CREATING ARCHITECTURAL THEORY The Role of the Behavioral Sciences in Environmental DesignTheory is an ambiguous word. It means different things to different people. To some people a theory is a system of ideas or statements—a mental schema —that is believed to describe and explain a phenom- ‘enon or a group of phenomena. This schema may ‘be an untested act of faith or, ideally, one that has been tested using scientific methods. This type of theory will be referred co here as positive theory. This may cause some confusion. The term positive theory is used because it consists of positive state- ments, assertions about reality. This should not imply that it also coincides with the tenets of positiv- ist epistemology, which holds that no truth exists beyond the bounds of possible verification and fal- sification (Ricouer 1977). “Theory” is used in at least three other ways, It can refer to a model, a way of perceiving reality that imposes a structure on that reality. The model of ‘the concerns of environmental design presented in ‘the next chapter is of chis type; it is more correctly osophical position. Theory can also refer to a n that a certain outcome will be achieved ‘action; such predictions will be referred in this book. The other way “theory is asa prescription for action; this _In architecture, “design princi “manifestoes” are examples based on.an.ideglogical, position on what the world, good architecture, land- scapes, and urban designs should be. POSITIVE THEORY Consciously or unconsciously we designers, like everybody else, build positive theories about the world and the way it functions as part of our every- day activities. Elements of the world occur in pat- terns. Some of these patterns are invariant, some occur with a high degree of regularity, and some: occur randomly. The ability to predict how these patterns will occur is central to human existence. Actions are based on them. ‘The regularities of the world may be and described casually or systematically. Much ‘our knowledge of the world comes from the observations we make as part of our and thus itis highly biased. Scientific scientific research procedures redu (Conant 1953), Assertions about generally do not come fr scientific hypothesis tion of what the Dipindai dengan CamScanner“q way of making sense of a disturbing ae poem Ts amos effectively © bring 0 fepercoire of habits and even more Por” oar epaity or discard them altogether, replac- Trew ones as the situation demands, uccessful theori ist of si erful eories consist of simple but power! Successful rout the world and how it operates predict accurately furure opera: jal for applied fields such as the professions to have such the- that enable us (© tions. It is essend environmental design ee js tempting to think of positive theory as an ‘eccumulation of facts about the world. The history Sfacience suggests that we should be more cautious Positive theory is “intrinsically tentative and subject to revision in the face of the first deviant case that does not conform to its explanation and prediction’ (Roberts 1969). A theory cannot be proved. It stands until itis disproved. Scientists may use empirical techniques to test theories, but fields such as history, and often archi- tecture, have to rely on quasi-scientific methods. Thus positive theory in architecture cannot fulfill the requirements of the philosophy of logical posi- tivism proposed by A.J. Ayer (1936). It is neverthe- less possible, using quasi-scientific approaches, to build systematic theories that are open to discussion and challenge. The environmental design profes- sions have been slow in doing this. Designers often hnave taken the position that sound common sense is, all that is needed to practice well. The complexities Of the world suggest that this position places high ‘expectations on the mental capacities of the de- signer. Another position often taken is that theory - Practice are mutually exclusive—which, as this oe makes theory irrelevant. Theory must 3 aa issues of ee (see Rosmarin 1984), . critics of the envigonmental’ design 0 CE eg a that one of the major re a among designers at Posie theory is a fear ystematic research will lead to the public challey nge of about the nature of architernrs, pene tecture, and urban desi 5 fs landscape archi- People with a major i e ajor investment Practices are understandably loath to Pesigners know much about people In response to the need for greater knox in the practice of environmental design, have developed longer educational curricula sign students. Architectural education in the Un States may take as long as seven years of fi study. A number of design theorists, is Horst Rittel (1971), quote Kenneth Boulding (1¢ in this regard: the academic world generally goes on the Sumption that the more we know of everything better. ... The student has always known better t this, He has usually operated on the principle knowing as little as he can get away with. [tis tx perhaps, for this principle to be made res ¢: " . Any economizing in learning, therefore is highly desirable. Boulding also suggests how this might be ac Ifa single theoretical principle can be shown to: over a wide range of the empirical world, thisis omy in the learning process. This function of theory has been called “economy of thought.” The basic goal of theory is to enable people to derive