,
generally called microcomputers, were sold often in kit
form and in limited volumes and were of interest mostly
to hobbyists and technicians. By the late 1970s, mass-
market pre-assembled computers allowed a wider range
of people to use computers, focusing more on software
applications and less on development of the processor
hardware. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, home
computers were developed for household use, offering
some personal productivity, programming and games,
while somewhat larger and more expensive systems
(although still low-cost compared with mainframes)
called workstations were aimed for office and small
business use.
Today a personal computer is an all rounded device
that can be used as a productivity tool, a media server
and a gaming machine. The modular construction of the
personal computer allows components to be easily (at
least for desktop units) swapped out when broken or
upgraded.
Although occasionally "PC" is used to refer to the
family of computers descended from the original IBM-
PC, it is now typically used for any general purpose
computing platform available (according to price) for the
home market, including laptops and Apple computers.
Smartphones
Smartphones are hand-held computers. The current
generation of smartphones run an amazing array of
applications, making them quite general purpose. Their
primary inadequacy at this time is the limitations for
directly connected I/O devices, like a printer. They have
a keyboard and touch screen for input, with only a
screen for output. Bluetooth wireless networking (the
same you may use for a phone headset) handles the
problem of connecting peripherals, and the Internet,
which can be viewed as both an input and an output
device for our purposes, handles more.
The number of mature applications for smartphones
is growing rapidly (as is cloud computing). Also, "[i]n an
InformationWeek online survey of 1,139 business
technology professionals, 30% of smartphone users say
they use their devices for enterprise connectivity, and
37% either occasionally or frequently leave their laptops
at home in favor of their
smartphones."[InformationWeek] In all likelihood, the
smartphone will become the mobile platform for
business and personal use in the near future.
Other devices
We have talked about the convergence of
technologies in computing devices for years. We seem
to be at the cusp of change in 2011, with a plethora of
mobile devices, such as the Xoom and the iPad 2 (there
is even a game system that makes phone calls),
attempting to tap into the same market as smartphones,
book readers and even laptops. Without the benefit of a
crystal ball, I predict that the range of hand-held devices
in the future will mimic the range of laptops and netbooks
today. You will choose based on your primary use and
cost, while hoping the company you work for provides
you with a high-end device.
Microcontroller
Microcontrollers are mini computers that enable the
user to store data and do simple commands and tasks
with little or no user interaction with the processor. These
single circuit devices have minimal memory and program
length but can be integrated with other processors for
more complex functionality. Many such systems are
known as Embedded Systems. Examples of embedded
systems include cell phones and car safety and control
systems. Embedded systems are limited to specific
tasks, but are often part of a much more complex
system.
Hardware and Software
Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical elements of a
computer. This is also sometime called the machinery or
the equipment of the computer. Examples of hardware in
a computer are the keyboard, the monitor, the mouse
and the central processing unit. However, most of a
computer's hardware cannot be seen; in other words, it
is not an external element of the computer, but rather an
internal one, surrounded by the computer's casing
(tower). A computer's hardware is comprised of many
different parts, but perhaps the most important of these
is the motherboard. The motherboard is made up of
even more parts that power and control the computer.
In contrast to software, hardware is a physical entity.
Hardware and software are interconnected, without
software, the hardware of a computer would have no
function. However, without the creation of hardware to
perform tasks directed by software via the central
processing unit, software would be useless.
Hardware is limited to specifically designed tasks
that are, taken independently, very simple. Software
implements algorithms (problme solutions) that allow the
computer to complete much more complex tasks.
Software
Software, commonly known as programs or apps,
consists of all the instructions that tell the hardware how
to perform a task. These instructions come from a
software developer in the form that will be accepted by
the platform (operating system + CPU) that they are
based on. For example, a program that is designed for
the Windows operating system will only work for that
specific operating system. Compatibility of software will
vary as the design of the software and the operating
system differ. Software that is designed for Windows XP
may experience a compatibility issue when running
under Windows 2000 or NT.
Software is capable of performing many tasks, as
opposed to hardware which can only perform
