Guyana Housing Profile First Draft (April 2016)

UN-Habitat
and Central Housing and Planning Authority
Guyana Housing Profile

First Draft for consultation
and Stakeholder Workshop
Lead Author: Dr Graham Tipple BA, MA, PhD, MRTPI
Local counterpart: Miss Lenise Tucker
April 11th, 2016
1
Contents
Contents......................................................................................................................................i
Chapter 1. Introduction..............................................................................................................1
Poverty...................................................................................................................................3
Gender....................................................................................................................................5
Amerindians...........................................................................................................................6
Elderly people........................................................................................................................7
Urban centres in Guyana........................................................................................................7
Georgetown........................................................................................................................8
New Amsterdam...............................................................................................................12
Linden..............................................................................................................................12
Corriverton.......................................................................................................................13
Rose Hall..........................................................................................................................13
Anna Regina.....................................................................................................................13
Other areas included in the Profile Survey..........................................................................14
Bartica..............................................................................................................................14
La Parfaite Harmonie Development.................................................................................14
Eccles to Diamond Housing Development......................................................................14
History of housing policy in Guyana...................................................................................14
The Housing Profile.............................................................................................................18
Chapter 2. Institutional Framework.........................................................................................21

Central Housing and Planning Authority (CH&PA) ..........................................................22
CH&PA’s housing function.............................................................................................24
Housing supply performance indicators for CH&PA (2010 to 2015).............................26
Sea Defence Board...............................................................................................................29
Municipalities.......................................................................................................................29
i
GUYSUCO..........................................................................................................................32
Banks....................................................................................................................................32
Housing Co-operatives.........................................................................................................32
Habitat for Humanity Guyana (HfHGY).............................................................................33
Food for the Poor.................................................................................................................35
Community Development Organisations.............................................................................36
Chapter 3. Regulatory Framework...........................................................................................37

The Constitution...................................................................................................................37
The National Development Strategy (NDS)........................................................................37
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, 2011-2015 (PRSP).......................................................38
Housing-related laws............................................................................................................38
The Housing of Labour Workers on Sugar Estates Act (1951), Chapter 99: 04.............38
The Housing Act, Chapter 36:20.....................................................................................38
The Town and Country Planning Act (TCPA), Chapter 20:01........................................39
The Housing Development Act, Chapter 36: 24..............................................................40
The Public Health Ordinance, Chapter 145.....................................................................41
The Local Government Act, Chapter, 28: 02...................................................................41
The Municipality and District Council Act, Chapter 28: 01............................................41
The Guyana Lands and Surveys Commission Act, Chapter 59: 01.................................43
National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), 1994.......................................................43
Chapter 4. Housing Supply......................................................................................................44

Introduction..........................................................................................................................44
Recent CH&PA housing interventions................................................................................44
Second Low Income Settlement Programme...................................................................44
The Revolving Funds Homes: Turnkey Approach..........................................................47
Recent private sector housing supply initiatives..................................................................50
Tenure..................................................................................................................................55
ii
Type of structure..............................................................................................................56
Rooms occupied...................................................................................................................57
Access to water................................................................................................................58
Access to sanitation..........................................................................................................59
Access to power...............................................................................................................59
Cooking facilities.............................................................................................................60
Affordability.........................................................................................................................60
Household incomes..........................................................................................................60
House price inflation............................................................................................................61
Chapter 5. Housing Need.........................................................................................................62

Household size and composition..........................................................................................62
Population projections..........................................................................................................66
Cost of housing needed........................................................................................................68
Chapter 6. Land........................................................................................................................70
Lands and Surveys Commission......................................................................................71
Land distribution..................................................................................................................71
Land holdings.......................................................................................................................74
Publicly owned land.........................................................................................................74
Freehold Private land.......................................................................................................74
Land registration..................................................................................................................77
Taxing land and property.................................................................................................80
Land regularisation and squatter upgrading.....................................................................80
Chapter 7. Finance for housing................................................................................................83

Institutional Framework.......................................................................................................83
New Building Society (NBS)...........................................................................................84
Banks................................................................................................................................85
Other financial institutions offering housing finance.......................................................85
iii
The mortgage environment..................................................................................................86
Subsidies to housing.............................................................................................................88
Home Improvement and Hinterland Housing Subsidies..................................................88
Mortgage Interest Relief (MIR).......................................................................................88
Other subsidies.................................................................................................................89
Remittances..........................................................................................................................89
Microfinance for housing.....................................................................................................89
Chapter 8. Infrastructure..........................................................................................................91
The institutional framework.................................................................................................91
Guyana Water Inc. (GWI)................................................................................................91
Guyana Power and Light Company (GPL)..........................................................................93
Guyana Telephone and Telegraph (GTT)............................................................................93
CH&PA as infrastructure provider.......................................................................................93
The regulatory framework....................................................................................................95
The Water and Sewerage Act, 2002.................................................................................95
More laws – for electricity supply? Waste disposal?......................................................95
Water supply to housing.......................................................................................................96
The sewerage system for housing........................................................................................99
Waste disposal from housing.............................................................................................100
Power supplies for housing................................................................................................102
Cooking fuel...................................................................................................................102
Roads and street lighting for housing.................................................................................102
Chapter 9. Construction and building materials.....................................................................103

Regulatory framework.......................................................................................................105
Building regulations.......................................................................................................105
Regulations for construction firms.................................................................................106
Employment in housing.....................................................................................................107
iv
Wage rates......................................................................................................................107
Technical training...........................................................................................................108
Building materials..............................................................................................................109
Materials used in the housing stock...............................................................................117
Chapter 10. Housing Market..................................................................................................120

Real estate agency and brokerage......................................................................................123
Chapter 11. Conclusions and Ways forward..........................................................................125

Conclusions........................................................................................................................125
Current ideas for inclusion in Ways Forward....................................................................130
Bibliography (incomplete).....................................................................................................136
Table of Figures
Figure 1. The Guyanese-Indian community is culturally active.............................................2
Figure 2. Urban municipalities and their respective sizes (2012)...........................................8
Figure 3. In Georgetown, drainage and irrigation canals seem everywhere...........................9
Figure 4. Georgetown’s development pattern is heavily influenced by the grid pattern of

former sugar plantation irrigation and drainage canals............................................................10
Figure 5. The Demerara Harbour Bridge..............................................................................11
Figure 6. Formal extensions to the city to the south of Georgetown’s boundary.................11
Figure 7. Georgetown’s famous wooden cathedral...............................................................12
Figure 8. One of the many ferry crossings of the Demerara River at Linden.......................13
Figure 9. Three photos of older government housing to use in the Profile when historical
stuff is known...........................................................................................................................18
Figure 10. A dwelling built with the help of with a building materials grant.....................23
Figure 11. High cost housing built on CH&PA plots, Eccles.............................................25
Figure 12. Palatial housing built on CH&PA plots in Linden.............................................27
v
Figure 13. Improved and unimproved housing following regularization and upgrading in
Cummings Lodgea...................................................................................................................27
Figure 14. Georgetown Municipal Council’s historic wooden headquarters building........30
Figure 15. Habitat for Humanity’s office sign emphasises affordability............................33
Figure 16. Procedures for Planning Permission..................................................................42
Figure 17. CH&PA core housing, Parfait Harmony (Region 3).........................................45
Figure 18. CH&PA original and extended core housing, Linden (Region 10)...................45
Figure 19. Plan for the expansion of the core house...........................................................46
Figure 20. Dwellings in the Eccles housing project for young professionals.....................48
Figure 21. Dwellings in the ‘1,000 turnkey homes project’ in Perseverance......................49
Figure 22. A dwelling in the second Low Income Settlement programme in White Water,
Region One, being visited by the President of Guyana...........................................................50
Figure 23. Buddy’s Housing at Herstelling, East Bank Demerara......................................51
Figure 24. Plans of an example of housing at Granville Park.............................................52
Figure 25. A Buddy’s estate in Georgetown.......................................................................52
Figure 26. A private gated estate being built.......................................................................53
Figure 27. Private estate developers are constructing for high-net-worth households........53
Figure 28. Households by tenure in the towns of Guyana (2002).......................................55
Figure 29. Type of structure occupied by households by town (2002)...............................56
Figure 30. Bedrooms occupied by household size (2002 Census)......................................58
Figure 31. Consumer Price Indices (1994=100) for Georgetown urban (2004-2015)........61
Figure 32. Distribution of households by number of persons in the household, 2002........63
Figure 33. Cumulative household sizes (All Guyana).........................................................63
Figure 34. Percentages and cumulative percentages of household sizes by number of

persons. ............................................................................................................................65
Figure 35. Percentage of households and persons overcrowded by number of bedrooms

occupied ............................................................................................................................65
vi
Figure 36. Number of households in 2015-2025 more or less than in 2005.......................68
Figure 37. An empty plot with a notice placed there by the owner.....................................72
Figure 38. Large areas of surveyed, allocated, but undeveloped land held largely for
speculation ............................................................................................................................72
Figure 39. Housing Ministry staff members facilitate beneficiaries to complete their paper
work at a One Stop Shop..........................................................................................................79
Figure 40. Sophia, where squatter regularisation and upgrading has generated different
levels of new investment in housing........................................................................................81
Figure 41. Squatters in a ‘zero tolerance’ area on canal banks, Georgetown......................82
Figure 42. Real estate mortgage loans from commercial banks, 2005-2015 (GYD millions)
............................................................................................................................85
Figure 43. CH&PA as infrastructure provider through a private contractor.......................94
Figure 44. Backyard septic tank provided by CH&PA at Perseverance.............................94
Figure 45. A water tabk installed in a high cost development in Linden............................97
Figure 46. Garbage dumping by squatters outside of the official garbage removal service,
Vreed en Hoop.......................................................................................................................101
Figure 47. Cooking fuel used by households in towns (2002)..........................................102
Figure 48. Index numbers for general consumer prices and construction materials.........105
Figure 49. Informal sector contractors advertise in newly laid out residential areas (Eccles)
..........................................................................................................................106
Figure 50. A builder takes advantage of a culvert to advertise his firm............................108
Figure 51. An example of a building materials supplier in Georgetown..........................109
Figure 52. One of several discount certificates given to CH&PA plot recipients.............110
Figure 53. Timber and concrete housing adjacent to each other in central Georgetown.. 111
Figure 54. Simple timber housing: Sophia squatter upgrading.........................................111
Figure 55. Timber is the material of choice for many squatters (Vreed en Hoop)............112
Figure 56. liberal use of cement, steel and sand in new housebuilding (Eccles)..............113
vii
Figure 57. A severe failure of cement-based construction materials................................113
Figure 58. Cement blocks are made in both formal and informal sector..........................114
Figure 59. Wall materials, all Guyana (1991 and 2002)...................................................119
Figure 60. Subdivided land in central Georgetown give a very intense development pattern
..........................................................................................................................120
Figure 61. Open and neglected plots still exist in Central Georgetown............................121
Figure 62. Informal estate agency advertising, Central Georgetown................................123
viii
List of Tables
Table 1. Population of Guyana (1980 to 2012)......................................................................3
Table 3. Urban populations 1996 and 2012...........................................................................8
Table 4. Planning applications processed by CH&PA (2010-2015)...................................22
Table 5. CH&PA dwellings by sizes...................................................................................24
Table 6. Land distribution by CH&PA (2010-2014)...........................................................26
Table 7. Completed dwelling and dwelling core provision by CH&PA (2010-2015)........28
Table 8. Direct subsidy provision by CH&PAand IDB LIS 2 Programme (2010-2015)....28
Table 9. Annual Subvention to Municipalities (GYD millions)..........................................31
Table 11. Tenure from HFHG sample survey (2014)........................................................55
Table 12. Rooms occupied in urban Guyana (2009)..........................................................57
Table 13. Place for cooking (2009)....................................................................................60
Table 14. Percentage of Households by Numbers of Persons in the Household, Guyana:

2002 ............................................................................................................................64
Table 15. Population projections to 2025...........................................................................66
Table 16. Population growth projections over 2002 Census population up to 2025.........66
Table 17. Household growth projections over 2002 Census population up to 2025.........67
Table 18. CH&PA plot sizes around Georgetown.............................................................73
Table 19. CH&PA plots in Linden.....................................................................................73
Table 20. Outstanding mortgages in March 2014 by sector..............................................83
Table 21. Depth of the Housing Finance System, 2000-2010...........................................84
Table 22. Housing loans available by institution (2016)...................................................84
Table 23. Interest rates for housing loans (2016)...............................................................87
Table 24. Source of finance for housebuilding..................................................................88
Table 25. Infrastructure provision by CH&PA (2011-2014).............................................95
Table 26. Source of drinking water (2009)........................................................................96
ix
Table 27. Time to obtain drinking water (round trip, 2009)..............................................97
Table 28. Person who usually collects drinking water (2009)...........................................98
Table 29. Toilet facilities (2009)......................................................................................100
Table 30. Household by Garbage Disposal Method by Town and Major Areas.............101
Table 31. Comparing housing and construction materials with the CPI (1994=100)......104
Table 32. Formal wage rates in the building industry......................................................107
Table 33. Flooring material (2009).................................................................................117
Table 34. Wall materials, all Guyana (1991 and 2002)...................................................118
Table 35. Roofing materials in all Guyana (1991 and 2002)...........................................119
x
List of Acronyms
To follow
xi
Chapter 1. Introduction
The Co-operative Republic of Guyana is quite a large country (215,000 km2) with a very
small population (only three-quarters of a million). It is the only English-speaking country in
South America. It is one of a few countries in the developing world that is losing population
year-on-year, declining from 751,000 in 2002 to 748,000 in 2012, owing to emigration
mainly to the rest of the Caribbean and North America. It is has recently celebrated 50 years
of independence from Britain.
The Guyanese economy is based largely on agriculture and extractive industries, especially
the export of six commodities; sugar, gold, bauxite, shrimp, timber, and rice which, together,
represent nearly 60% of the country's GDP. They are highly susceptible to weather and
commodity price fluctuations but Guyana has achieved moderate economic growth in recent
years. Guyana joined the Caricom Single Market and Economy (CSME) in January 2006 and
subsequently has broadened its export market, primarily in raw materials.
Guyana has one of the largest tracts of virgin rain forest remaining which gives it potential
for eco-tourism, including for those looking for outdoor pursuits in challenging and beautiful
environments and for bird-watchers keen to spot many of its hundreds of species. It has
mineral wealth (including gold, diamonds and bauxite), timber and, of course, sugar which
was the main reason for its colonization. In its colonial days, Guyana was developed around
sugar production in plantations on which labour was provided by slaves from Africa. The
African slaves who were followed, upon the cessation of the slave trade, by indentured
workers from India, Portugal and China. Its indigenous people are mainly living in the
forested areas where reserved land for them is being expanded. This mix of ethnicities has
created a culturally rich and varied population.
1
Figure 1. The Guyanese-Indian community is culturally active
The Guyanese economy has achieved positive growth almost every year recently while
inflation has been kept under control. The Guyanese Dollar has only fluctuated by 2 or 3%
from GYD200 to the US$1.00 in recent years.1 The government's stock of external debt was
largely built up during its inward-looking and state-led economy during the 1970s and 1980s.
The debt has now been reduced significantly to less than half of what it was in the early
1990s by the Highly Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) debt forgiveness which has brought the
debt-to-GDP ratio down from 183% in 2006 to 60% in 2013. This included the Inter-
American Development Bank cancelling nearly $470 million debt, equivalent to 21% of
GDP, in 2007. Despite this, the government still has a large external debt alongside an urgent
need to expand public investment.2
Chronic problems in Guyana include a shortage of skilled labour and poor infrastructure,
especially in the hinterland. Much of Guyana's growth in recent years has come from a surge
in gold production in response to global prices, although the recent downward trends in gold
prices may threaten future growth. In addition, in 2013, production of sugar dropped to a 23-
year low.3
1
CIA (2016).
2
CIA (2016).
3
CIA (2016).
2
Table 1. Population of Guyana (1980 to 2012)
Year Coastal Hinterland Total