a large the symbolic territorial markings of the envi ment by people, then one can generate any of building patterns that meet territorial ments. Thus theories can replace knowledge myriad descriptive statements about the world: The economization of knowledge is only @ which is to make sense of what otherwise main unmeaningful. In the design profes of the functions of positive theory is to raise sciousness behaviors in the built environmen! are important to people and that therefor have an impact on design’ decisions. plorations of territorial behavior and ronment (for instance, E. Hall 196 1972, 1979, Becker 1978, El-Sharkav brought to the designer’s attention F T, ARCHY in 'TECTURAL THEORY, AND THE BEHAVIORAL S Dipindai dengan CamScannermet and were not even considered in many i ‘tances, although territorial behavior is exhibited by ‘almost everyone. There are often such gaps be- tween our ability to carry out behaviors uncon- Sciously and our ability to design intuitively for them. Much knowledge about human territorial be- havior is now openly available to all designers (and laymen too), and so it can be considered explicitly in the designing of rooms, buildings, and public and privare open spaces. The best example of this is Oscar Newman's set of principles for the design of defensible open space based on territorial control. His explicit descriptions of these principles make them accessible to all designers. These descriptions and an understanding of his research methods make the designer aware of why they hold and what their possible limitations may be, as shown by more recent research (Brower 1980, Brower et al. 1983) The world of theory is often contrasted with the real world. This distinction must be perceived within its proper context. Often one hears the com- ment, “Design may work in theory but not in prac- tice.” Many highly practical theories do specify conditions that cannot exist in the everyday world —perfect competition or frictionless movement, for example. These theories, nevertheless, enhance our understanding of phenomena. The impact of other variables must, of course, be understood. If positive theory for the design professions is not helpful in making design decisions leading to predictable out- comes, then it is irrelevant. Abraham Kaplan (1964), who has written on theory with great clarity, notes Theory is of practice, and must stand and fall with its practicality, provided that the mode and contexts Of its applications be suitably specified. This is particularly true of applied fields such as architecture and landscape architecture. If theory does not do this, itis irrelevant. An explicit positive theoretical base is necessary for any discipline if it is to respond to the issues that face it, conduct the research necessary for its Progress, develop logical normative statements for its actions, and understand the limits of its understanding (see Churchman and Ginsberg 1984). Ic presents the basis for arguments about the direction in which a profession should go. Theory , testing through research or practice, and sen Positive theory sometimes is value-free. Many people have chall sumption—and quite rightly. A researcher de to address certain questions because they appear (0 the researcher to be useful or interesting ones oF ones that will attract funding. The choice is based — on some concept of people (Lee 1971). The presen- tation of positive theory in architecture in Part 2 of this book is, for instance, based on a model of the concerns of environmental design that, in turn, is based on a particular ideological position. In addi- tion, research often is funded by organizations with specific goals in mind. Similarly, the explanations a person develops to account for the phenomena ob- served are likely to be biased by that person's world view. This is certainly true for economics, where Marxist and capitalist explanations for the same phenomena exist side by side. The same is true for the positive theory of the design professions. “The goal of positive theory is, nevertheless, to be value-free, to avoid bias, to look for alternative explanations, and to apply the rules of scientific method to observation and explanation. This in- volves the operational definition of the variables being analyzed so that there can be no ambiguity in the interpretation of terms, followed by controlled observation and repeated observation. It is fre- quently impossible to carry out such studies on top- ics of concern to the design professions. We have (© rely on quasi-scientific procedures. Understanding the scientific process and its intellectual basis gives us a yardstick against which we can measure our ‘own research methods—their strengths and weak- nesses. Explanations should be consistent and con- firm other descriptions. If they do not confirm past studies, there is a problem either with the present explanation or with previous ones. The openness of this type of research makes it accessible for exami- nation and challenge and reduces its biases. The goal of being value-free is itself, of course, a value= laden statement! , NORMATIVE THEORY. Normative theory is an ambiguous term. To so it means, “What has been upon, the norms for a given time” {© oF sists of statements on “what ought © | Dipindai dengan CamScannerscientific. This is a,contra~ as ‘ ‘The scientific method