mechanical tasks that they are designed for. Software
provides the means for accomplishing many different
tasks with the same basic hardware. Practical computer
systems divide software systems into two major classes:
 System software: Helps run the computer hardware
and computer system itself. System software
includes operating systems, device drivers,
diagnostic tools and more. System software is
almost always pre-installed on your computer.
 Application software: Allows users to accomplish
one or more tasks. It includes word processing, web
browsing and almost any other task for which you
might install software. (Some application software is
pre-installed on most computer systems.)
Software is generally created (written) in a high-level
programming language, one that is (more or less)
readable by people. These high-level instructions are
converted into "machine language" instructions,
represented in binary code, before the hardware can
"run the code". When you install software, it is generally
already in this machine language, binary, form.
Firmware
Firmware is a very specific, low-level program for the
hardware that allows it to accomplish some specific task.
Firmware programs are (relatively) permanent, i.e.,
difficult or impossible to change. From the higher-level
view of software, firmware is just part of the hardware,
although it provides some functionality beyond that of
simple hardware.
Firmware is part of devices (or device components)
such as a video card, sound card, disk drive and even
the motherboard. The AMIBIOS image to the right is
from a Baby AT Motherboard.
Basic Operations
Input
- Whatever goes into the computer.
- Input can take a variety of forms, from commands
you enter by keyboard to data from another
computer (via a network connection).
- A device that feed a data into a computer, such as a
keyboard or mouse, is called an input device.
Output
- Any information (data) that comes out of a computer.
- Output devices can be computers, display screens,
speakers, and printers.
Storage
- Computer data storage.
- Can save digital data.
- Examples: RAM, hard disks, CDs, DVDs, and
removable flash memory sticks.
- Permanent or Non-Volatile, storage devices do not
require power to remember the data stored.
- Mass storage devices, like your hard disk, are non-
volatile; a loss of power does most affect their ability
to retain data. This category also includes ROM
(Read-Only Memory)
- Temporary or Volatile Storage is more often called
“memory”. A loss of power means that any data
stored will be lost irretrievably. When you are using
an application, such as a word processor, the data
(the document you are working on) is stored in RAM
(Random Access Memory). If you lose power without
explicitly saving your work, you will likely lose data.
The data loss from your work in RAM is only "likely"
because many applications automatically save your work
to permanent storage in a "temporary" file — kind of a
work in progress — to avoid losing more than, say, ten
minutes of work. No doubt you have seen such files.
They appear and disappear automatically as you work
on your permanent files. They often have names that
start with the tilde (~) or include the string "tmp". The
files, which are stored on the (permanent) disk, are
called temporary because the application automatically
creates it when you start editing and then deletes it when
you exit the application.
Processing
- Processor is the brain of a computer.
- Also called the CPU (Central processing unit) and it
is a microchip.
- For a non-programmer, this is where all the real
action is. Programs just set the stage and direct the
play. (In this off hand analogy, the play itself, in
written form, would be most like a program.)
- The processor actually performs very simple
operations like basic arithmetic and comparing two
values (but that may be like saying a stage actor just
speaks, moves and emotes).
- Despite it's apparent simplicity, the CPU does in fact
run the show, controlling all of the peripherals while
executing the current software commands.
- CPU itself receives input (perhaps "fetching" the
next command to execute) and generates output
(perhaps the result of adding two numbers). The
CPU also has its own, very temporary, storage (the
numbers to be added need to be stored somewhere,
as does the result while it is being sent out of the
CPU).
- The CPU may also contain "level 1 cache" memory. pixel, one byte for red, another for green and the third for
This is like a very fast (and expensive) version of blue. All together that is 24 bits, so we can represent a
RAM that allows the CPU to have things it may need total of 224 or 16 million (approximately) colors.
soon close at hand.
Twitter allows messages of up to 140 characters
Data Sizes and Speeds (Bytes), while SMS (Short Message Service) or cell
phone texting allows up to 160 Bytes. Most text only
Names for different sizes of data emails can be measured in Bytes, i.e., the emails are
When choosing a new computer we come across relatively small.
terms such as "1 TB hard drive" and "4 GB RAM", and to
the uninitiated, this can be somewhat disconcerting.
Data in a computer is represented in a series of bits
(binary digits) or ones and zeroes. Since the birth of
computers, bits have been the language that control the
processes that take place inside that mysterious black
box called your computer.