1980 709,510 50,899 760,409
1991 669,774 53,899 723,673
2002 679,869 71,354 751,223
2012 666,261 81,623 747,884
Source: 2012 Census table 3.
Guyana has a very small population, equivalent to a medium-sized city by international
standards. This is seen to be a problem because it does not provide the critical mass for
effective development of resources or markets for local goods. Many talented and energetic
Guyanese decide to emigrate, removing their potential from the home country. Perhaps
surprisingly, although the total population is steady or declining, the hinterland areas are
increasing in population while the coastal areas are declining. Its population is still mainly in
rural areas.
Poverty
The PRSP in 20114 estimates that, in 2006, there were 19% of households below the extreme
poverty threshold of GYD8,395 per month per adult equivalent (check) while 36% of
households were below the moderate poverty threshold of GYD11,395.
4
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2011)
3
Table 2. Guyana Poverty Profile, 2006
Percentage of people Share of the group in

in the region living in the national
Region poverty population (%)
1 Barima-Waini 80.06 3.18
2 Pomerron-Supenaam 51.94 6.25
3 Essequibo Island-West Demerara 40.09 14.08
4 Demerara-Mahaica 24.56 42.43
5 Mahaica-Berbice 42.58 6.11
6 East-Berbice-Corentyne 28.45 15.76
7 Cuyuni-Mazaruni 61.42 2.48
8 Potaro-Siparuni 94.28 1.48
9 Upper Takatu-Upper Essequibo 74.38 2.96
10 Upper Demerara-Berbice 39.36 5.26
Total 100.00
Source: World Bank and Guyana Bureau of Statistics5
Regions 4 and 6 have very low percentages of poor people even though they have the highest
percentages of the national total living in poverty (Table 2.).
Poverty in Guyana is less likely for males, older people, those with more than primary
education, living in smaller households and receiving remittances. Since the development of
the National Development Strategy in 1996, it has been government policy to provide
effective relief from deprivations caused by a lack of housing and potable water. To this end
there are support services in Guyana to provide a social welfare network which includes the
idea that good housing is “part of the journey away from poverty.”6 Within this welfare
approach, vulnerable groups such as women and children, young people, senior citizens,
disabled people, and the Amerindian communities have been the focus of government
attention.
Between 2000 and 2005, economic growth slowed and, with it, the rate of poverty reduction
achieved in the nineties declined. The 2006 Household Income and Expenditure Survey
(HIES) estimated that 36% of the population were in moderate poverty while 19% continues
to live in extreme poverty on less US$1.25 per day.7 Despite the slowdown in the reduction in
5
In Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2011: 8).
6
Hon. Minister Valerie Adams-Patterson at the Stakeholder Workshop, 18th February 2016.
7
4
poverty up to 2005, Guyana is on track to meet the Millennium Development Goal of halving
poverty by 2015. No other data available at present
Gender
According to the NDS in 2009, Guyana was listed 70th in the Gender-related Development
Index (GDI); the GDI had by then improved to 0.584 since 1970 when it was 0.490 but it had
fallen 20 places down the international comparison since 1970. This shows that Guyana is not
improving gender equality as quickly as many other countries. In the formal sector where
incomes are known, men receive about 80% of the income and women generally earn only
70% of the amount earned by a man for a similar job. Many women, however, work in the
informal sector where there are no income data. In urban areas, women only own 36% of
property; the NDS reported that the Land Selection Committees discriminate against women,
especially Amerindians. Women are vulnerable with respect to retaining household assets
following family breakdowns and this drives many of them into unregulated housing.8
As in many countries, a large proportion of women's work in Guyana remains unrecognised

and unvalued. A survey which reported in 1989 showed a worryingly high distribution of
domestic violence in Guyanese households.9
Under current legislation, women have near de jure equality, including the same minimum
wage as men. In practice, however, many women are unaware of their legal rights and there
are many signs of inequality. The Guyana Association of Women’s Lawyers lobbies for
women’s rights and promotes knowledge of the law among women.
The Domestic Violence Act was passed in 1996 in order to give legal protection to persons
who have suffered abuse or are at risk of domestic abuse or harassment. Under this act
persons in abusive situations are given legal recourse through a Protection Order which is an
order issued by the court to prevent the abuser from harming the victim. If this order is
violated the abuser can be arrested without warrant if this guarantees the victim’s safety.
In Guyana, almost 30% of households are headed by females.10 This probably includes some
"visiting relationships", where long term partners do not live under one roof with the
woman’s household. There is also an undetermined number of households headed by
8
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (1996).
9
Danns and Parsad (1989).
10
5
children. It is clear that a large proportion of women's time is spent in unwaged work, e.g.,
domestic duties or unpaid agricultural labour and, even though they work as long, if not
longer and are involved in more tasks than men, they are generally insufficiently recognised
and rewarded.11 Gender stereotyping in the home, gender bias in education, and gender
segmentation in the labour market are all present in Guyana and serve to keep the majority of
women in more reduced circumstances than men. This includes a great deal of unperceived
poverty. Women carry a disproportionate burden from the weaknesses in the physical and
social infrastructure; they increase the time and energy needed to perform daily domestic
tasks12 and, therefore, reduce the time and energy women have available for paid work and
other activities. The poorest women in Guyana – Amerindian women − are also the most
difficult to access owing to their location.13
Women tend to have poor access to credit being denied access to loans, mortgages and other
credit as they often need consent from their husbands or male partners. Thus many women
turn to moneylenders to whom they must pay very high interest rates.
Amerindians
The 1948 UN Convention promises indigenous groups title to some of their ancestral lands.
The Amerindians practiced shifting cultivation through/and burn but were becoming
permanent. In major mining areas, Amerindians can apply for demarcation to limit mining
land. For an Amerindians group to have a reserve, it has to have at least 125 people.14
Most of the Amerindians in urban settings live just as the rest of the population. The ones
who are not making the transition to urban living, or temporarily in the town, are sometimes
housed within an Amerinidan Hostel.
Most Amerinidians living in the interior of Guyana live in traditional housing which is
sometimes substandard, especially through overcrowding. It was on this basis the CH&PA
implemented the Hinterland Housing Pilot Project which mainly targeted Amerindian
communities and aimed to improve housing situation within these communities.
11
12
But less often, it seems, the burden of fetching water which is mainly borne by males in Guyana (see Table
28.)
13
14
Stakeholder interview, Land and Surveys Commission.
6
Elderly people
It has been traditional in Guyana to live in a three generation household with grandparents,
parents and children all sharing. This is usually to relieve the older persons of the
responsibility for household upkeep and to assist with care. The housing provided by
CH&PA in most cases caters for a single family household and not that of an extended
family. Thus there is no dedicated space within the home for elderly persons but the space
must be shared with the other members of the household. Households who see fit, and are
able to afford it, sometimes extend their homes to cater for elderly relatives.
In addition, inadequate provision is being taken for the care of the elderly in dedicated
housing.15 Encouraging households to extend their dwelling with a room or two for the
grandparents would also help.
Urban centres in Guyana

The 2012 census estimates national urban population at 191,810 of which 118,363 are
registered in Georgetown municipality. Guyana had six urban municipalities (Table 3.) until
the promotion of three more in 2016.
Table 3. Urban populations 1996 and 2012
Estimated municipal Population in 2012

population (1996) census
Georgetown 177,900 118,363
Linden 33,500 27,277
New Amsterdam 21,700 17,329
Corriverton 15,700 11,386
Rose Hall 8,000 5,662
Anna Regina 2,600 11,793
Table 3. is beset by the difficulty of estimating urban population growth or decline when
boundaries are not clear and of extrapolating urban from regional populations when regional
boundaries are meaningless when urban areas spread across them.
15
Intervention by Mohan Ramrattan, Ministry of Social Protection, in the Stakeholders Workshop, Feb 2016.
7
Population in 2012 census
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
Georgetown Linden New Corriverton Rose Hall Anna Regina
Amsterdam
Figure 2. Urban municipalities and their respective sizes (2012)

Georgetown
Georgetown Municipality is hugely dominant in Guyana’s urban sector with over two-thirds
of urban population within its boundaries.
According to HYDEA, Georgetown is located between 0.35 and 1.35 m above mean sea level
and between 0.31 and 1.31 m below average high tide level.16 The city is protected from high
tides and spring tides by the seawall and an intensive system of canals is very important for
draining rainwater while its sluices keep tidal water from advancing into the city. The City
centre was constructed by the Dutch during the colonial period behind a series of massive
concrete sea walls which have been damaged over time by coastal erosion. Its current
development is heavily influenced by the grid pattern of former sugar plantation irrigation
and drainage canals (Figure 4.). To a visitor, water appears to be everywhere.
16
HYDEA (2010).
8
Figure 3. In Georgetown, drainage and irrigation canals seem everywhere
Although Guyana is not subject to the same type of natural disasters as the Caribbean region
because of its location on the South American mainland, it has experienced serious floods
which were caused by excessive rainfall in coastal and hinterland regions; the most notorious
being in 2005 and the most recent in July 2015. Perhaps as a reflection of this, many
dwellings are built on stilts or have the main rooms at first-floor level. The predicted rise in
sea level as a consequence of climate change is likely to cause increased flooding risk owing
to heavy rains and high tide levels. While the current site of Georgetown appears to be
unsustainable for habitation in the long run, the idea of moving it inland is unpalatable for
elected governments.
9
Figure 4. Georgetown’s development pattern is heavily influenced by the grid
pattern of former sugar plantation irrigation and drainage canals
When Georgetown municipality was originally constituted, the municipal council had an area
of 2.5 square miles but this was increased to 15 square miles in the 1970s without any
expansion of resources. It is a semiautonomous body which can develop on its own land
without asking for higher authority. Despite this, it has very little influence on housing supply
in its area, most of which is provided by the private sector, apart from being the approval
authority for planning permission to build residential developments. There is no CH&PA
intervention in Georgetown. Some city sites are restricted by zoning to two or three
household but, if more are needed, CH&PA can be asked for land use clearance. CH&PA
responds with ‘objection’ or ‘no objection’ and then the council decides. It is commonly held
that Georgetown is full, there is no more land to develop within the municipal boundary.17
There is no concept of Georgetown spreading across the Demerara River or south to include
such areas as Eccles (Figure 6.), with a joint identity of “Greater Georgetown”.
Developments on the west bank of the Demerara River, in Region 3, across the Demerara
Harbour Bridge (Figure 5.) are unrelated to others in the city of Georgetown in Region 4. The
development on the West Bank of the Demerara River houses many commuters to
Georgetown, however many households who took up plots on the West Bank are leaving
their plots undeveloped or their buildings partly complete.18
17
Stakeholder interview at Georgetown municipal council.
18
Stakeholder interview, University of Georgetown. The East entrance to the Demerara Harbour Bridge at 5pm
attracts heavy traffic which can be tailed back many hundred yards.
10
Figure 5. The Demerara Harbour Bridge
Figure 6. Formal extensions to the city to the south of Georgetown’s boundary

Note: Perseverance is referred to quite intensively in the text.
11
Figure 7. Georgetown’s famous wooden cathedral
New Amsterdam
This is one of three towns located in Region 6, East Berbice Corentyne, It is one of the oldest
towns in Guyana; its name reveals its Dutch origins. This town is located on the eastern bank
of the Berbice River near the estuary. At one time, it was the administrative centre for
Region 6. But many of its services have been decentralized with the development of the
Corriverton and Rose Hall town centres, but New Amsterdam houses the regional offices.
Linden
The town of Linden owes its origins to the bauxite mine which attracted migrant labour and
grew into a company town. For many years the mine company was responsible for housing
and infrastructure, and still retains this in part of the town. The local council (currently the
Linden Interim Management Committee) now has jurisdiction over much of the town. There
are approximately 10,000 dwellings in the town, most of them built in concrete partly as a
consequence of the locally abundant sand deposits which form the surface soil, sometimes up
to three metres deep. Housing there needs pile foundations to cope with the sand underneath
it, sometimes with extra steel extending horizontally from the piles. A considerable
proportion of the land around the town is spoiled by surface mining activity without any
restoration after activity there ceases.
12
Figure 8. One of the many ferry crossings of the Demerara River at Linden
Corriverton
Located on the west bank of the Corentyne River, Corriverton is the closest urban settlement
to the Molsen Creek ferry crossing between Guyana and Suriname. The town has many
administrative purposes especially from its position on the border. Corriverton has recently
benefited from the construction a new sugar cane processing plant which has provided
employment for local tradesmen and farmers.
Rose Hall
Rose Hall is a small town located centrally in Region 6. It was declared a municipality
because of its proximity to a major sugar plantation and the key role that it plays in the
administration of the agricultural industry in Region 6. The population and area of the town
are small in comparison to the other municipalities.
Anna Regina
This is the administrative centre of Region 2 with the decentralized social and commercial
services. The predominant economic activity in its area is farming with large scale
commercial farming of rice and also farming of cash crops and provisions on a smaller scale.
Much of the produce cultivated is sold at local markets and at Parika on the eastern bank of
the Essequibo River.
13
Other areas included in the Profile Survey
Bartica
Bartica is an interior town located in Region 7 (Cuyuni Mazaruni) on the eastern bank of the
Essequibo river at the confluence of the Cuyuni and Mazaruni rivers with the Essequibo. This
is a newly developed municipality with its council being formed as a result of the 2016 local
government elections. This town is a very busy interior hub, which connects the coastland via
road and river with many of the interior mining locations. The town is influenced largely by
the extractive and logging sectors.
La Parfaite Harmonie Development
This is a housing area developed in Region 3 on the west bank of the Demerara River
opposite Georgetown. It houses six major housing neighbourhoods and was established in the
early 2000s. The area caters mostly for low income households many of whom benefited
under the Low Income Settlement Programme. There are spaces planned for commercial and
recreational us,e most of which is still to be developed.
Eccles to Diamond Housing Development
This is one of the major housing developments within Region 4, much of which is still under
development, It was established in the late 1990s and is still in the process of development.
There have been over 10,000 plots allocated in this area. It spans a large section of the east
bank from the land surrounding the Diamond sugar estate at Eccles, just south of the
boundary of Georgetown. In addition to the residential uses, the more developed areas have
schools, recreational and commercial facilities.
History of housing policy in Guyana

Housing has been a major public policy issue in Guyana since 1939 when the Moyne
Commission19 examined the living conditions of workers on the sugar estates and expressed
concerns about the unhealthy situation there. The Commission resulted in the establishment
in 1947 of the Sugar Industry Labour Welfare Fund (SILWF) from which money was
allocated generally for the building of housing schemes for sugar workers. In the 1960s,
many families sought refuge from civil disturbances in the sugar and bauxite belt by squatting
19
The Report of West India Royal Commission, also known as The Moyne Report, published fully in 1945.
This sort of report and its findings are similar to others in British Colonies at the time.
14
along reserves on the coastal belt. The squatting increased during the 1980s and 1990s as the
urban areas grew rapidly and available land for housing became scarce and expensive.20
In 2012, a Draft Housing Policy and Implementation Plan was formulated by a consultant for
CH&PA but it has not been passed into law. Its draft provides, however, some useful data
from government sources, and insights into where thinking on housing was at the time.
Recent developments in the housing sector have pointed to some interesting and new
approaches to, and a greater involvement of, the private sector in housing supply through new
schemes, divestments of government land, and subdividing land for development. Despite
these, housing continues to be a major issue as the system has a range of legal, technical and
administrative problems. Housing supply is constrained by bottlenecks in the system so that it
does not keep up with demand. Challenges in the housing sector the Draft National Housing
Policy identified included:
 Formal housing is not affordable to many households and there is no system for
improving household affordability.
 There is little institutional capacity nor are there established procedures for improving
and redeveloping unplanned settlements.
 There is an acute shortage of buildable land especially in Georgetown.
 The land management structure is not effective in converting land to residential use or
making land parcels easily available to developers.
 The private sector is constrained by incomplete legal and regulatory systems.
 Mortgage lending is inefficient and not targeted at low-income households.
 Infrastructure is failing to keep up with development and service levels are low owing
to inadequate maintenance.
 Under-investment in housing maintenance is reducing housing supply and the capital
value of the existing stock.
 The construction sector is undercapitalised but dominated by poorly performing
public companies. Not surprisingly, therefore, few investor/developers are likely to
build for lower and middle income groups and in sparsely populated areas.21
There is little for Guyanese households to invest in other than land and housing. In the 1980s
and 1990s, inflation and little depth in investment made housing the preferred asset for
accumulation of wealth. This led to speculation in the housing market, and firmly established
20
CHPA (2012).
21
CHPA (2012).
15
housing assets as a preferred investment alongside foreign exchange. More recently, rapid
economic growth and increases in incomes have driven up housing prices. According to the
Draft Housing Policy, house prices increased 3.5 fold between 2000 and 2010. The average
price of a dwelling in Georgetown doubled while those in peripheral areas, particularly
Eccles, more than tripled in price between 2005 and 2010.22 Construction costs for housing
rose by about 15% between 2000 and 2010. While privately owned land sold for between
GYD1 million and GYD15 million (US$5,000 to US$75,000), depending on location and
size, government-sold plots ranged from GYD100,000 to GYD1.2 million (US$500 to
US$6,000), a huge discount of about 90%, and prices remained fairly stable.23
The new government is in favour of
“… the holistic development of communities as opposed to random allocation of house

lots. We have argued that housing development must be part of a planned development
and settlements; we have made a commitment to reduce and eventually eradicate
unplanned housing development particularly along the coast land. … we are not just
going to give you a house lot but we will give you a plot of land with roads, drainage,
electricity and water.” 24
Twenty years ago, when the National Development Strategy (1996) was published, the
principal specific objectives in the area of housing were:
1. To expand the supply of housing more rapidly.
2. To make housing as affordable as possible.
3. To provide improved access to housing for poor families.
The current activities of the main actors in the housing process show that these are still
priorities. At the same time, the operational objectives that the NDS listed as preconditions
for meeting the above objectives included:
 To provide greater access to affordable funding for housing development.
 To provide greater access to serviced lands.
 To eliminate institutional delays in approval of building plans and allocation of land.
22
CHPA (2012: 7).
23
CHPA (2012: 7)
24
Opening Address at the Stakeholder Workshop by the Hon Minister Valerie Adams-Patterson, February 18,
2016.
16
 To establish appropriate conditions that would permit the private sector to play a
greater role in allocating and developing land for housing
 To develop special programmes of financial support for lower-income families that

assist them to make rental and mortgage payments.
 To regularise informal housing development.
 To reform regulations governing rentals with the aim of increasing the availability of
rental housing.
 To develop mechanisms for greater involvement of NGOs in housing programmes for

the poor.25
These still hold true and one of the purposes of this Profile is to examine how well they are
fulfilled.
25
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (1996). Chapter 23.
17
Figure 9. Three photos of older government housing to use in the Profile when
historical stuff is known
The Housing Profile
The Guyana Housing Sector Profile is compiled within the framework of the Global Housing
Strategy (GHS) which has started in 2016. The GHS “
18
“is a collaborative global movement towards adequate housing26 for all and improving
access to housing in general and the living conditions of slum dwellers in particular. …
To achieve the goal of adequate housing for all, the backbone of the Strategy will rely
on the principle of inclusive cities … achieved by mainstreaming human rights in urban
development, including housing and slum upgrading, to ensure social integration and
aiming for the elimination of the urban divide.”27
Several critical outcome are expected of the GHS including:
 “a paradigm shift in thinking and practice in housing policy; …
 a redefined role for Governments beyond enablement to reassuming a leadership role