provides anation, not for crea be derived from scientifically oe is does not make ive theory, but this d vive theory is based on an ideol- if this is not explicitly ated i i ive theory of many action-oriet coo, neering, nursing, and ar- : g, nursing, profesons Ty consis of deontc Natements cchiteoture, gene Y “having guidelines and princ reason is simple: having guide! ae ooke the process of making decisions. This Paes ipcad vo unfortunate results. ae Normative theories are built on positive one: tions of how the world ‘They are based on percep works, but they are based also on perceptions of food and bad, right and wrong, desirable and un- Secrable, what is working well and what is working badly. Sometimes the relationship between positive and normative theories is explicit, but frequently it js not. In the design professions it seldom is. In addition, the professed normative position of a de- signer often differs from its behavioral correlate— practice. This can occur for a variety of reasons. An individual may simply be misleading himself or her- self, ora compromise may be necessary to get some- thing done, or the person believes that theory and practice are independent. Indeed, according to some critics, this is a characteristic of the Modern Movement (see for instance, Rowe 1972, Gadamer 1975, 1976). They say that the claims to functional- ity and social responsibility of the Modern Move- ‘ment were mere aphorisms. CONCEPTS OF THEORY IN THE DESIGN FIELDS Ithas been suggested both in this chapter a in this chapter and in chapter I that one of the things holding back the jpiglcctual development of the design professions lack of an explicit body of positive theory. ine sacs and prescriptive disciplines. ir rmative in character even though the Meological basis for their normative positions. is is important to understand the de- jormative positions of designers ibe tien pee This will tell us. e ate , F ein society of which they phasis in design theory, particularl = Mn ly ar- itis taught in schools of design by professionals, is on the ARCHITECTURAL THEORY, AND THE BEHAVIORA fe or ahe uses co design complex or an open place. in sequence in figure 2-1a. R notes that when we are talking theory we usually mean inaking decisions about the complex arise in translating a brief into the design ing. The sets of design principles that tradi have constituted, say, architectural, theory fi been concerned primarily with the delineatio system of logic in which the components of they vironment are related to cach other rather than human experience. Where human expe taken into consideration, it is understood as the e perience people are supposed to have, not they do have. If the experience the people do’ is different from what the designer believes should have, then they are often blamed for poorly educated or for not knowing how to use d environment (Perin 1970). The position taken is that, while one of the obligations of the desig professions is to educate, a lack of knowledge onthe part of users cannot be blamed for the failure of the built environment to meet their needs. The design principles used throughout the de- sign fields are based on some positive assertions: about the nature of the built world and human ex perience. These assertions are based largely on the insights and personal experiences of the individual - professional rather than on a well formulated ad systematic body of shared knowledge based om SY) tematic research and/or the cumulative experience of practitioners. Although this means that itis ficult to learn from that experience, it must not Be” thought that these individual positive theories inaccurate simply because they are based on PB sumptions, anecdotes, personal and cultural pret dices, and self-referential information, Many them have been based on-a process that mates the scientific method in terms of the tiveness of observations. Many envi designers are extraordinarily observant many, however, are not. However observant th signer may be, the conclusions he or she about the way the world works are biased individual's contacts with the world. ‘The design professions, it has incre: recognized, must tap, make explicit, nate the observations that yield pi Environmental psychologist (1974) has noted: Dipindai dengan CamScanner‘my contention that most architects, planners have a wealth of “unrefined” data and about people in relation to physical space and its organization which has yet to be tapped in any systematic fashion. ‘As long as these unrefined data are implicit in the design principles that are taught as truisms over the drawing board, however, it is impossible to test their ‘accuracy or to specify the context in which they hhold. It is even impossible to discuss them sensibly or to disseminate them widely. The result, as Chris- tian Norberg-Schulz (1965) noted, is that “in dis- cussing architectural matters we rarely achieve anything but a quarrel about what you like and what Like.” An explicit body of positive knowledge cer- tainly would raise the level of discussion, even though arguments over what is liked and disliked will persist. THE NATURE OF POSITIVE THEORY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN Any statement on what positive theory should encompass is based on a value judgment. The posi- tion taken here is that, given the many problems