Bit (Binary Digit)

A bit is simply a 1 or a 0. A true or a false. It is the
most basic unit of data in a computer. It's like the dots Bit and Byte
and dashes in Morse code for a computer. It's also
called machine language.

Any data of any kind that is stored in the computer or

transmitted by the computer is ultimately made up of
bits. A program (software) written in a high-level (human
readable) language like Java or C++ is converted to
machine language (bits) before the computer can run it.

A bit can represent anything we want, perhaps yes

and no, but it has only two possible values. So, to
represent more things, we have always grouped bits into
larger chunks. The number of bits determines some
maximum number of unique combinations of bits. A
group of 8 bits has 256 (2 8) possible unique
combinations. Each of those combinations can have its
own meaning that we agree upon.
In the Morse code analogy, suppose we decided that
every letter was a combination of five dots and dashes.
That would provide use with 32 (25) unique code values.
That is enough to represent the 26 letters of the alphabet
and 6 more, perhaps punctuation. The Chinese might
use the same 32 codes to represent something besides
our alphabet, which is okay, as long as we know what
language we are supposed to be reading. [By the
way, Morse Code doesn't actually work that way.]
Byte
A byte is a basic unit of measurement of information
storage or transmission that consists of 8 bits. It can be
used to represent letters and numbers – up to 256 of
each. For example, a Byte containing the 8
bits 01000101 represents:
 the letter E in the ASCII character set, or
 the number 69, since 26 + 22 + 20 = 69.
There are many things the same pattern of
bits could represent – as long as we all agree on the
representation or rules for understanding it – like part of
one pixel in an image. There are usually three parts to a
Pixel: One byte each for the additive primary colors:
Red, Green & Blue
Word
The size of a computer "word" is variable. It is based
upon how many bits the CPU can read at one time, and
that has changed over time. We are currently (c. 2011) in
a transition from 32-bit systems to 64-bit systems. Our
only concern with this is that a 32-bit system can directly
support (address) at most 4 GigaBytes of RAM (2 32). To
use more RAM we need to "trick" the computer or get a
64-bit system. Oddly, most current computers are also
right around 4 GB of RAM, so this knowledge is of
immediate value in purchasing a new system. You want
a 64-bit system!
KB or KiloByte
One KB is 1000 Bytes, at least if you don't wear the
title "geek" as a badge of honor and especially if your in
marketing. When measuring disk space, one KB is 1024
bytes (210). Obviously, if you were selling a disk drive
that could hold exactly 1000 bytes, it would be to your
advantage to market it is a 1KB drive.
A typical word processor document, without a lot of
images, is likely to measure in the KB range.
MB or MegaByte
 A megabyte is approximately 1000KB. Technically, it
is 1024KB (1024 x 1024). Again, the technical value is of
interest primarily to geeks.
Most digital cameras create images that are in the
MB range. An 8 MP (megapixel) camera has 8 million
sensors, each representing a pixel or picture element.
Each pixel, in turn uses some numbers of bits to
represent the various colors. A "true color" camera has
24 bits (3B) per pixel. Assuming no compression, each
image would be 24MB! (In practice, we usually do
compress the images and find them to be between two
and eight MB.)
GB or GigaByte
A gigabyte is a unit of data storage worth
approximately a billion bytes, meaning either 1000MB or
the more technical 1024MB (1024 x 1024 x 1024). More
often than not in advertising, Gigabytes are presented as
1 billion bytes and not 1,073,741,824 (It's only off by
7%.). This helps to explain why a freshly formatted
500GB hard drive shows up at a 450GB drive instead.
Not too long ago many people were discussing RAM and
even disk storage in Megabytes. These days, storage
has become so cheap that having 4-16 gigabytes of
RAM is considered the norm.
A DVD holds gigabytes of data, enough for a single
digital movie. So, keep in mind that storing movies on
your hard drive will take large chunks of space.
TB or TeraByte
A terabyte is 10244 and is defined as about one
trillion bytes, or 1024 gigabytes. Data centers such as
those operated by Google handle thousands if not
millions of terabytes of data each day. As storage
becomes cheaper and faster, terabytes are becoming a
commonly heard term.
Disk drives in in the TB range are now common.
(You can buy them at Walmart!)
PB or PetaByte
A petabyte is a unit of information or computer
storage equal to one quadrillion bytes (10245).
Google processes (c. 2008) about 24PB of data per
day.
Measurements of Data Speed
Today there are generally two ways of describing
data transfer speeds: in bits per second, or in bytes per
second. As explained above, a byte is made of 8 bits.
Network engineers still describe network speeds in bits
per second, while your Internet browser would usually
measure a file download rate in bytes per second. A
lower case "b" usually means a bit, while an upper case
"B" represents a byte. Hence, the answer to which is
better 8 Mbps or 2 MBps? Is 2 MBps (which is 16 Mbps).
Using a less common, but more clear notation: which is
better 8 Mbit/s or 2 MBps? Answer: 2 MBps, since that is
16 Mbit/s. (Marketing people use this confusion to their
advantage, if you're not sure which is intended, ask.)
Bps (Bits per second)
Known as bits per second, bps was the main way of
describing data transfer speeds several decades ago.
Bps was also known as the baud rate, therefore, a 600
baud modem was one which could transfer data at
around 600bps.
Kbps (Kilobits per second)
Kilobits per second, or 1000 bits per second.
(Network folks didn't get caught up in the 1000 vs 1024
problem.) Modern telephone modems operate at
56Kbps.
Mbps (Megabits per second)
1,000,000 (million) bits per second. Often used in
describing Internet download/upload speeds, as shown
above.
Gbps (Gigabits per second)
1,000,000,000 (billion) bits per second. This term is
most commonly heard in local area networks, where the
close proximity of machines allows for fast data transfer
rates.
Activity
1. Explain the functional meaning of the Four (4)
Basic Computer Operations. (20 pts)
a. Input
b. Process
c. Storage
d. Output
2. How do computers measure data size and speed?
(5 pts)
3. Which Type of Computer do you think helped a lot
in the IT world? (10 pts)
4. How do software and hardware components of
computers collaborate to accomplish a task? (10
pts)
5. When is a device considered having a computer
system? (5pts)