in encouraging pro-poor performance of the markets, facilitating and supporting the
demand capabilities of the economically weakest sectors of the society;
 the promotion of systemic reforms to enable wider access to adequate housing with a
variety of housing solutions matching effective demands;
 strengthened linkages between housing and other parts of the economy and
consequent economic development, employment generation and poverty reduction;
 decentralization of housing production and empowerment of different actors and

modalities of housing development;
 increased use of sustainable building and neighbourhood designs and technologies

towards more cost-effective, flexible and energy-efficient solutions.
 Most importantly, the Strategy will have a significant and measurable impact in terms
of improving housing and the living conditions of a large proportion of the population
aiming at poverty reduction.”28
26
“Adequate shelter” was defined in the Habitat Agenda document as follows: “Adequate shelter means more
than a roof over one’s head. It also means adequate privacy; adequate space; physical accessibility; adequate
security; security of tenure; structural stability and durability; adequate lighting, heating and ventilation;
adequate basic infrastructure, such as water-supply, sanitation and waste-management facilities; suitable
environmental quality and health-related factors; and adequate and accessible location with regard to work and
basic facilities: all of which should be available at an affordable cost. Adequacy should be determined together
with the people concerned, bearing in mind the prospect for gradual development. Adequacy often varies from
country to country, since it depends on specific cultural, social, environmental and economic factors. Gender-
specific and age-specific factors, such as the exposure of children and women to toxic substances, should be
considered in this context.” This definition applies equally to “affordable housing”. (GHS, UN-Habitat, 2013
p.14).
27
UN-Habitat, 2013, “Activities of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme, including coordination
matters: addendum Global Housing Strategy framework document” presented to the twenty-fourth session of
the UN-Habitat Governing Council, Nairobi, UN-Habitat.: paras 1&2
28
UN-Habitat, 2003, : para 4 divided into bullet points here for clarity.
19
In this context, the Profile takes a holistic view of housing within the economic, social and
cultural life of Guyana and focuses more on adequate housing for the lower-income echelons
of Guyanese society than policies and programmes may have done in the past.
The GHS operates within a collaborative context; to this end the Profile is not so much a
report from a consultant but the result of collaboration with the Central Housing and Planning
Authority and stakeholder consultations both face-to-face and in workshop contexts.
GHS asserts that:
“A pro-poor housing policy is … a very important element of a national development

strategy. When adequately developed, it can be a major source of local employment and
can act as development multiplier, benefiting different related complementary
industries.”29
Thus, within the Profile, housing is not treated as a welfare good but as one with great
potential to promote economic development through its production, maintenance and
occupation. It is taken for granted in the Profile that housing supply is for all income groups
and that interventions in the supply should be pro-poor and, therefore, improve the efficiency
of informal housing suppliers.
29
UN_Habitat 2014 para 8
20
Chapter 2. Institutional Framework
The main government actor in housing policy and the housing process is the Central Housing
and Planning Authority (CH&PA). Other regulatory bodies in the housing sector include the
Sea Defence Board, the Lands and Survey Commission (L&SC), the Central Board of Health
(CBH), Municipalities, Regional Democratic Councils (RDCs), Neighbourhood Democratic
Councils (NDCs), Guyana Sugar Corporation (GUYSUCO), Guyana Water Incorporated, and
Guyana Power and Light (GPL).
There tends to be a “silo mentality” within the central government administration. Agencies
seem unwilling to extend their remit or interest beyond those prescribed by their founding
legislative instruments. They tend to be under-staffed, ill-equipped and technologically
challenged, causing poor service outcomes and unacceptably long delays. Staff involved in
housing policy and implementation are not qualified in housing. Most of the staff involved in
planning matters do not have degrees in planning. The general level of exposure to theory and
practice in the outside world beyond close connections within the Caribbean region is very
low.
Institutions in Guyana tend to be jealous of their spheres of influence and the links that exist
between their operations and those of others within the housing sector are unclear to the staff
who should operate. Thus it is not uncommon for land to be allocated and dwellings to be
built without the required servicing, delaying occupation. Thus, there appears to be a great
need for upgrading staff and institutional frameworks involved in housing.
The silo mentality makes it difficult for effective inter-sectoral communication, co-ordination
and transmission of information, none of which lead to holistic and sustainable approaches to
housing supply. Moreover, the current institutional arrangements confuse the lines of
authority, duplicate responsibilities, and cause conflicting actions.
The GHS calls for:
“intersectoral coordination of national government institutions, vertical coordination

between various levels of government, coordination with the private sector, civil
society organizations, research organizations and academia. Slum upgrading and
prevention need to be mainstreamed within the national urban policy. The housing
strategy is one pillar of the national urban strategy.”30
30
UN-Habitat 2013 para 20.
21
Central Housing and Planning Authority (CH&PA) 31
This is the authority which has responsibility for housing and town planning in Guyana. Its
planning function is divided into three: Development Control; Forward Planning; and
Advisory Functions. Development control is carried out under the Town and Country
Planning Act, which is based on 1939 UK law. The 65 local authorities and six municipalities
must pass applications for planning permission to CH&PA with local recommendations on
the decision to be taken centrally. The CH&PA acts directly and through functional linkages
with the Central Board of Health, Regional Democratic Councils and local authorities. It is
also charged with working closely with the statutory authorities which supply electricity
(Guyana Power & Light Inc. GPL) water, sewerage services (GWI) and telephone and
internet connections (Guyana Telephone and Telegraph Co. GTT).32 Strangely, considering
the name of the authority, the only exception to this central decision-making is for residential
development which can be decided upon locally. Local offices of CH&PA are located in
Anna Regina (Region 2), Vreed-en-Hoop (Region 3), Fort Wellington (Region 5), New
Amsterdam (Region 6), Lethem (Region 9) and Linden (Region 10). The branch offices have
little autonomy, even allocations of land locally are only recommended for the final decision
to be made in Georgetown. CH&PA has processed 5,377 planning applications between 2010
and 2015 (Table 4.).33
Table 4. Planning applications processed by CH&PA (2010-2015)
Total
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
2010-2015
Planning applications
793 799 957 1,126 1,198 504 5,377
processed
Source: CH&PA records.
The forward planning section helps municipalities and urban local authorities in their forward
planning. CH&PA is responsible for zoning of land uses. The advisory functions include GIS,
surveying, and research. The survey unit services government developments, adding them to
the general cadastre. There are about 20 members of staff in the Planning Department.
The Community Development Department of CH&PA carries out two functions, squatter
regulation and community development. Currently, CH&PA has two contrasting policies
31
This section draws upon interviews with CH&PA staff without further citation,
32
33
CH&PA records.
22
towards squatters; regularisation and zero tolerance. Squatter regularisation began in the
1960s when squatter settlements occurred on abandoned sugar plantations. It works with
local authority and community-based organisations, such as interest groups, community
development groups or associations, to assess the suitability of the squatter settlements for
regularization. Initiatives come from Community Development Groups’ (CDGs) requests or
from top-down suggestions by the CH&PA. There has been a mapping of squatter settlements
in Georgetown but some have been missed. These are the ones which must come at their own
volition for CH&PA assistance. They may, for example, need certification in order to access
water supply. When approached for regulation, CH&PA carries out ownership searches and
liaises with the planners to regularise settlements through the awarding freehold tenure on a
surveyed plot and servicing. There are some building materials grants available within the
squatter upgrading programmes.(Figure 10.) Settlements on land which has no sustainable
future in residential use is treated as a zero-tolerance area (see chapter 6).
Figure 10. A dwelling built with the help of with a building materials grant
The Community Development Department also helps organise community leadership. CDG’s
are set up under the Friendly Society Act of 1998 (Cap 36:04) and represent communities but
they have no decision-making authority. The Community Development Department trains
community leaders in such skills as proposal writing and implementation. Although the
Planning Department builds in community development sites in the CH&PA housing
schemes, this Department focuses on the softer side of social development, encouraging
communities to carry out at least one community demonstration project themselves. Within
23
implementation, there is a predominant use of local labour; up to 80% of construction in
which they are involved is labour-intensive.
There is a great need for capacity building both at CH&PA and in local authorities. Most
CH&PA professional staff members are graduates but not in planning. There is also a need
for stronger local authorities and then some of the functions can be decentralised. The new
government is considering decentralisation.
CH&PA’s housing function
CH&PA is the governments’ main housing supply agency. The major way CH&PA affects
housing in Guyana is through allocation of government and state land for residential use. The
strategic decisions for housing supply are made at Cabinet level and CH&PA then translates
them into housing estates. It has very little intervention in Georgetown where most of the
housing is privately supplied. It is mainly active outside Georgetown. Initially, the housing
supply had a low-income focus with 80% of supply meant for low income households and
only 20% to middle income. Over the years, however, the focus had shifted to about 50 : 50
in the period between 2006 and 2009, but with cross subsidization to help poorer households
afford dwellings. Table 5. shows CH&PA’s performance with respect to dwellings it
constructs and sells on at a discount.
Table 5. CH&PA dwellings by sizes
Approximate size Approximate size

in square feet in square metres
Core house 312 29
‘Single Flat’ house 600 56
(bungalow)
1,118 104
Duplex house (one of - -
two dwellings)
Source: CH&PA application form
The allocation of serviced house lots is the largest housing function that CH&PA has. It
measures the demand for land by the length of the waiting list. Up to now, the number of
allocations appears to be about half of what the waiting list requires. It must be noted,
however, that waiting lists are very blunt instruments for showing the scale of demand or
need. Many in need will not be on the list; many already housed will be on the list ‘just in
24
case they get lucky’. Some plots will be allotted to very well-off households rather than those
in need of subsidised land (Figure 11.). Plots are allocated to people over 21 but the new
minister, Hon. Valerie Adams-Patterson, is exploring the possibility of reducing the
qualifying age to 18 as many people that age now have families to support.34
Figure 11. High cost housing built on CH&PA plots, Eccles
The allocation procedure is as follows. A person comes in to a CH&PA office and purchases
an application form which enables them to apply for a residential plot. Upon completion of
the form and the acquisition of the required documents (such proof of income and some form
of identification, the applicant then comes into the CH&PA Office for an interview in which
their application is submitted and they are asked some key question that would assist with the
allocation process. When plots become available, the applicant is then contacted via
telephone or letter and offered a plot of land within a specific housing area. The applicant
then has the option whether to accept or reject this offer. CH&PA works from the waiting list
on first-come-first-served basis for offers Income only qualifies them for a particular plot
type not for being a recipient of a plot. Neighbouring plot holders may have paid very
different amounts. In Linden, households of different payment levels are mixed up whereas in
Eccles they are in separate areas with the higher payers nearer the roads and estate entrance
as price is very closely linked to access to the main estate road or to a more major road. The
plots are surveyed and marked out; the main road in the estate is gravelled.
34
Address by the Hon. Minister at the Stakeholder Workshop, 18 February 2016.
25
When there are plots to be allocated, the local CH&PA office sets up a one stop shop, but
there is no similar facility for private plots. CH&PA in Linden has allocated 7,000 plots since
the 1990s but many are vacant. The last allocation there was in 2011 for Amelia’s Ward
Phase Three. There is no follow-up after occupancy and the office does not sanction people
who do not build.35
Housing supply performance indicators for CH&PA (2010 to 2015)
Table 6. Land distribution by CH&PA (2010-2014)
Total
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2010-
2014
Distribution of plots 4,707 6,922 4,132 4,417 2,304 22,482
Processing and
2974 2,889 2,577 3,643 4,079 16,162
distribution of titles
Squatter plots
1,387 1,387 1,765 613 0 5,152
regularised
One stop shops held 15 17 9 8 0 49
Over the period 2010-2014, the authority has distributed 22,482 residential plots and
processed at least 16,162 plots (Table 6.). This is far and away its greatest contribution to
housing supply. However, as we shall see in chapter 6, many of the allocated plots have not
been developed, which substantially reduces the efficiency of CH&PA’s land distribution
activity. In addition, many of the plots subsidised by CH&PA have been developed into
palatial homes demonstrating that that substantial amounts of subsidised land is sold to rich
households. Although there is a large amount of residential land which is vacant and awaiting
development, all stakeholders agree that there is no land left in Georgetown Municipality for
major residential developments.
35
Stakeholder interview at Linden office of CH&PA.
26
Figure 12. Palatial housing built on CH&PA plots in Linden
During the same period almost 6,000 squatters have had their plots regularized (Table 6.).
This is a major achievement made more so by the extent of dwelling improvements that have
followed. As one of the major reasons for regularising squatter settlements is to increase the
leverage of household funds to housing investment, the regularisation of squatters in Guyana
seems to be very effective for those involved.
Figure 13. Improved and unimproved housing following regularization and

upgrading in Cummings Lodgea
27
Table 7. Completed dwelling and dwelling core provision by CH&PA (2010-2015)
Total
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2010-
2015
Turnkey dwellings
70 90 40 50 250
constructed
Turnkey dwellings sold 57 38 115 210
Core houses constructed 33 68 127 172 400

Note: shaded areas show that a programme had either not started or was finished.
It is evident from Table 7. that CH&PA has been very active in providing dwellings both in
the turnkey project and the core housing. Even so, only 650 dwellings have been constructed
over a five-year period, about one for every thousand people in the country (or only one for
every 5,000 people per year). This demonstrates why a government agency is unlikely to be
the major provider of housing for low-income Guyanese households.
Table 8. Direct subsidy provision by CH&PAand IDB LIS 2 Programme (2010-2015)
Total
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2010-
2015
Home improvement
10 112 153 125 400
subsidies disbursed
Hinterland housing
77 130 51 5 263
subsidies disbursed
Note: shaded areas show that a programme had either not started or was finished.
The home improvement and hinterland housing subsidies have been a relatively small part of
CH&PAs activities between 2010 and 2015, only amounting to 663 subsidies in total. If they
have been well targeted to the poorest households, they will have had an impact way above
what their numbers suggest. The targeting of subsidy is always a problem as it is in the
interest of the applicant to falsely report their income. One of the key functions of the
housing profile is to examine how much and to whom housing-related subsidies are given.
28
Sea Defence Board
Because much of the development occurs below, at or close to sea level, the Sea Defence
Board is quite an important regulatory authority for some residential development in Guyana.
It must be consulted on applications which involve the development of land located along
watercourses or within the foreshore, near the sea, rivers or outer dams. As many squatters in
Georgetown have settled on the sides of drainage canals, their presence may interest the Sea
Defence Board.36
Municipalities
The municipalities work under two pieces of legislation from 1969: the Municipal and
District Councils Act, Chapter 28:01 and the Local Government Act, Chapter 28:02. These
laws grant very wide powers and responsibilities which include water supply, sanitation,
street paving and lighting, drainage, solid waste management, environmental matters,
recreation, markets and abattoirs. They can also take grants, accept loans, and issue bonds, all
with the approval of the former Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development
(MLGRD) which is now the Ministry of Communities (MoC).. By contrast, however, they
are subject to an archaic set of bye-laws which need to be amended. They are also under the
direct supervision of the MoC and must follow Central Government policies. Often,
therefore, there is an overlap of functions and authority, and many consequent difficulties. 37
Municipal and Town Council are responsible for approvals for residential buildings but other
uses are determined by CH&PA. In Georgetown, some areas are restricted to two or three
households per plot but if more are needed CH&PA is asked for land use clearance. CH&PA
responds with ‘objection’ or ‘no objection’ and then the council decides.
The subdivision of city centre plots in Georgetown has been done according to the bylaws
and council approval. The bylaws are contained in the Public Health Ordnance and in the
Municipal and District Councils Act, Chapter 28:01, for Georgetown, and New Amsterdam.
Other towns’ regulations are in the Local Government Act, Chapter 28:02.
Local councils have no water supply or sewerage functions; GWI is the sole provider.
Sewerage in Georgetown, was the responsibility of the municipal council but it is now under
GWI. The municipal council is responsible for drainage which presents many challenges
36
CHPA (2008: 39).
37
29
mainly owing to funding. Garbage collection and disposal services are also provided by the
municipalities and local councils..
The Municipal councils tend to have poor institutional capacity through being under-staffed
and having poor quality staff. In addition they tend to be severely under-funded. The financial
resources needed to undertake their tasks should be supplied through the collection of rates
and taxes, rents, and many fees, plus subventions from the Central Government. However,
the rates, taxes and fees have not been kept up to date and so the local revenue bases are poor.
While Georgetown municipality made an attempt to revalue properties in the early 1990s, the
other municipalities use valuations dating from the late 1960s and early 1970s. Moreover,
many properties have never even been recorded so no taxes are paid by their owners.
Figure 14. Georgetown Municipal Council’s historic wooden headquarters

building
.
In 1997, the NDS reported that transfers from government in the form of annual subventions
for local authorities heavily favoured Georgetown. At that time, the per capita subvention for
Georgetown was three times greater than Linden, ten times greater than Rose Hall, and a
massive 30 times greater than Anna Regina. In 2016, subvention for Georgetown is
GYD24 million (USD116,000), less than one US dollar per head of the population and only
US$3.30 (GYD681) per household.38. The magnificent wooden building occupied by
38
Stakeholder interview, Georgetown Municipal Council asnd 2012 census figures for population and
households.
30
Georgetown City Council needs major renovations but budgets do not allow it (Figure 14.).
Subventions for the other municipalities are more generous per household with up to
GYD54,000 (US$262) per household in the new municipality of Lethem on the Brazilian
border.
Table 9. Annual Subvention to Municipalities (GYD millions)