we have had in designing environments in which peo- ple can fulfill their perceptions of the good life, and the number of failures we have had in predicting the performances of buildings and neighborhoods in human terms, we need to know more about the way in which the environment is experienced and Focus of Concern ‘4. A concéptual made! of normative theory for the design fields IMPACT ON THE Focus of concern AESTHETIC OR COMPOSITIONAL PRINCIPLES: USERIOBSERVER —m-O8JECTIENVIRONMENT—mMEDIUM —mIMPLICATIONS: PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERIENCE ', A conceptual model of positive theory forthe design fields izes the diversity of people and built environment to respond to this resulting focus of concern of positive fe shown in figure 2-1b. Positive theory thus encompasses our under- standing of the natural and the built environments and their roles in people's lives. It is concerned also with understanding the processes of design. These bodies of knowledge should consist of logically re- lated, complete, internally consistent, and exter- nally valid definitions and explanations. Knowledge propagates itself when united in theories (Kaplan 1964). It has been noted that positive theory, re- search, and practice should be linked in a continu ous way. This is done through the testing of hypotheses—every urban, landscape, or building design is a hypothesis or set of hypotheses—that are ‘a component part of the theory. This can be done through the systematic evaluation of the built form from the designer's, the sponsor's, and the user's viewpoints after it has been constructed and is being used. During the past decade there has been a dra- matic growth in the amount of research being done by architects and behavioral scientists on both the built environment and design praxis. It is now pos- {ER INTENTIONS —>MEDIUM—»OBJECT—meiMPACT ON AN ‘OBSERVER OR USER 4 FOR DESIGN Dipindai dengan CamScanner22. Positive Theory and Intuition. four knowledge of something or some people is weak or lacking we have to rely on our own experiences and intu. ig the gap. To the ext fences are valid this is fine. This ninetc Japanese antis’s portrayal of a wealthy American womnan 4s based on some image he had of what Americans look like. In completing his work he drew « itions. Much of the cricicis and landscape design is that ; Bom their values that is eld By designers differs from the realities (Michelson 1968) A strong and explicit | Pastor theorical bass for design would help remedy the of recent building, urban, he image of the users, their this research in order level of knowledge. A 's necessary to make A CONCEPTUAL MopEL of ARCHITECTURAL THEORY aE Y phenomena with which architects and other iE MODERN ~ MOVEMENT, aRcHirrec TURAL THEORY, AND e Theory Positive theory in the design fields, as fop applied decision-making fields, consists of two ponents, substantive theory and procedural theo’ stantive theory is concerned with the nature op Posi ers have to dealin their work. The concer fa molecular functions, and what it affords people for activities, physi cal support, and aesthetic experiences, The piggy pal concern is with the environment ata molarlergh, varying in scale from kilometers to millimeter, from cities to surface textures. This is the level 4 which the environmental design professions work the nature of the environment at both a and a molar level, its qualities and how it In contrast, the physicist and chemist are interested in the environment at a'molecular level, while the astronomer’s concern is at a scale of light years, Substantive theory can thus be divided into two principal and interrelated components, natal ene vironmental theory and person-environment theory. Nae ural environmental theory deals with the physical, chemical, and geological nature of the surroundings of people and other organisms. Its goal is to de- scribe and explain the nature of materials, the max ture of geometry, the nature of structures, and the nature of the interplay between natural forces (wind, rain, sun, for example) and the artificial en- nment. The purpose for the development of this aspect of positive theory is to provide the knowk edge base for understanding how the environment can be structured in different ways and how the Physical nature of these structures interacts with other aspects of the natural environment, The major contributors to the understanding of these Phenomena are the natural sciences—physics chemistry, and biology 3 Itis here that the focus of concern of the ind vidual design professions, rightly or wrongly, dif ferentiates them, Landscape architects have a much understanding of the processes of some a Bre of the natural world than architects hats ‘They must understand much more than architec do, for instance, about plant materials (given the way the design professions are now structured). Af chitects, for their part, have a much greater under standing of the nature of materials and the physic Structuring of the artificial world of buildings. Civ engineers place even more emphasis on the theory of structures, 3 von tttcenvronnen theory might ewer be cl ‘organism-environment theory,” for it should With the description and explanation of what farce-dimensional layout of the environ rds different organisms for their habitats. THE BEHAVIORAL seu Dipindai dengan CamScanner