Name Region 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Georgetown 4 20 20 22 24 24
New Amsterdam 6 10 10 10.7 16 16
Linden 10 10 10 11.9 16 16
Anna Regina 2 9 9 11.5 15 15
Corriverton 6 8 8 11.5 14 15
Rose Hall 6 8 8 9.5 14 15
Lethem 9 - - - - 15
Mabaruma 1 - - - - 15
Bartica 7 - - - - 15
Totals 65 65 77 99 146
Source: CH&PA research
Note, Lethem, Mabaruma and Bartica were designated Municipalities in 2016
It is obvious from Error: Reference source not found that municipalities draw little resource
per person from central government and the resource is very unevenly distributed. Unlike in
1997, Georgetown now receives less per head than the other municipalities. There were also
issues of doubt about the subventions until they were actually made which, of course,
seriously inhibited planning and meaningful budgeting. The NDS hints that the political
complexion of the municipality also affected its subvention.39
The NDS makes reference to the poor conditions in the small towns, including the lack of
planned and serviced neighbourhoods and non-conforming uses. It says that they have been
“permitted to grow up, like Topsy”. 40
GUYSUCO
39
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (1996: 21.I.14).
40
It is perhaps surprising that the NDS of Guyana should use this expression which originates in a novel about
slavery called “Uncle Tom's cabin", by Harriet Beecher Stowe, published in the USA in 1852. It refers to Topsy,
a “wild and uncivilized slave girl” who doubted the existence of her parents but thought she had just “grow’d”.
31
Banks
Non-government stakeholders include the Commercial Banks. Republic Bank is the largest…
Housing Co-operatives
There is a long history of housing cooperatives in Guyana. They started during the
emancipation of slaves as, during the last years of servitude, slaves were paid small amounts
and they pooled these to buy land. This happened in villages such as Victoria, Buxton,
Lichfield, Golden Grove, St John and Providence in West Berbice, and Beterverwagting. In
addition, cooperatives set up for farming began to invest in housing for their workers. These
included cooperatives at Skeldon, Albion Port Mourant, Rose Hall, Diamond, Wales,
Leonora, and Uitylugt. The activities of co-ops have expanded over time beyond land
ownership to provide many services to their members, these include preferential loans to
members of the armed forces, public servants, sugar workers, small business owners, and
ordinary households who would otherwise be unable to qualify for bank loans. These loans
vary between GYD25,000 and GYD300,000.41
During the term of the last government, reports in the media suggested that central
government tried to destabilise cooperatives through, among others, taking over their land
either directly or indirectly, by withholding services until their land was surrendered,
reportedly to develop high cost housing for politicians and supporters, 42and by allowing the
Kuru-Kuru Co-operative college to fall into disuse rather than training co-operative leaders.43
In the early days of Linden, co-operative building societies were set up and houses were built
with the prospective owners giving labouring time (sweat equity), for a certain number of
hours per dwelling. They were built with local clay bricks which were available then.
There seems to be little current housing activity by co-ops
41
Onevoicecan (not dated - 2012?)
42
Onevoicecan (not dated - 2012?).
43
Conway (2012).
32
Habitat for Humanity Guyana (HfHGY)
Habitat for Humanity is a Christian charity based in the USA and operating around the world
to provide affordable housing. Historically, it has enabled groups of people jointly to self-
build a number of dwellings, one for each group member household.
Figure 15. Habitat for Humanity’s office sign emphasises affordability

It has been in Guyana since 1995 during which time it has delivered 560 housing solutions
and assisted 5,000 families. In Guyana, HFHGY builds three types of house; 400 ft.², 512.5
ft.² and 600 ft.² all in concrete blocks. The smaller dwellings are designed for income groups
below GYD 50,000 per month with a proven ability to pay the monthly payments of
GYD15,000 with a one-time fee of GYD10,000. The 600 ft.² dwelling is aimed at households
with incomes around GYD70,000 month. This is the lowest income at which banks will
consider loans.44
Over the last few years, it has been changing its policy internationally to one of enabling
markets and being more collaborative with the local supply system. Its externally financed
programme aims to harness the great liquidity currently present in banks. HFHGY issues a
household with a plan for a new dwelling and refers them to a bank or the New Building
Society. The current dwellings being assisted by HFHGY cost GYD2.5 million which is
much lower than government can build for. The advantage for households using this route are
not only being able to harness HFH’s international reputation but also to reduce costs through
44
Habitat for Humanity Guyana (2014).
33
the partnerships with suppliers, some volunteering, and some economies of scale that are part
of the HFHGY approach.45
Volunteering involves groups of well-wishers travelling donor groups to work voluntarily as

a working holiday. It from does not cut HFHGY’s costs substantially because the contractor
is still hired.
There is some “sweat equity” accruing as prospective occupants carry out labouring work on
site, but it is not a criterion for the finance as it was before. The contractors must buy into the
Habitat for Humanity philosophy and, in the past, have received training in this.
Box 1. The HFHGY partnerships with commercial banks
In 2012 HFHGY and Scotia Bank first met to explore partnership opportunities with
two objectives in mind: (1) to increase awareness about housing needs of low income
earning and indigent families and (2) to raise money to finance housing interventions.
The first collaboration was a marketing campaign with promotional activities and
materials. For every Scotia Bank mortgage, home-owner loan and basic loan, HFHGY
received a small percentage of the interest. This money was used to finance new
dwelling construction, home improvements and repairs. It also provided an opportunity
to make every bank customer aware of basic information on adequate and affordable
housing issues and needs in Guyana. In addition, there was a monthly television
programme featuring beneficiaries of each intervention as well as provided status
update on the project. The partnership has also been used to bring awareness to the
need to diversify housing finance options in the market from only owner-occupier
tenure. In its first year, HFHGY completed three dwellings and two repairs totalling
about GYD6 million (US$29,000). Scotia Bank in Canada decided to match locally-
generated funds with US$10,000 or GYD2 million. This partnership was extended in
2015 for three additional years.
In an arrangement with all commercial banks, HFHGY uses its housing intervention
model to facilitate access to lower cost commercial mortgages for low income earning
families who would not otherwise quality. Annually, this benefits 30-40 households.
The process is simple; applicant households visit HFHGY for a pre-assessment, a house
plan and an estimated cost. These along with a referral letter are provided to take to
their preferred housing finance institution for approval. The household then returns to
45
Stakeholder interview, Habitat for Humanity Guyana.
34
HFHGY with a cheque for the first phase of work, HFHGY either finds a contractor or
evaluates the household’s chosen contractor. This initiative has been successfully
because it works within existing market arrangements using a non-profit model, while
also advocating diversified housing finance to better meet the needs of low income
earners.
HFHGY is currently talking with the regional HFH to design a market development
research and advocacy initiative better to understand the implications of diversifying
housing finance and locally relevant models. HFHGY is also negotiating with the
Credit Union League to begin a housing micro-finance programme in Guyana.46
End of Box
Food for the Poor

Food for the Poor is a Christian charity based in the USA, mainly working in Latin America
and the Caribbean. The dwellings do not require any labour from the recipient, they are a free
gift. As it is entirely donor-driven, the Guyana programme must compete with others across
the region for funding. As it is twice as expensive to build in Guyana as in Haiti, it is difficult
for the programme to maintain funding from headquarters.47 It has built 3,165 dwellings
across Guyana, mainly in rural areas and in relatively small numbers around Georgetown. As
a rule, Food for the Poor does not build only housing but also provides essential services such
as toilet blocks, community centres, and economic assets, such as a sawmill or a boat. Food
for the Poor has built wooden dwellings for households who must have a receipt for payment
on their plot to qualify. Its basic house has two bedrooms and is 375 square feet in area, built
of timber on stilts, but it does not include sanitary or electrical services so these must be
provided by the applicant.48
Photo to follow?
Community Development Organisations

Community Development Organisations exist in all neighbourhoods as part of the
governance system. Leaders are chosen locally and CH&PA assists communities to
coordinate the formation of the community groups and organisations and continue to work
46
Stakeholder interview, HFHGY.
47
Intervention by Honnieta Etkins, Food for the Poor, in the Stakeholder Workshop, February, 2011
48
35
with them towards the completion of community projects. The CH&PA also assists
community organisations through capacity building and training sessions to develop their
constitutions and legally establishing the community organisation with the Ministry of Social
Protection under the Friendly Societies Act.. In this way, they become important brokers for
upgrading and ameliorating any negative effects of relocation as a result of upgrading or from
zero tolerance areas.
36
Chapter 3. Regulatory Framework
Within the GHS,
“National legal frameworks should cover all areas determining the production and
availability of affordable housing, including legislation and regulations addressing
housing and affecting the availability of required housing inputs, especially land and
finance, as well as legislation influencing the income-earning opportunities of the
poorest sectors of the population, i.e., the demand side of the affordability equation.49
The legal and regulatory framework should ensure that the housing process is
transparent, equitable and regulated by the rule of law and should empower all the
actors involved in housing.”50
The regulatory frameworks under which government ministries operate in Guyana tend to be
outdated and have little to contribute to housing the poorest half of the population.
The Constitution
Section 40 of the Constitution states that “every person in Guyana is entitled to the basic right
to a happy, creative and productive life, free from hunger, disease, ignorance and want
including … protection for the privacy of his home and other property”. In this, every citizen
has the right to own personal property including dwelling houses and the land on which they
stand. In addition, the right of inheritance is guaranteed. Women and men have equal rights
and the same legal status in all spheres of life and all forms of discrimination against women
on the basis of their sex is illegal.
The National Development Strategy (NDS)

Developed in 1996, the NDS reviewed existing conditions and made strategic
recommendations across many sectors, including housing, infrastructure and other urban and
housing-related issues. It has not been implemented.
49
Geoffrey Payne and Michael Majale, Urban Housing Manual: Making Regulatory Frameworks work for the Poor,
Earthscan, 2004, London and Sterling VA.
50
37
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, 2011-2015 (PRSP)
The most recent PRSP dates from 2011. On spending on housing, a minimum of about
GYD51.2 billion or 10 percent of GDP of government and private investment is intended of
which about GYD30.5 billion (60% of spending and 6% of GDP) is in subsidies.
The PRSP is also very clear on the importance of housing in creating income and
employment (especially for unskilled workers), income multipliers, and economic linkages
into other sectors. 51
Housing-related laws
Each agency in the housing sector has its own institutional mandates and regulations and
sections dealing with housing issues such as the Deeds Registry and Land Registry.
The principal laws that govern land allocation, distribution and zoning include the Housing
Act (1948), the Town and Country Planning Act (1947), the Sea Defence Act (1933), The
Housing of Labour Workers on Sugar Estates Act (1954), the Housing Development Act 36:
24 (1970), the Public Health Ordnance, the Local Government Act, the Municipal and
District Councils Act, and the Lands and Surveys and Commissions Act. They tend to be out-
dated and in urgent need of review.
The Housing of Labour Workers on Sugar Estates Act (1951), Chapter 99: 04
This short Act gives a Committee appointed under the Sugar Industry Special Funds Act
security to grant loans to non-management workers in the sugar industry under the assurance
that the lease on the property built or improved thereby will pass to the Committee at the end
of the lease if the loan is unpaid. The land thus acts as the collateral for the loan.
The Housing Act, Chapter 36:20
The Housing Act (36:20) is entitled “An Act to make provision with respect to the housing of
persons of the working class and for purposes connected therewith”. This and other
provisions reflect the socialist nature of Guyana’s early years of Independence. It is the main
legal framework that established and governs the CH&PA. It sets out the powers, functions
and constitution of the CH&PA (Part 2, Section 11 and 12), but it has not been amended to
take into consideration the current national housing context. It states that the main power of
the authority is to hold land.
51
38
The CH&PA adheres to the Act in the preparation and approval of schemes. Section 15
mandates the CH&PA to take into consideration the housing needs of the working class
population, prepare a plan that will adequately meet their needs, and seek the approval of the
Minister for the proposed scheme. Although the provision of housing to the working class
population is central to the Act, the CH&PA does not currently cater only to the working
class but also makes provisions to provide housing for people higher up the income scale.
Part 4 of the Housing Act allows the CH&PA to acquire land through gift, sale from one
party to another, or by compulsory acquisition as in the case of slum settlements. The slum
clearance and redevelopment section in the Act has not been practiced while the squatter
regularization process, in which CH&PA has been involved, has no legal framework in the
Act but is governed by the CH&PA and approval is granted by Ministerial Power.
Part 6 of the Housing Act, in Section 34, provides for the development of housing schemes;
the authority may execute works by whatever means in housing schemes. Section 35 states
that the authority may, with permission of the minister, “assign to a local authority duties and
functions in relation to the enforcement and carrying out of a scheme”. This means that the
duties in the development of a housing scheme can be divested to a local authority as
approved by Ministerial powers.
There has been no legal framework to replace those sections of the Act that have become
obsolete over the years and it has thus become increasingly irrelevant to the current housing
environment. There is much reference within the act to renting of houses by the CH&PA but
it is no longer involvedt.
The Town and Country Planning Act (TCPA), Chapter 20:01
Enacted immediately after World War II in a context of controlled and formal development,
its main objective is “to make provision for the orderly and progressive development of land,
cities, towns and other areas, whether urban or rural, to preserve and improve the amenities
thereof, and for other matters connected therewith”52. The TCPA empowers the CH&PA to
bring under its control any area for purposes of development planning through declaring the
boundaries of the area in the Official Gazette. Then the local authorities in the area must pass all
applications received by them to the CH&PA for planning permission. This also goes for the
local authorities’ own developments. This is an extreme centralization of the power to allow or
52
CHPA (2008: 5).
39
prevent, to build or demolish, similar to that in Zambia where all planning applications must pass
through central government!53
Under the Town and Country Planning Act, development is defined as
“any building or rebuilding operations and any use of the land or any buildings thereon
for a purpose which is different from the purpose for which the land or building was
last being used”.54
Development thus encompasses proposals for planning layouts of new and existing housing
development and proposals for engineering services, such as water supply, electricity,
telecommunications and sewage disposal. Decisions by the CH&PA on any planning
application can only be reviewed through an appeal to the High Court.
If permission has not been granted, the CH&PA may serve an enforcement notice on the
owner or occupier of the land or building; non-compliance with it is an offence liable on
summary conviction to a fine. In addition, the CH&PA may remove or alter the development
and prohibit any development that contravenes any planning scheme or regulation.
From a modern perspective, the Act has no provisions to cope with squatting, illegal
transactions and the huge demand for plots for low income groups, especially in and around
the urban areas. It is important, therefore, that the legal framework is modernized and
harmonized to allow agencies and sectors to coordinate with and complement each other. It
might also make sense to decentralise power to regions rather than keeping the final decision
at the CH&PA.
In light of the frequent floods which cause widespread damage to property, the Draft Housing
Policy55 proposed revising and strengthening the building codes and increasing enforcement
so that new housing would be better suited to withstand natural disasters. Unfortunately,
significant amounts of the disasters literature points to the ineffectiveness and even contrary
indications of increasing standards as it (counter-intuitively) forces more households out of
the formal sector which then reduces quality overall.56
The Housing Development Act, Chapter 36: 24
53
UN-HABITAT (2012).
54
CHPA (2008: 7).
55
CHPA (2012).
56
(ref on standards and disasters)
40
The Public Health Ordinance, Chapter 145
This Ordinance deals with nuisances and gives power to the Local Sanitary Authorities
(LSA) to inspect and to deal with defaulters. The LSAs are charged with ensuring buildings
and land are laid out within the interest of public health and safety. For public health
purposes, all areas outside the control of a local authority are under the control of the Central
Board of Health. All applications for planning permission within these areas must be
submitted to the CH&PA through the Central Board of Health.57
The Local Government Act, Chapter, 28: 02
Under this act, the Minister with responsibility for local government may make by-laws for
the management and administration of villages or districts. It provides the legal framework
for the small towns.
The Municipality and District Council Act, Chapter 28: 01
This Act came into effect in 1969 and was amended in 1972. Its main objective is to make
better provision for Local Government in the city of Georgetown, the Towns, and other areas
within the vicinity of Georgetown. It gives power to the municipalities to make by-laws for
the appropriate management of municipal areas.
Box 2. Procedures for applying for planning permission
An application for planning permission must be made in writing to the Secretary of the
CH&PA. Depending on the type of application and location of the proposed development,
submission is made either directly to the CH&PA or through the respective Local Authority
(Neighborhood Democratic Council or Municipality).
For the city of Georgetown, the application must be made on the prescribed application form
along with architectural drawings and plans of the proposed development.
Documentation to prove ownership of property or rights to the property to be developed must

be provided. The CH&PA will send to the applicant written acknowledgement of the receipt
of the application and must give a written decision on most applications within 3 months as
stipulated by the Town and Country Planning Act.
The CH&PA may grant planning permission either unconditionally or subject to specified
conditions, or may refuse permission. Where planning permission is refused or is permitted
57
CHPA (2008: 11).
41
subject to conditions, the notice of the decision should include the reason(s) for the refusal or
for the conditions attached to the permission.58
End of box
Figure 16. Procedures for Planning Permission59
There are required processing fees for land subdivisions for residential purposes.
There is a fixed fee per application of $2,000 (USD 9.65) plus:
For each lot not exceeding a total of 10 lots $300 (USD 1.45);
For each additional lot exceeding 10 lots $100 (US 50 cents);
The maximum fee per application for residential purposes $25,000 (USD121).
The Guyana Lands and Surveys Commission Act, Chapter 59: 01
If an application involves development on state lands, government lands, river or creeks, the
developer must seek permission from the Lands and Surveys Commission before making an
58
CHPA (2008: 14).
59
CHPA (2008: 17).
42
application to the Central Authority.60 Applications for planning permission involving access
to the development from the public road, highway or highway reserve must apply to the
Ministry of Public Works - Roads Division.61
Applications for major development or those having significant potential impact on the
surrounding area require consultation with the nearby residents. This is usually done by way
of questionnaire surveys on the proposed development. In certain cases, the CH&PA holds
joint public consultation meetings with other Agencies, such as the Environmental Protection
Agency.
National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), 1994
This plan called for environmental assessments to be carried out for proposed development
that may significantly affect the environment, The Environmental Protection Act, 1996, sets
out the legal framework for undertaking environmental impact assessments. The
Environmental Protection Agency manages the issues under the NEAP which was updated in
2000 aims at,
“sustainable development that integrates economic, environmental and social values

during planning, and recognises the need to distribute benefits equitably across socio-
economic strata and gender upon implementation.”62
60
CHPA (2008: 39).
61
CHPA (2008: 39)..
62
HYDEA (2010: 16).
43
Chapter 4. Housing Supply
Introduction
Housing in Guyana is relatively well supplied in comparison to many developing countries.
Overcrowding is not a general problem and most dwellings have services. There is a very
high home-ownership rate. There are few data, however, later than 2009 as the 2012 Census
Preliminary Report gives general data on the distribution of residential buildings across the
Regions. Within this chapter, therefore, the most up-to-date data available have always been
used, even though this might be 14 years old (as with the 2002 census). Improvements in the
availability of up-to-date data must be one of the most important housing policy interventions
in the coming years. Although the 2002 census records 9% of dwellings standing vacant or
closed, in 2012 this had reduced to 3% with roughly equal proportions in the coast land and
hinterland and only slightly higher in and around Georgetown (Region four). Thus, the 2012
Census shows that vacant dwellings appear to be much less of an issue than anecdotal
evidence and strong outward migration might suggest.
Recent CH&PA housing interventions

Second Low Income Settlement Programme
This programme consisted of several subcomponents:
1. Seven new sites were developed across four regions where new land sub-division with
connections to basic infrastructure (Roads, Power, Water and Drainage) was
implemented;
2. Seven existing sites were consolidated across five Regions through the completion or
rehabilitation of existing infrastructure;
3. Five squatter neighbourhoods in Regions 4 and 6 were upgraded through improving
physical infrastructure (widening and paving of roads, water distribution, drainage
and septic tanks);
4. a pilot scheme of 400 core houses;
5. subsidies of US$1,000 for housing improvement for 400 households living in existing
CH&PA schemes whose dwelling is considered to be substandard (see Table 8.);
6. serviced plots for partnerships with professional groups;
44
7. subsidies to households in the hinterland who have limited access to services, which
provided either for the construction of a new roof or the building of a new house (see
Table 7.).
Households qualify for these programmes by not owning a dwelling in the previous two
years, with incomes below GYD60,000 (US$300) per month (the low-income threshold), and
having at least one child under 21. The core housing pilot programme allocates dwellings of
312 ft² with septic tank sanitation, water supply, connections to electric power, and with the
road access to the plot, on plots of 3,200 sq ft (300sqm). The dwelling is on short concrete
stilts and built partly of cement blocks and partly of wood (Figure 17.). In addition to the
qualification criteria above, applications for core houses must be able to pay their share of the
equity GYD100,000 (US$500). The cost of building the core was GYD1.13 million
(US$5,400).
Figure 17. CH&PA core housing, Parfait Harmony (Region 3)
45
Figure 18. CH&PA original and extended core housing, Linden (Region 10)
In the true spirit of core housing, extension is planned for, especially on the windward side
which is timber-clad and has more plot space (Figure 18.). When fully extended according to
plans provided (Figure 19.), all external walls will be concrete. The plan is for households to
add 10’ x 10’ (9sqm) rooms until the whole dwelling covers an area of 413 sq. ft (38sqm)
with concrete external walls and wooden internal walls.63 In the CH&PA’s evaluation of the
core house project one, of the main complaints is that the windward walls are made of timber.
Perhaps it would have been important to explain the reason for this to the occupants as they
move in. 64
63
CHPA (not dated).
64
CH PA’s evaluation of the core house projectCHPA, undated draft, Evaluation of the Core House Project,
Georgetown, Monitoring and Evaluation Unit, CHPA.
46
26' - 6"
8' - 3" 8' - 3" 10' - 0"
S t a g e III
(3' - 0" x 10' - 0")
Stage IV
(8' - 3" x 10' - 0")

Proposed Area
Proposed Area
10' - 0"
(10' - 0" x 10' - 0")
10' - 0"
30' - 0"
(Stage II)
Proposed Area
(10' - 0" x 10' - 0")
Proposed Core Area
(16' - 6" x 20' - 0")
10' - 0"
(Stage I)
Proposed Area
(10' - 0" x 10' - 0")
G R O U N D FLO O R P LA N
Scale: 1/8" = 1' - 0"
Figure 19. Plan for the expansion of the core house

Source: CH&PA Core House Brochure (get a better version from CH&PA.
The Housing Improvement Subsidy Pilot Scheme provides subsidies of US$1,000 for
housing improvement for 400 households living in existing CH&PA schemes whose dwelling
is considered to be substandard. Qualification for the scheme was based on a points system
most of which are gained through having many household members and low incomes.
In 2014, the President explained that the government’s first priority was to facilitate housing
for the low income people through a system of cross-subsidisation. Government sold some
‘front lands’ to middle- and high-income households for development and used some of the
proceeds to cross-subsidise development for lower-income households on converted sugar
estate land.65 Another part of the programme was for a low mortgage rates, reduced from 30
per cent per annum in 1992 to as low as 4.3 per cent, by banks which also lent more money
using the plots as collateral and achieving a faster turn over. The Housing Development Act
was enacted in 2013 to help first time home-owners through a rebate on their mortgage
interest rate.
65
Government Information Agency http://www.gina.gov.gy/home/index.php/home/all-news/item/2096-gina-
feature.
47
The Revolving Funds Homes: Turnkey Approach
These initiatives in Eccles were built under a programme to cater for professionals who can
afford to buy formal housing in the market. The turnkey project began with the first phase as
and was expanded to a total of 200 dwellings of 600 square feet (56 square metres) in small
estates in Zeelugt, Leonora, Good Hope, Mon Repos, Providence, and Herstelling.
The Young Professionals Homes programme had two types of homes; 64 three bedroom
single storey dwellings selling for GYD15 million and 34 two-storey dwellings costing
GYD20 million: with areas of 600 and 1,100 square feet (56-102m2). The latter were on
larger plots as middle income housing. All are built in concrete frame and hollow concrete
block infill with wooden roof trusses and CI sheet roofing.
There is also the Professionals Pilot Project, as a sub project under the Low Income
Settlement Programme 2, where plots have been offered to professions; police officers,
teachers and nurses.
The CH&PA’s turn-key homes, with areas of 600 to 1,100 square feet (56-102m2), cost
GYD4.6million to GYD14M (US$23,000 – US$70,000) and are intended to broaden home-
ownership, especially for young people.66 All are built in concrete frame and hollow concrete
block infill with wooden roof trusses and CI sheet roofing.
66
feature
48
Figure 20. Dwellings in the Eccles housing project for young professionals67
At the top end of that range, at GYD14M (US$70,000), CH&PA developed the Young
Professionals’ Housing at Eccles in collaboration with private developers. The three-bedroom
bungalows are reported to have a bank value of $25 million (US$125,000). 68 They have a
kitchen equipped with counters and cupboards; ‘two and a half baths’69 and room for
expansion. The two- storey version costs $19.5 million (US$97,500). The low to middle-
income houses have two bedrooms and cost GYD4 million to GYD8 million (US$20,000-
40,000). Some GYD600 million (US$3 million) was invested by the private sector in this
project.70
They were targeted at households with incomes of around $1,500 (GYD310,000) per month
who are assumed to be able to spend a third of their income for housing ($500 –
GYD104,000 per month) on a 30 year mortgage. The beneficiaries must pay for the dwelling
before completion but the bank will enter a partnership with the CH&PA to give a loan for
this. 71 Sixty dwellings were built in 2014 and all were allocated to young professionals.72
The Perseverance 1,000 turnkey homes project was started in June 2013 and is being built for
sale for GYD4.9 million (US$24,500) for two-bedroom homes and GYD9 million
(US$45,000) for three-bedroom homes, of which the land cost GYD500,000 (US$2,500).
They are designed to suit low-income workers. The dwellings require mortgage payments of
US$75–125 (GYD15,500-26,000) per month. 73
There must be some discussion on whether one-third as housing payments is acceptable.
67
Guyana Chronicle (2015).
68
Guyana Chronicle (2015)
69
This American expression means that there are two bathrooms, each including a toilet, plus a separate toilet.
70
71
feature.
72
73
49
Figure 21. Dwellings in the ‘1,000 turnkey homes project’ in Perseverance74
Housing needs in the hinterland areas are being addressed through the Second Low Income
Settlement (LIS), a GYD40 million programme, initiated by the Housing Ministry in
collaboration with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). So far, however, only
around 600 residents have benefited.75
Figure 22. A dwelling in the second Low Income Settlement programme in White
Water, Region One, being visited by the President of Guyana76
Settlements targeted were White Water, Manawarin and Oronoque in Region 1, and
Kwatamang, Central Annai, Massara, Katoka and Apoteri in Region 9. Unlike the first-come-
first-served system in other programmes, these are allocated by lottery among the waiting list
households. Plans were afoot to build new fully serviced housing areas, and a new city (Silica
City) on the Linden-Soesdyke Highway but it is doubtful whether the new government will
74
Guyana Times International http://www.guyanatimesinternational.com/?p=30342
Windsor Estates launches multibillion-dollar housing scheme in Guyana, November 28, 2013
75
76
50
continue them. One of the targets of these developments is the increase in jobs for local
people.
There are plans for a government initiative to provide land to young professionals as an
incentive for them to stay and build their own dwellings.77 There is also the re-migrant
scheme, which caters for overseas Guyanese who want to return to their homeland. Plots are
set aside for them but they are over-subscribed78 and not currently being processed.
Recent private sector housing supply initiatives

As in many developing countries, the formal private construction and development sectors
are encouraged by government subsidies while housing for the majority is not being
developed fast enough for the increase in the number of households. The top end of the
supply is being constructed by companies that are inserted into the global economy through
sales via the internet.
Private sector development for the very high income group tends to be quite lavish and
increasingly in gated communities. The Buddy’s Housing Development, for example, has
developed a large estate at Herstelling (Figure 23.) and has been developing other large and
small estates of luxury homes, using such epithets as “elegant, lavish, luxurious, irresistibly
priced, and executive lifestyle”. In one, Granville Park, completed in 2011, the three- and
four-bedroom dwellings were priced at between GYD20 and 22 million ($100,000 to
$110,000). 79 Plots are 14m x 27m (over 400 m2), and fully serviced with WCs to a septic tank
on the plot. Plans and elevations can be seen in Figure 24.. At a house-cost to income ratio of
three, households buying them would need to earn GYD6.7 to 7 million per annum
77
78
feature
79
http://www.buddysguyana.com/housing/granville.php
51
(US$33,500 to US$35,000).
Figure 23. Buddy’s Housing at Herstelling, East Bank Demerara80
Site Plan Southern Elevation Western Elevation
80
feature.
52
Figure 24. Plans of an example of housing at Granville Park81
Figure 25. A Buddy’s estate in Georgetown

In another example, in 2013 Navigant Builders Inc. was developing a small gated estate of
1,900-square-foot two-storey, three-bedroom dwellings, described as luxurious and based on
North American designs. The company gives a five-year warranty on the foundation and
exterior of the dwelling but a 10 year warranty on the roof. Prices are publicised as from
GYD25 million (USD125,000) upward. Security is provided 24 hours per day, through a
gated entrance, street lighting and night-vision CCTV.82 Figure 26. shows a new gated estate
near Georgetown.
Figure 26. A private gated estate being built

81
http://www.buddysguyana.com/housing/granville.php
82
Guyana Times International (2013).
53
Figure 27. Private estate developers are constructing for high-net-worth
households
Table 10. Supply characteristics, 1992 and 2006
1992 2006
Non-poor Poor Non-poor Poor
Home ownership 56.3 68.6 69.3 77.4
Number of rooms 4.3 3.4 3.3 2.8
Persons per room 1.2 2.5 1.1 2.4
Water 70 30 86.9 61.2
Sewerage 2.2 2.4 7.1 2.1
Electricity 79.6 53.2 78.1 46.5
Source: Bureau of Statistics using Household Budget Survey data83
There has been a drive in Guyana to increase home-ownership. According to the PRSP for
2011, there has been “substantial progress in increasing owner-occupied houses especially
within the category of the poor or low-income households”84 so that more than three quarters
of the poor owned their own dwellings in 2006. Indeed, Table 10. shows that poor households
are more likely to own their dwelling than non-poor households. This reinforces the idea that
ownership might be ‘failed renting’ as households are forced into informal areas and building
83
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2011: 12).
84
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2011: 12).
54
their accommodation for themselves. It may, on the other hand, show that many elderly
people own housing but are no longer earning or spending as much as they used to when they
had a job. This occurrence of households being house-rich-but-cash-poor is, however, an
important one as it shows that there may be many households who cannot afford to maintain
their homes.
The poor owned dwellings have fewer rooms than the non-poor so that their occupancy rates
were twice those of the non-poor at more than two persons per room. They also had fewer
connections to water and sanitation services than the non-poor. It is clear that many poor
households are settling outside the range of infrastructure where they are building what they
can to live in.85
Tenure
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Other
50% Don't Know/ Not Stated
40% Squatted
Leased
30% Rented - Govt.
20% Rented - Free
Rented - Private
10% Owned
0%
n en m na n ca ka all ol ia ity m tal
tow ind rda egi erto arti ari seh sign ahd har the To
ge L ste a R rriv B P Ro Ro M C Le
or n
Ge Am An Co
w
Ne
Figure 28. Households by tenure in the towns of Guyana (2002)

It is evident from Figure 28. that ownership is the most frequent tenure in all towns but
private renting and renting free are also important. Squatting is more common in Georgetown
than any of the other towns but also occurs in appreciable percentages in New Amsterdam
and Parika.
85
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2011: 13/14).
55
Table 11. Tenure from HFHG sample survey (2014)
Percentage
(n=165)
Own 74.4
Live rent free 14.4
Rent 9.0
Caretaker (not rent-free) 2.2
Source: HFHG 2014
It is evident that homeownership is extremely common in Guyana. It is also evident that
almost 15% of households live rent free; representing a powerful social safety net. Of those in
the sample who own, about 54% had built the dwelling themselves, almost 20% had bought
and 12% had inherited. Only 5% had government built housing; the same percentage as
provided for by Food for the Poor. HFH itself had provided for 3%. Homeownership is very
important to households in Guyana, as it is in many other countries,86 with 66% of households
valuing it highly whether they currently owned or rented.87
Type of structure
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Don't Know/Not Stated
50%
Other
40% Barracks
30% Combined
Double House/ Duplex
20% Townhouse
10% Flat/Apartment/
Condominium
0% Part of Private House
n en m na n ca ka all ol ia ity m tal Undivided Private House
or n
Ge Am n Co
e w A
N
Figure 29. Type of structure occupied by households by town (2002)
86
See, for example, other national housing sector profiles (add UN Habitat website URL).
87
56
At the time of the 2002 Census, about 70% of urban households lived in undivided private
houses while about 13% occupied part of a private house. Only 6% of households occupy
flats, apartments or condominiums (Figure 29.).
Rooms occupied
Table 12. Rooms occupied in urban Guyana (2009)
Rooms
Rooms Rooms
occupied,
occupied, occupied,
Georgetown
total urban other urban
urban
One 22 21 23
Two 42 43 39
Three or more 37 36 37
Source: Guyana Demographic and Health Survey, 2009: Table 2.7
Note: percentages do not include missing households
Table 12. shows how only about one in five urban households lives in a dwelling with only
one bedroom while around 40% have two and around 37% occupy three or more bedrooms.
No data are available in the DHS 2009 for more than three bedrooms, but the 2002 Census
shows a steep decline through four bedrooms so that very few (urban or rural) households
indeed have more than five bedrooms (Figure 30.). It also shows that single person
households are the most willing to accept one-bedroomed accommodation. Even so, there are
significant percentages (between 20 and 30%) of all household sizes in one-bedroomed
housing. In all household sizes, two bedroomed housing is the most common. The pattern of
lines in Figure 30. shows how little effect household sizes have on bedrooms occupied.
57
Bedrooms occupied by household size
50.0
45.0
40.0
1
35.0 2
3
30.0 4
5
6
25.0
7
8
20.0 9
10
15.0 11
12+
10.0
5.0
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8+
Bedrooms occupied
Figure 30. Bedrooms occupied by household size (2002 Census)

Source: after 2002 Census Table 7.4. The original table gives number of people living in
households of x size and occupying y rooms. This graph is generated by dividing the number
of people in the category by their household size in order to calculate the number of
households of x size in y rooms. Some do not divide to a whole number which calls some
doubt on the accuracy of the original person-centred data.
Access to water
There have been considerable investments in the water sector since the turn of the century
that have contributed to the provision of safe water throughout the country. According to
Table 10., about 87% of non-poor households and about 61% of the poor households had
access to potable water in 2006. By 2011, however, about 89% of non-poor households and
about 63% of the poor households had access to potable water.88 Altogether, 80% of
households use improved sources for drinking water.
88
58
Guyana has the peculiar situation that fewer households in urban areas use an improved
supply for clean drinking water than in the rural areas (see chapter 7). This may be explained
by the large majority using bottled water to drink.
Access to sanitation
In 2009, over 90% of urban households had an improved toilet facility which they do not
share.89 They are mostly flush or pour-flush types draining to septic tanks. Water-borne
systems to sewers are only evident in parts of Georgetown and are very rare in any other area.
Overall, 84% of households and people nationally and over 90% in urban areas use improved
toilets.
Access to power
According to the 2002 census, about 69% of households nationwide had access to electricity.
Guyana Power and Light (GPL) has made progress in the twenty-first century in both
generating and distribution capacities because of two major capital projects which provided
access to electricity for an additional 17,000 rural and poor households. The DHS in 2009
estimates a higher proportion with electric power (78% of households, 76% of people) with
90% in urban areas (ref to table in chapter 8?).90 In 2006, the difference between non-poor
and poor households in electricity connection was very large (78% and 47%).
Most Guyanese urban households use bottled gas in its various forms but one third use
kerosene (tables in chapter 8?). 91
Cooking facilities
Table 13. Place for cooking (2009)
Percentage Percentage
Total George Other of all of all
urban town urban urban Total rural households population
In the house 95.9 98.3 91.2 82.7 86.4 85.5
In a separate building 1.0 0.3 2.1 7.3 5.5 6.3
Outdoors 2.2 0.7 5.2 8.9 7.0 7.6
Missing 0.9 0.6 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.6
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
89
DHS.(Co-operative Republic of Guyana, 2010)
90
DHS.
91
DHS.
59
The overwhelming majority of Guyanese urban households cook in the house in which they
live, especially in Georgetown (Table 13.).
Affordability
Household incomes
In the HIES92 (2006), low-income households were defined as those then earning GYD60,000
(US$300) or less per month and constituted about one-third of the population. Middle income
households, with monthly incomes between GYD61,000 to GYD199,000 (US$300 to
US$995), were about 60 percent of the population. The remainder (about 7 percent of the
population) were classed as high income.93 These figures seem to be used by Habitat for
Humanity’s consultant94 while CH&PA use GYD75,000 (US$360) per month as the upper
threshold of low-income and GYD200,000 (US$965) as the upper threshold of medium
income (see Table 19.). In the recent Habitat for Humanity survey, 57% of the sample had
incomes below GYD60,000 (US$290) per month. Banks which offer mortgages regards
GYD35,000 (US$168) per month as their lower income threshold for affording to pay off a
loan. Affordable mortgages are defined as being less than GYD4 million (US$19,300).
Nonbanking organisations tend to regard households with less than GYD50,000 (US$241)
gross income per month as low income.95
House price inflation

400.0
350.0
300.0
250.0
200.0
All items
150.0 Housing (Rent, fuel and
power)
100.0
50.0
0.0
0 4 00 5 0 06 00 7 0 08 00 9 0 10 0 11 01 2 0 13 01 4 0 15
20 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
92
93
CHPA (2012: 7).
94
95
60
Figure 31. Consumer Price Indices (1994=100) for Georgetown urban (2004-
2015)
Source: BoS, 201496
Figure 31. shows how housing costs grew slightly faster than general consumer prices during
the first decade of this century but stayed constant, falling in relation to general consumer
prices between 2010 and 2013.
96
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2014a: table 11.1) and http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/prices.html.
61
Chapter 5. Housing Need
Although there is a zero or negative population growth rate, the current housing need is made
up of new household formation as households decrease in average size, replacement of
deteriorating stock and easing over-crowding. Estimates at the time of the Draft Housing
Policy (2012) suggested that approximately 15,000 dwellings per year would be required to
keep pace with need.
At the time of the NDS (1996) approximately 60 per cent of the Guyanese population owned
their dwellings while about one quarter were renting. The remainder (c.15%) occupied rent-
free accommodation. At that time, about 20% of households squatted on government-owned
land.97
Household size and composition

It is important in addressing housing need that household size distributions are taken into
account. If it is found that a significant proportion of large households live in small
dwellings, there is likely to be a substantial need for new housing provided to reduce
crowding in the current stock. Based on the 2002 data available, the household sizes are
shown below. In addition, urban household sizes have reduced from 3.8 in 2002 to 3.3 in
2012.98 This is one of the major generators of need for increased dwelling number in a
country in which population growth is near zero or even negative.
97
98
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2012: table 6).
62
Chart Title
20
18
16
14
12
Percentages
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
TAB
Figure 32. Distribution of households by number of persons in the household,
2002
Source: 2002 Census Table 7.4:
Figure 32. shows that there is a peak in household sizes between two and five persons
inclusive which contains 65% of households.
Region
1
100
90
80
70
60
Percentage
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Region
Figure 33. Cumulative household sizes (All Guyana)
Source: 2002 Census Table 7.4:
When accumulated (Figure 33.), it is evident that, in 2002, almost 90% of households have
six or fewer people. On the other hand, Table 14. shows that at least half of households
require two bedrooms or fewer at 2 persons per bedroom. About 40% need three or more
bedrooms.
63
Table 14. Percentage of Households by Numbers of Persons in the Household, Guyana:
2002
Household size Total households Total population in

these households
1 Person 12.4 3.0
2 Persons 14.6 7.2

3 Persons 17.0 12.6
4 Persons 19.0 18.9
5 Persons 14.8 18.4
6 Persons 9.2 13.7
7 Persons 5.5 9.5
8 Persons 3.1 6.1
9 Persons 1.8 4.0
10 Persons 1.0 2.5
11 Persons 0.6 1.6
12+ Persons 0.8 2.3

Not stated 0.1
Total 100 100
Source: after 2002 Census Table 7.4. The original table gives number of people living in
households of x size and occupying y rooms. This table is generated by dividing the number
of people in the category by their household size in order to calculate the number of
households of x size. Some do not divide to a whole number which calls some doubt on the
accuracy of the original person-centred data.
64
100
90
80
70
60
50 Total households
Total persons
40 Cumulative Households
30 Cumulative Persons
20
10
0
on ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
e rs
rso rso rso rso rso rso rso rso rso rso rso
P Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
+
Figure 34. Percentages and cumulative percentages of household sizes by number

of persons.
Source: after 2002 Census table 7.5. Note on Table 14. applies.
It is clear from Figure 34. that any deprivations that befall households with fewer than four
members will affect a greater percentage of people than households. This is demonstrated in
Figure 35..
90
80
70
60 percentage of households
50 overcrowded at 2pp bedroom
percentage of persons
40 overcrowded at 2pp bedroom
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 35. Percentage of households and persons overcrowded by number of

bedrooms occupied
Source: after 2002 Census table 7.5. Note on Table 14. applies.
65
It is obvious from Table 14. that occupation of small numbers of bedrooms is the major cause
of overcrowding. Households with one bedroom are very likely to be overcrowded while
about one third of those with two rooms are likely to be overcrowded. There is little
overcrowding in larger dwellings. People living in single rooms are almost all (86%)
overcrowded and more than half of people (57%) in two bedroomed dwellings are
overcrowded. This suggests that such dwelling sizes are unsuited to Guyanese households.
Population projections
The Profile needs household numbers estimated for 2020, 2025 and 2030.
Table 15. Population projections to 2025
Low Medium High

2005 764,991 766,783 767,083
2010 777,873 784,894 787,517
2015 786,337 801,623 808,309
2020 788,874 814,605 826,353
2025 783,258 820,551 837,511
Source: Population Projections, Guyana 200599
There is only just over 50,000 difference between low and high population projections for
2025 (Table 15.), only 7% of the lowest projection.
Table 16. Population growth projections over 2002 Census population up to 2025
Low Medium High

2005 13,768 15,560 15,860
2010 26,650 33,671 36,294
2015 35,114 50,400 57,086
2020 37,651 63,382 75,130
2025 32,035 69,328 86,288
99
Beaie (2006).
100
Beaie (2006).
66
Unlike many developing countries, Guyana’s population is not growing very rapidly. The
medium projection from 2002 for 2025 gives only 69,328 people over the 2002 population
(Table 16.).
These population data must be converted into households for the calculation of how many
dwellings are likely to be required, remembering, of course, that the mean household size is
declining, generating more households per thousand of the population in the future than in
2002
Table 17. Household growth projections over 2002 Census population up to 2025
Low Medium High

2005 8,812 9,260 9,335
2010 22,267 24,115 24,805
2015 35,991 40,237 42,094
2020 36,696 43,843 47,107
2025 35,136 45,495 50,206
In Table 17., the reduction in household sizes over time has been modelled as follows:
For 2005, a mean 4.0 persons per household has been used as that is slightly lower than
the national household size in 2002 (4.1). As it had reduced to 3.6 by 2012102, a mean of
3.8 was assumed for 2010. For 2015 and following years, 3.6 was used. If household
sizes continue to reduce, however, the number of households will rise above the figures
in Table 17..
Because of the reductions in household sizes, the number of households extra over 2002 is
not as much below the population growth as might be expected. This is because, not only are
the new households smaller but the rest of the population is likely to divide into these lower
household sizes. Thus, in the medium projection, about 60,000 new dwellings are needed (at
one per household) between 2002 and 2025. Considering that there were 182,000 dwellings
in 2002, this need constitutes growth of one third in the housing stock between 2002 and
2025.
As the 2012 Census found 219,509 dwellings in 2012, the national population projections,
adjusted for households, as in Table 17., can be adjusted to show how many new dwellings
101
Population Projections, Guyana 2005 – 2025, Sonkarley T. Beaie, Bureau of Statistics, Georgetown, Guyana.
November 2006.
102
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2012: table 6).
67
are needed between 2012 and 2025 (Figure 36.). With the medium projection, only 6,200
dwellings would be required between 2012 and 2025, about 500 per annum nationally. This
number is just to house new households; there will be additional needs for renovations,
renewals, and reductions in crowding.
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000 Low
Medium
2,000 High
0
2015 2020 2025
-2,000
-4,000
-6,000
Figure 36. Number of households in 2015-2025 more or less than in 2005
Now we need to know how much of the population/household growth will be in urban areas,
what their household sizes are likely to be, and whether there is a new set of projections.
Cost of housing needed

To be appropriate for the low-income households in need of housing, dwellings must cost
less than the maximum affordability for that group, i.e., those on GYD60,000 (US$300) per
month GYD720,000 (US$3,600) per annum. At a house cost to income ratio (HC : Y) of
three, this gives a maximum capital cost of housing suitable for the low-income group of
GYD2.2 million (about US$10,500).
In costing formal-sector buildings, the banks use US$35 per square foot (US$376 per square
metre). Thus, if all the money was spent on the dwelling structure itself, this only allows 300
square feet or 28 square metres. If reasonable land and servicing costs of 40% are applied, the
dwelling structure reduces to 180 square feet (17 sqm).
HFH build 25 x 20.5ft (512.5sqft, 48m2) for US$12,500 (US$24/sqft; US$260/m2). On the
same basis, the maximum a low-income household could afford would be 437 sq feet or 40.4
sqm net of land and services or 262 sq ft (24 sqm) including 40% for land and services.
68
IDB core houses are sold for US$500 but they are too small and unpopular. Very few have
been extended.103
103
Stakeholder interview, CH&PA.
69
Chapter 6. Land
“Land tenure policy should have a social welfare function if poverty is to be reduced. It
should also give emphasis to an economic development function if more rapid growth
is to be achieved.”104
Despite several attempts to form one, there is no land use policy in Guyana. The land tenure
system in Guyana is complex as it has inherited land legislation from Roman Dutch Law,
English Common Law and Colonial Statute, all of which continue to apply.105 Land is
identified as a major issue in housing supply, especially the costly nature of the 90% of peri-
urban land owned by Government and GUYSUCO.
In a context in which there are few other investment opportunities, owning land and
speculating in it seems to be very low risk and with potentially high returns.
The GHS calls for:

“Mixed urban land uses integrating housing with economic, social,
(a)
recreational and other land uses and avoiding dormitory towns;
Appropriately high urban densities106 to improve urban efficiency, reduce the
(b)
cost of network services and safeguard the environment by limiting the urban footprint
through planning and locally based densification;
(c) Social mix of the population, including people from different income groups,
family compositions and ethnic origins, through a variety of tenure modalities, housing
types and costs to render housing accessible and responsive to varying social and
economic demands;
(d)Comprehensive land management and thorough integration of land use and
infrastructure planning to create highly efficient urban patterns and facilitate better
mobility;107
(e) Climate change responsiveness and preparedness.108”109
104
Bishop (2003: 189).
105
Bishop (2003).
106
UN-Habitat, Urban Patterns for Green Economy: Leveraging Density, 2012.
107
UN-Habitat, City-wide Strategic Planning: a step-by-step guide, Global Land Tool Network, 2010.
108
UN-Habitat and International Institute for Environment and Development, Developing Local Climate Change Plans:
Guide for Cities in Developing Countries, 2012.
109
70
Lands and Surveys Commission
Originally founded in 1883, the Lands and Surveys Commission (LSC) issues titles and is the
custodian of state and government land. In about 1920, forestry was separated off and later
mining followed. When urban development was vested in CH&PA, that too was hived off
leaving the LSC only handling large plots outside urban areas. CH&PA handles all
development for urban purposes and peri-urban development on state land if it is to be
developed as a housing scheme. CH&PA might consult the Commission but no more.110
The LSC keeps records in a paper form (on tracing paper) of all urban land transactions; these
include a plan and a searchable plan number. The LSC only uses GIS for large parcels but
CH&PA uses GIS for small parcels. Sharing information across CH&PA and the LSC is
common but is not backed by legislation.(Bishop, 2003; CHPA, 2012)
Land distribution
The role of CH&PA, is pivotal in land distribution for residential purposes. CH&PA allocates
residential land through its housing schemes and at large discounts, ranging from 85 to 90 per
cent, on condition that the land and dwellings erected on public plots should not be sold for at
least 10 years to prevent speculation. In emergencies, permission can be granted for the sale
of property but the market price of the land must (theoretically) be paid back to remove the
subsidy benefit from the vendor. There is a frustration in CH&PA on the slow occupation of
plots laid out. If the new plot owners do not develop within two years, their land can be
repossessed by the state. In practice, repossession rarely occurs and owners do not pay tax on
their land, either empty or (for the most part) developed. Figure 37. shows an empty plot
marked only with the owner’s name and Figure 38. shows how large areas of surveyed and
partly serviced land are lying idle in areas peripheral to Georgetown.
110
Stakeholder interview, Lands and Surveys Commission.
71
Figure 37. An empty plot with a notice placed there by the owner
Figure 38. Large areas of surveyed, allocated, but undeveloped land held largely
for speculation
Over the period 2010-2015, the CH&PA has distributed 23,705 residential plots and
processed at least titles 15,253 plots (in the absence of data for 2014). During the same period
almost 6,000 squatters have had their plots regularised.
When applying for a plot from CH&PA, an applicant is offered a house lot based on the
income category into which they fall. (Table 18.).
72
Table 18. CH&PA plot sizes around Georgetown
Category of plot Approximate size Approximate size

in square feet in square metres
Low income 3,200 300
Moderate income 4,050 375
Middle income 5,000 -6,000 465 - 560
High income 6,600 - 7,200 614 - 670
Source: CH&PA application form
In Linden, however, the branch office only offers two sizes; one for low-, moderate- and
middle-income groups which is 5,000 square feet (50’x100’) but which costs GYD92,000,
GYD150,000 or GYD300,000 (US$444, US$725 or US$1,450) depending on the declared
income of the applicant household,111 and high-income plots of 9,000 square feet costing
GYD500,000 (US$2,413) (see Table 19.). There are plans for 2,000 more plots in Linden and
applications for allocations are in but allocation has not been done. There are already some
squatters on the site and they are going to have to be accommodated somehow in the plot
subdivision. The allocation process is to slow but the administration costs, including
conveyancing and infrastructure, are paid for within the GYD100,000 (US$485) plot price.
Table 19. CH&PA plots in Linden
Income group Income range Price paid for Size of plot

Area (m2)
(GYD) plot (GYD) (ft)
92,000
Low-income Zero to 74,999
150,000
50 by 100 465
75,000 to
Moderate income 300,000
199,000
Middle to high
200,000+ 500,000 90 by 100 840
income
Source: Stakeholder interview Linden CH&PA office.
These plots are very large by international standards.
Land titling in Linden takes many months so the Local Management Committee allows
development to begin on receipt of a documented “agreement of sale” with the CH&PA.
111
It seems irrational for a household to claim anything more than the lowest income if they then must pay more
for the same plot. Such quirks of the system do not inculcate trust and honesty between the public and the
institution.
73
Land holdings
There are two types of formal land holding in Guyana:
Publicly owned land
Publicly-owned land in Guyana can be state land or government land. State land is what used
to be Crown Land in the colonial period. It is controlled by the Commissioner of Lands and
Surveys except when it comes under the Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC), the Guyana
Geology and Mines Commission (GGMC), and CH&PA. Government land is former
privately-owned land that has been purchased by the government to be developed for
hospitals, schools, administrative buildings, and land development schemes.112 Land
Selection Committees administer applications for leases of state land but they work within
unclear criteria for approval and the process is time-consuming and bureaucratic. Cabinet
must approve the sale of state and government land. Almost 90% of the country is owned by
the government.113
Freehold Private land.
This land has been alienated (leased or bought) from the state by private citizens or corporate
institutions. It is administered by the Deeds Registry under the office of the Attorney General
of the Supreme Court. There are two systems of Administration of Private Land. The
“Transport index” based on Roman Dutch law and the “Index of Transfer of Title” under the
Torrens (cadastral) system introduced in the 1950s. In the former, which are found mainly in
the cities, proposed sales must be published in the government Gazette. Nearly all the land in
Georgetown and New Amsterdam is held under the Transport index system.
The NDS also reports a huge backlog of cadastral surveys to be done, partly owing to the
poor rates of pay offered to the surveyors for surveys on government land and partly to out of
date cadastral maps; both of which introduce uncertainty into what should be the most
accurate system of recording land transactions available. Many freehold plots are
underutilised because of poor titling procedures. There are also inefficiencies in the deeds
registry for land held under ‘transport’ and certificate of title. Poor land administration also
has a marked effect on efficiency of land use.
The pattern of land tenure in the coastal plain of Guyana is influenced by original allocation
to settlers. The initial plots within a distance of one or 2 miles from the sea were granted
112
Thus government areas of land have usually been state land, then private land, and now government land.
113
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (1996). chapter 22.
74
freehold and this area is known as the “first depth” or “transported land”. Behind this land
was allocated by licence or on 99-year leases once the first depth was satisfactorily
developed. This is known as “second depth” land. Other land up to the dams and canals had
been allocated on 20 to 25 year leases. In 1998, 50-year leases were introduced. An important
feature of public land in Guyana is the extent to which it is unregularised with many owners,
tenants and lessees possessing no formal title. In 2009, about one third of all land had no
lease or title and only about half of public land was regularized.114
State land leases used to be less attractive than might be thought as they were only for 25
years which did not make them sufficiently secure to act as collateral against mortgages.
Until recently they could not be transferred to anyone else or sublet. Where sub- leasing had
occurred, the sub-lessee is unrecognised by the government and could not be used to raise
formal financing. This has changed now, however. Leases on state land are now for 50 years.
Under a programme of conversion of leased land to freehold which was carried out under the
Land Tenure Regulation Project, 2002 to 2006. In it 8,000 leases per year were converted to
freehold, in designated areas along the coastal irrigated land. An additional part of the project
added legality to subleases on leasehold land, to allow transfers by sale, mortgages, and
renewal, and testamental disposition, all on leasehold land which has been held in beneficial
application, Thus, the owner must now use it or lose it.115
There is a considerable problem in Guyana of owners who live abroad. The last government
wanted a policy to have mandatory regulation of informal tenancies but this has probably
stopped under the new government. 116
Box 3. Requirements for Land Subdivision Application
A land subdivision application must be accompanied by:
 “A Covering letter describing the proposed subdivision.

 One copy of the current title for the land.
 One original and two copies of cadastral surveyed plan.
 Submission of a planning scheme if the proposed subdivision is 10 or more lots.
“The proposed land subdivision must show the following: -
114
Bishop (2003).
115
116
75
 Details of all proposed plots of land showing the shape, size and dimension of each
sub-plot.
 Existing and proposed drainage network.
 Existing and proposed access roads and boundary lines.
 Proposed accesses to development and internal roads.
 Location and layout of proposed community facilities including playgrounds, public
open spaces, etc. (this is needed for subdivisions with 10 and more lots).”117
End of box
Many existing holders of land have allowed leases to expire or have inherited leases.
Following inheritance of land, there is usually pressure for subdivision amongst all the
legatees which has led to long plots with very narrow road frontages.
Significant regularization of squatters’ plots has occurred which has often been followed with
quite substantial increases in investment on the land. To date, 20,440 plots have been
regularized.118 This is not to be taken for granted as one of the frustrations of upgrading
elsewhere has been that residents did not routinely use their new security to invest more in
housing.
Box 4. Press notices for Petitions for Declarations of Title by Prescription
In the Stabroek News each Saturday, Petitions for Declarations of Title by Prescription are
published for the first, second and third times. A typical notice begins with the High Court
reference number and then continues that a named person
“has presented a Petition for Declarations of Title by Prescription to the property

described in the schedule hereto. Any person intending to oppose the said petition must,
within one month after the date of first publication of this notice, file in the registry of
court in” the relevant local authority, “notice of his/her opposition and an affidavit or
affidavits to support thereof and serve a copy of the notice and any affidavit upon the
said (person(s) name(s)). The said petition is accompanied by a plan of the property
which may be inspected at the said registry during office hours.”
It is then dated and the lawyer of the petitioner is named. The schedule then follows giving
the location of the house plot by section and neighbourhood and its area in a fraction of an
117
CHPA (2008: 27-8).
118
CH&PA data.
76
acre. The date of the petition and the lawyers address follow. In the Stabroek News for
Saturday, 13th February, 2016, for example, there were 22 such notices in among the
divorces, wills and missing persons declarations.
End of box
There is a thriving informal land market in land. Informal holdings can be divided into two
groups; those with some links with the formal system (an application for release, for
example), and those completely outside the system, such as squatting. Two main informal
transactions are carried out; subletting and the sale/transfer of public land. Formal title
documents are not exchanged in these transactions.119 Much of the land used for squatting is
prime agricultural land but informal settlements also occupy canal banks which should, in
theory, be kept clear to allow machinery access for dredging the water-courses. These are the
areas which CH&PA refers to as ‘zero tolerance’ areas, indicating that no upgrading or
servicing will be carried out.
The poor state the land administration system, in which records are often out of date,
incomplete, or difficult to retrieve not only fails to reflect real conditions but makes it very
difficult for government to plan and formulate policy. The lack of reliable information to the
public does nothing to inspire confidence in the system.120 There is a clear need for
improvement in recording and retrieval of information.
Land registration
LSC keeps the Deeds Register under Act 501. It is a mixture of cadastral plans and those
identified by description. Under the 1959 Land Registry Act, implemented in 1960,
registration is through a parcel-based system in which each parcel number is unique.
Cadastral surveys are very important in Guyana as many disputes have arisen over the precise
delineation of plot boundaries. By the simple expedient of planting offence slightly over a
boundary, an increasing plot size can be obtained sometimes without a neighbour noticing.
The cadastral system provides however such an accurate plan that this can be determined
through the courts. If land has been occupied in this way for 12 years without dispute, it can
be granted lawfully to the invader.121
119
Bishop (2003).
120
Bishop (2003).
121
77
In order to complete a sale (transport) of property, the proposed sale must be advertised in the
official Gazette for two weeks before the transaction. If no objections are made, the
transaction can continue. If objections are made, the matter is taken to court for settlement.
Even without the court settlement, the process is burdensome, expensive and time consuming
and the institutional and human resource are inadequate for the task.
Guyana has a form of squatters rights under which undisturbed occupation of land for 12
years or more gives the squatter a right obtained title. Problems arise, however, from the
inefficiency of the administration system. Recent regularisations have cleared many of the
potential cases.
Move this somewhere? The Regional Democratic Councils are responsible for routine
cadastral surveying and the administration of State land, They are not effective, however, in
administering Government leases nor communicating with the Land and Surveys
Commission, all of which leads to an inefficient land administration service.
The Registrar of Deeds cannot keep pace with the demands of land and mortgage registration,
and the sale and leasing of land holdings and properties. The long process required should
take three months but a year has been more common in the early 21st century. The World
Bank estimates that it takes 75 days to register property in Guyana with six procedures
costing 4.6% of the value of the property.122 From 2009, however, when plots are put on the
market by CH&PA, the government initiates a “one stop shop” for fast-tracking the process
of allocating house plots, their distribution, and accessing loans.123
122
http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploretopics/registering-property. Accessed 18 January, 2016.
123
feature
78
Figure 39. Housing Ministry staff members facilitate beneficiaries to complete
their paper work at a One Stop Shop.124
The subsidy element in plots sold by CH&PA is unlikely to be progressive, i.e., assisting the
poor rather than better-off households. The average price of allocated public land has
remained steady for all categories of plots. Prices from between GYD0.5 million to GYD1.2
million for middle and higher income households, for low income house plots price averages
about GYD100,000. In this context, however, the price of housing varies little with respect to
whether the land was bought privately or from government. Thus, the incentive for buying
public land as a speculation is high. A Habitat for Humanity report points out that many
households buy state land at subsidised prices and then sell it on illegally for market prices,
making large profits.125 Land sold by government at subsidised rates soon rises to market
value on resale so is a good speculation. There is little else in which to invest domestic saving
in Guyana. If this poor targeting of subsidies and speculation in the subsidized land are to be
reduced or reversed, leasing state land should only be done at market price levels. Any
subsidy element on land should be applied on the demand side, improving the economic
standing of poorer households so that they can afford such land.
124
feature.
125
Alternative methods for home acquisition underutilised – Habitat for Humanity,
http://www.guyanatimesgy.com/2015/01/30/alternative-methods-for-home-acquisition-underutilised-habitat-for-
humanity/
79
“Unclear or unmarked boundaries of indigenous settlements have led to encroachment from
loggers and miners and a general sense of insecurity regarding rights and ownership of the
Amerindian peoples”.126
Taxing land and property
One of the main reasons behind land administration is the ability of a municipality or
government to raise tax revenue through a property tax on land owned by individuals or
companies. The valuation of land is done by the Ministry of Finance and the Valuation
Board. The latter determines valuation levels but there is a huge backlog of valuations to be
carried out. Many of the valuations are very out of date and many plots are not valued at all.
For example, those in Linden date from 1976 and development since then are not valued for
tax purposes. Only 60% of the town’s properties have been valued for tax purposes. Typical
annual tax amounts in Georgetown and Linden would be between GYD30,000 (US$150) and
GYD18,000 (US$90) per year respectively. Even this small amount can be paid in four parts
if a household has need. If a local council disagrees with the valuation it can object to the
Rating Appeal Panel.127 The transaction costs of collecting property taxes are too high
especially if a court case and distraint order is necessary.
In 2015, Georgetown Municipal Council held an amnesty on property tax for three months
during which the tax for at least the previous year could be paid without interest. About
GYD100 million (US$483,000) was collected but about half of that amount was lost through
waiving the interest. Property taxes, at least for the previous year, must be paid before
planning approval is given on any plot. Georgetown Municipal Council has begun taking
people to court over non-payment of property tax but the cost of doing this rarely makes it
worthwhile. Councils can charge for processing applications and for market stalls but these
bring in relatively small amounts.128
Land regularisation and squatter upgrading
Guyana has a system of regularizing informal land holdings and has been active in this field
through the CH&PA for more than a decade through its Community Development
Department and regional offices.
In squatter regularisation and upgrading, each plot is surveyed for freehold tenure on the
cadastre. In Linden, the survey costs GYD59,400 per plot together with legal fees of
126
127
Stakeholder interviews at Georgetown Municipal Council and Linden Interim Management Committee.
128
Stakeholder interview at Georgetown. Lands and Surveys Commission N Municipal Council.
80
GYD8,000; GYD67,400 (US$330) in all.129 Although this is a relatively high cost means of
granting each household a secured title, the cost is reduced by surveying many at once. In
addition, Guyanese households would be unwilling to have a secured plot without full
cadastral survey as accurate boundaries are highly valued in Guyana. Not every occupant of
squatter settlements decides on regularization as many cannot afford the major benefit which
comes with it, that of borrowing money from a bank to improve their dwelling. Despite much
international argument based around de Soto’s ideas,130 many households prefer not to go to
the expense of regularization as they are not able or willing to derive benefit from it.131
Figure 40. Sophia, where squatter regularisation and upgrading has generated
different levels of new investment in housing
If squatter settlements are in areas such as infrastructure reserves, on land prone to flooding,
on land where infrastructure is impossible, and on canal banks, they are regarded as
unsustainable and treated with what CH&PA call ‘zero tolerance’. They will not be serviced,
nor will their land holding be regularised so, at best, they will be relocated. In 2009, 256
households were relocated from canal banks (anything newer?). In Georgetown there are
many thousand households which have built in zero tolerance areas. CH&PA works with
Georgetown municipal council on relocation plans taking into account the availability of
livelihoods in the new location.
129
Stakeholder interview, Linden office of CH&PA.
130
De Soto (2000).
131
Chome and McCall (2005)
81
The idea of zero tolerance of squatters in some areas, however, appears to be only on paper.
Many such developments are tolerated, probably because of a lack of capacity to clear and
relocate them. They continue to spread and consolidate.
Figure 41. Squatters in a ‘zero tolerance’ area on canal banks, Georgetown
82
Chapter 7. Finance for housing
Institutional Framework
The financial sector in Guyana is small with a total asset base of the commercial banks of
only US$1.2 billion in 2012. There are six commercial banks and six non-bank financial
institutions (NBFIs), ten insurance companies and 18 foreign exchange dealers. Unusually for
Caribbean countries, pension schemes are quite large, accounting for almost 7 percent of total
assets. Housing mortgages outstanding at the end 2010 represented only one percent of the
GDP. 132 The Prime lending rate used by commercial banks has averaged 12.83% since
September 2013. Interest rates for savers have been between 1.26 and 1.53%. The New
Building Society’s Save and Prosper shares offer 3% per annum interest.133
Table 20. Outstanding mortgages in March 2014 by sector
Type of banking institution (GYD millions)

New Building Society 34,600
Pension schemes 1,100
Private sector banks 300
Life insurance companies 61
Non-life insurance companies 150
Trust companies 2
Source: Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2014b: table 5.1); (CHPA, not dated); 5.2a and c;
5.3a, b, and c; 5.4
132
CHPA (2012).
133
Bank of Guyana, 2015 Banking System Statistical Abstract, December. Tables 4.1 and 4.2
83
Table 21. Depth of the Housing Finance System, 2000-2010
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

GDP at market prices 291,964 352,151 391,505 413,114 460,072
(GYD Millions)
Outstanding Loans to 3759.1 4242.6 5502.3 3857.4 5147.1
Housing (GYD Millions)
Ratio of Housing Loans 0.064 0.062 0.064 0.042 0.047
to bank portfolio
Ratio of Housing Loans 0.013 0.012 0.014 0.009 0.011
to GDP
Source: Bank of Guyana cited by CH&PA (2012: table 2.5)134
Table 22. Housing loans available by institution (2016)
Domestic mortgage
interest rate
New Building Society 4.5 - 7.45
Republic Bank (Guyana) Ltd. 7.45 - 11
Guyana Bank for Trade and Industry 10 - 11
Bank of Nova Scotia 7.5 - 10
Demerara Bank 6.95 – 12.5
Citizens’ Bank Ltd. 9 - 11
Bank of Baroda 10
Hand in Hand Trust 10
Source: Republic Bank and NBS at the Stakeholder Workshop
It is evident from Table 22. that many institutions offer housing loans at rates between 6.95
and 12.5 per cent per annum. Only the New Building Society offers the government
subsidized loan at 4.5%.
New Building Society (NBS)
NBS is easily the largest mortgage institution with GYD34.6 billion in mortgages in March
2014. It has a low income package in which it can lend up to GYD4 million (US$19,400)
at an interest rate of 4.5%to households with incomes not exceeding GYD80,000
(US$387) per month and with a monthly repayments of around GYD29,000 (US$140).
134
CHPA (2012).
84
This includes a subsidy paid to the NBS by the government to keep the interest rate
below bank base rate.135
Banks
Bank institutions operate only through mortgages and extend them down the income scale
towards GYD 35,000 per month through government programmes of subsidy.
Figure 42. Real estate mortgage loans from commercial banks, 2005-2015 (GYD
millions)
Source: Bank of Guyana Statistical bulletin table 2.10(b)136
As can be seen in Figure 42., mortgage lending by commercial banks has grown year on year
for the last decade from GYD9 billion (US$45 million) in 2005 to GYD72 billion
(US$346 million) in 2015.
Other financial institutions offering housing finance
Non-bank institutions lend homebuyers the deposit money or to assist with the repairs. The
Hand in Hand Trust offers mortgages. Pension schemes are a significant financier of
mortgages with outstanding loans of GYD1.1 billion (US$5.3 million) in March 2014.
Insurance companies are much smaller players in housing finance, together lending over
GYD200 million (almost US$1 million).
135
Intervention by Noel Fernandes, New Building Society at the Stakeholder Workshop, 18th February, 2016.
136
Bank of Guyana 2015 stats.
85
The mortgage environment
The recent macroeconomic environment has been favourable to the development of the
housing finance system. There are special rates for housing loans in which the mortgage bank
claims the difference between the given rate and the market rate from the government. This is
probably the most unsustainable type of subsidy as it is impossible to predict its cost from
one year to the next and each extra mortgage increases the burden. Rates are shown in Table
23.. As the current bank rate, set by the Monetary Committee of the Bank of Guyana, has
been 5% since 2013; the low-income mortgage rates are around that rate and the others are
higher as would be expected with retail loans.
Over time, deposits at the commercial banks have increased while credit to the private sector
has expanded. As a result, housing finance became increasingly available. Such an
environment is very favourable for market-based, long-term housing finance affordable to
potential homebuyers so the housing finance system has expanded. Nominal lending rates,
except where they are subsidised by governments, have been higher than inflation and deposit
rates have attracted savings.
There is no Credit Bureau in Guyana to allow potential lenders to carry out a search on
whether the potential borrower has other credit and how they have performed in paying it
back. The only way banks have of assuring repayments is the documentation on income and
employment. It is, therefore, in their interests to lend only to formal sector workers especially
those on salaries and in permanent employment.137 This is common across the developing
world.
The problem with mortgages, however, is that they are rarely appropriate for the low-income
groups because they need formal ownership of a plot, proof of income and a deposit of 20-
25% of the total cost of the dwelling.
A recent market survey by Habitat for Humanity has demonstrated that a lack of affordable
housing finance is a major problem for CH&PAs housing supply ambitions for the low
income households because mortgages are the only housing finance available but most low-
income households either do not qualify for or cannot afford one.138 It is also evident that,
although banking institutions have introduced innovative finance in neighbouring regions,
there is an. absence of financial options for affordable housing in Guyana owing to a lack of
137
138
Habitat for Humanity Guyana (2014) and Stakeholder interview, Habitat for Humanity Guyana.
86
maturity in the housing sector and legislation which is archaic and does not protect the
investor or mitigate risks for stakeholders.139
Table 23. Interest rates for housing loans (2016)
Category Minimum amount Maximum amount Rate (%) Subsidy on

(GYD) (GYD) base rate
+3%
Low Income Up to 4 million 4.25 3.75
4.001 million 8 million 6.15 1.85
Easy Home Loan 8.001 million 10 million 7.45 0.55
10.001 million 12 million 8.75 -0.75
12.001 million and above 11 -3.00
Source: Republic Bank
Note: Bank base rate has been set at 5% for more than two years.
Column five of Table 23. shows the subsidy based on an 8% mortgage which would cover
the 5% base rate and a reasonable 3% add-on for bad debts, administration and profit. It is
evident that all households below a monthly income level of GYD 10 million are being
subsidised to some extent, but those with the lowest income potentially receive the most. If
the 12.8% prime lending rate is used as a basis rather than the 5% base rate, the subsidy
appears much higher. As these are long loans, the start up income may not represent that
received in most of the loan period as workers progress and businesses develop. Thus, a
household with a current income exceeding GYD 12 million could quite likely still be paying
4.25% per annum on their long-established mortgage granted when their income was less
than GYD4 million. This is one of the major inefficiencies of subsidies set to reduce interest
rates over a long period without continual or occasional means testing of the recipient
household.
Commercial banks giving subsidies can deduct them from their annual profits for tax
purposes. Thus, the cost of the interest rate subsidy is borne by the government and was
thought likely to continue for many years to come as the mortgages mature.
139
87
Table 24. Source of finance for housebuilding
Source Percentage (n=165)

Personal cash 63.0
Formal loan 26.7
Informal loan 3.6
Acquired materials 3.6
Other 3.0
Source: Habitat for Humanity Guyana 2014140
According to Table 24., derived from a Habitat for Humanity survey,141 only just over a
quarter of households used a formal loan to finance their house-building. By far the largest
percentage (63%) used personal cash. Just over one quarter use formal loans.
In the experience of the Linden branch office of CH&PA, most households to whom they
allocate plots build without a bank loan. To obtain a loan, household needs to deposit 25%
and pay large transaction costs for house insurance life insurance, etc. New building Society
demands 30% deposit.
Subsidies to housing
Home Improvement and Hinterland Housing Subsidies
The CH&PA’s Home Improvement and Hinterland Housing Subsidies between 2010 and
2015, have only numbered 663 in total (Table 8.). If they have been well targeted to the
poorest households, they will have had an impact way above what their numbers suggest. The
targeting of subsidy is always a problem as it is in the interest of the applicant to lie about
their income. One of the key functions of housing profile is to examine how much and to
whom subsidies are given.
Mortgage Interest Relief (MIR)
Under the Income Tax Act Chapter 81:01, Section 20A (1) and (2), the government offers up
to 30% tax relief on mortgages, from approved lending institutions, that are no more than
GYD30 million (US$145,000) and for first-time buyers.142 It is, of course, only available for
applicants who live in Guyana when they apply.
140
141
142
http://www.gra.gov.gy/publications/notices/159-notice-to-all-stakeholders-mortgage-interest-relief and
http://www.gra.gov.gy/income-tax/application-for-mortgage-interest-relief
88
Other subsidies
There are cross-subsidies within the mortgage system in which the government pays the costs
of mortgagors lending to lower-income households at reduced rates while higher income
households pay slightly more than necessary to cover the loan (Table 23.)
A form of subsidy is offered by major construction materials retailers as discounts on the

price of materials offered for households who hold a CH&PA plot. These are dealt with in
more detail in chapter nine.
Remittances
The diaspora plays a major part in housing investment in Guyana, from paying rent for
relatives to financing housing construction. Remittances in Guyana have increased from an
annual average of US$3.6 million (0.8 percent of Gross Domestic Product or GDP) between
1982 and 1990 to an average of US$293.8 million from 2001 until 2013, reaching a peak of
US$424 million in 2007.143 These inflows are thought to be understated because a significant
amount flows into Guyana unrecorded through informal channels.144
Microfinance for housing

According to the NDS,145 in 1996 there were three important credit schemes focusing on
women. The Bank of Nova Scotia had a scheme for group microfinance to micro-enterprises.
No collateral was needed, and loans were given to groups of five or six women who
guaranteed each other's loans. There was a minimum loan of GYD15,000 (US$75) to each
member of the group with repayments every month. Once all loans were repaid, the group
members could borrow a larger amount up to a maximum of GYD500,000 (US$2,500).
Savings were encouraged so that members may eventually qualify for individual loans. There
were about two hundred groups in 1996, with approximately 80 percent of the participants
being women. The default rate was only about 5 per cent. This is no longer available.
The Institute of Private Enterprise Development (IPED) had a very similar loan but the
minimum was GYD30,000 (US$150) per member, all of whom must belong to an NGO.
After the first loan has been repaid, the next loan can be up to GYD100,000 (US$500). By
1996, there were over 2,000 members, about 75-80 per cent of whom were women and loans
143
World Bank, 2012. World Development Indicators and Global Development Finance. World Bank,
Washington, DC http:// databank.worldbank.org/ddp/home.do?Step=1&id=4 quoted in. Kumar (2013)
144
Kumar (2013).
145
89
totalled GYD74.4 million (US$372,000), with a repayment rate of approximately 95 percent.
Cooperation for Development International (CDI) grants loans to individuals, rather than
groups and less than 40 per cent are women. Its total disbursement to 1996 was
GYD21 million, with an estimated 80 percent repayment rate.146 There are now no
microfinance funds for housing.
There is a traditional Savings and Credit Co-op (SACCO) in Guyana which is called, "Box
Hand", a variant of those which exist in numerous other Caribbean countries and a crucial
resource for women. A contributor can draw a large sum of money from the Box, while
contributing a specified small sum each week or month. Market vendors and traders use the
Box Hand as a means of funding purchasing goods for sale.147 There is also a Mothers’
Development Window (MDW) which provides credit to its members, many of whom are
traders and market vendors.
146
147
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (1996) and Hossein (2015).
90
Chapter 8. Infrastructure
The GHS recognizes that an absence of effective urban planning and the proliferation of
urban sprawl has adversely affected the supply of affordable housing and worsened access to
services for low-income households. It requires “demand-responsive mechanisms for the
introduction of infrastructure and basic services.”148
The rapid growth in housing in Guyana has not been matched by the same increase in
servicing so there is a deficit in infrastructure provision. Poor maintenance has also limited
the effectiveness of services provided. The national PRSP expresses a goal “… to improve
the sanitary conditions of the population of Georgetown and to reduce the current levels of
environmental degradation through improvement in the quality and availability of the water
supply and sewerage services.”149
The institutional framework

“The organizational policies and regulations do not support the developments of
housing, e.g., each utility company has different organizational policies with regards to
how they finance and how they develop a scheme ...”150
The infrastructure providers in Guyana are known to work relatively independently of each
other with respect to providing services to housing areas, reflecting the silo-approach of
governance generally.
The power and telecom providers are reluctant to fit their infrastructure until most of the plots
are occupied but people are reluctant to develop well ahead of when they perceive the
services may be fitted.
Guyana Water Inc. (GWI)
GWI came about from a merger of the Guyana Sewerage and Water Commission and the
Guyana Water Authority. Its mission is “to deliver safe, adequate and affordable water and to
ensure safe sewerage systems for improved public health and sustainable economic
development.”151
148
UN-Habitat, 2013, p.15.
149
HYDEA (2010: 15).
150
Anonymous intervention in the infrastructure discussion group, Stakeholder Workshop, February, 2016.
151
HYDEA (2010: 21).
91
GWI aims to ensure access to water for every community in Guyana on a principle of equity
and quality of life. GWI strives to ensure that everyone has access at least at standpipe level.
It uses the WHO guidelines on standards. These stipulate that all people should have
“safe and equitable access to a sufficient quantity of water for drinking, cooking and
personal and domestic hygiene.” 152
Public water points should be sufficiently close to households to enable use of at least 15
litres per person per day. This is distance is defined as a maximum of 500 metres and
queueing time at the water source should not be more than 30 minutes. 153
There is at least 50% of wastage in the water supply system so GWI has established call
centres where reports can be made of leaks. Through this and other maintenance measures, it
aims to reduce losses to 30% within two years. There are many illegal connections in the
system and these are included in the wastage calculation. GWI is currently trying to meter
across the customer base, especially for commercial customers. It is difficult for GWI to
access meters that are in people’s homes. Both prepaid and smart meters are being
experimented with. Arrears are tolerated for 28 days but, thereafter, GWI will send a
reminder and give the customer a little bit more grace, after which they will be disconnected.
GWI staff are sometimes attacked when disconnecting customers who are in arrears.
Water is obtained for treatment from surface sources such as rivers and canals (60%) and
from groundwater (40%) through boreholes of 1,200 feet. There are 126 deep boreholes in
the country.
GWI operates the central Georgetown sewers but the sewage is not treated it simply outfalls
into the Demerara River at Fort Groin. GWI is trying to move away from household septic
tanks as they tend to be poorly maintained and encourage mosquito borne diseases. There is a
move towards local sewage treatment; it is being discussed for 1,380 households in a new
area called Farm.154 Sewage and water must be pumped in Georgetown as the city is so flat.
There is, therefore, a close link between their provision and the reliability of the electricity
supplies.
152
Minimum standards in water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion, (not dated; 2010?)
https://www.redr.org.uk/objects_store/the_sphere_handbook_-water_sanitation_and_hygiene_promotion.pdf:
19.
153
Minimum standards in water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion, (not dated; 2010?)
https://www.redr.org.uk/objects_store/the_sphere_handbook_-water_sanitation_and_hygiene_promotion.pdf.
154
Stakeholder Interview, GWI.
92
Guyana Power and Light Company (GPL)
Guyana Power & Light Inc. (GPL) is the sole official supplier of electricity in Guyana. GPL
supplies voltage ranging from 110 to 220 Volts depending on the area and on both 50 and 60
cycles. Electrical supply in Guyana began in the late 19th century through several local supply
companies and the main mining companies in Linden and Berbice. In 1966, the Guyana
Electricity Corporation was established as a wholly owned by the Government of Guyana. In
1999, a 50/50 equity partnership between the Government of Guyana on one hand and a
consortium comprising the Commonwealth Development Corporation (CDC) of UK and the
Electricity Supply Board International (ESBI) of Ireland, on the other, established the GPL. It
reverted to 100% ownership by the government in 2003.
Guyana Telephone and Telegraph (GTT)

GTT will install their network when there is 75% occupation of plots in urban areas or 40%
in rural areas. The company staff visit areas under development to check whether occupation
rates have been reached, based on evidence of households actually living there, so that
installation can go ahead.155 This information is not shared around the other infrastructure
agencies or with Local Authorities.
GTT is beginning to fit fibre-optic cable to each home rather than the traditional copper wire
which cannot cope with demands for data-download. This has delayed the installation of
telephones in some areas such as Parfait Harmonie. As this is a large project is very large,
GTT is reluctant to fit the copper-wire infrastructure plus two exchanges scheme and then
have to refit in a few years’ time. GTT prefers to wait and fit fibre-optic cable when this is
agreed upon. The company weighs up the benefits of technology versus the cost and rate of
return.156
CH&PA as infrastructure provider

CA&PA is a major provider of infrastructure for housing. It fits roads and pipework for its
new estates, providing over 300 kms of new roads and pipe mains between 2011 and 2014
(Table 25.).
155
Intervention by Roderick Dyer, GTT, at the Stakeholder Workshop, February 18th, 2016.
156
Intervention by Roderick Dyer, GTT, at the Stakeholder Workshop, February 18th, 2016.
93
Figure 43. CH&PA as infrastructure provider through a private contractor
Figure 44. Backyard septic tank provided by CH&PA at Perseverance
94
Table 25. Infrastructure provision by CH&PA (2011-2014)
Total 2011-
2011 2012 2013 2014
2014
New roads constructed
25.4 107 111 79 322.4
(km).
Pipe mains installed
25.4 161 92 66 344.4
(KM).
Roads rehabilitated
30 52 50 132
(km).
Areas with electricity
4 9 13
installed
On its estates of plots to sell, CH&PA has started to install the main infrastructure works,
including the water mains, and main power transmission lines and transformers, ahead of
occupation so that households can occupy their plots straight away..157
The regulatory framework

The Water and Sewerage Act, 2002
The Water and Sewerage Act 2002 controls the supply of water and sewerage in Guyana. It
provides for the Guyana Water Inc. (GWI) to be the owner, manager, controller, protector
and conservator of water resources and provision of safe water, sewerage services, etc.
It is telling that the name of the act focuses attention on pipe-borne sanitation systems in
which human waste is transported by water before processing and dumping. It is unfortunate
that other forms of sanitation, which were well-known in 2002, especially those which do not
rely on expensive sewer infrastructure were not included.
More laws – for electricity supply? Waste disposal?
157
Intervention by Silviena Charles, Guyana Power and Light Co., in the Stakeholder Workshop, 18th February,
2016.
95
Water supply to housing
The most important source of water for public use in the coastal urban areas is groundwater
contained in coastal aquifers but extraction from them has led to saline water intrusion in
recent years.
Table 26. Source of drinking water (2009)
George- Percentage Percentage

Total town Other Total of all of all
urban urban urban rural households population
Improved sources 44.7 25.8 80.8 69.5 62.5 62.8
Piped into
dwelling/yard/plot 28.5 14.5 55.4 33.9 32.4 32.5
Public tap/standpipe 0.4 0.0 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.1
Tube well or borehole 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Protected dug well 0.0 0.0 0.1 2.0 1.5 1.7
Protected spring 0.7 0.0 2.1 0.3 0.4 0.5
Rainwater 14.9 11.3 21.9 31.9 27.1 27.0
Non improved source 0.6 0.0 1.8 6.3 4.7 5.9
Unprotected dug well 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.5 0.7
Unprotected spring 0.4 0.0 1.3 0.6 0.5 0.6
Tanker truck/cart with small
tank 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2
Surface water 0.1 0.0 0.4 4.9 3.5 4.3
Bottled water 54.2 73.6 17.1 23.4 32.1 30.6
Percentage using any
improved source of
drinking water 98.5 99.1 97.1 92.3 94.1 93.0
It is evident from Table 26. that only 45% of urban households (but only 26% of households
in Georgetown) drink water as it is piped into their dwelling. Most of the remainder drink
bottled water or rainwater. In the small towns and rural areas, much larger percentages drink
tap water, with the remainder drinking rainwater or bottled water. Very few households in
Guyana drink from unimproved sources.
The few households who lack water on the premises tend to be less than 30 minutes (round
trip) from a source of potable water (Table 27.). Many in the wealthier echelons, install a
water tank to allow them to have water all the time even the services may be intermittent.
96
Figure 45. A water tabk installed in a high cost development in Linden
Table 27. Time to obtain drinking water (round trip, 2009)
George Percentage Percentage

Water on premises 97.4 99.3 93.9 90.7 92.6 91.7
Less than 30 minutes 2.1 0.6 5.1 7.1 5.7 6.7
30 minutes or longer 0.3 0.0 0.9 1.6 1.2 1.2
Don't know/missing 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.5 0.4
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
97
Table 28. Person who usually collects drinking water (2009)

Adult female 15+ 0.2 0.0 0.6 2.6 1.9 2.3
Adult male 15+ 1.8 0.6 4.2 5.3 4.3 4.4
Female child under 15 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1
Male child under 15 0.3 0.0 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.7
Other 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.7 0.5 0.7
Water on premises 97.4 99.3 93.9 90.7 92.6 91.7
Missing 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
In the few households which do not have drinking water within the home, most of the
collection is done by adult males. This is counter-intuitive as the literature talks of this being
a task for females in most of the world.
The costs of water and sanitation services are highly sensitive to the price of energy as both
water and Sewerage must be pumped in Georgetown as the land is so flat. GWI can generate
more water and greater pressure by increasing pumping hours but this will affect the cost of
production.
There is a Public Utilities Commission that sets tariffs and the government provide the
subvention to ease the burden on the GWI. There will be an increase in tariffs soon.
Standpipe water is free. Customers of GWI, i.e., those households having home connections,
pay tariffs as determined by government. Pensioners receive their first 10 m³ for GYD750.
Through the Ministry of Human Services and Social Security, the Government of Guyana
Pensioner’s subsidy is granted yearly to recipients of the Government’s Old Age Pension to
help them pay their water bills. Customers in Georgetown are granted GYD11,880 (US$57)
yearly while those elsewhere are granted GYD8,976 yearly (US$43).158
The sewerage system for housing

There are three sewerage systems in Georgetown: central Georgetown, Tucville and
University of Guyana. The latter two are quite small serving between 1,000 and 3,000 people.
158
http://www.gwiguyana.com/?q=node/128.
98
Households in Georgetown not served by sewers depend mainly on septic tanks whilst a few
rely on pit latrines. The central Georgetown system services about 50,000 people in an area
bounded by the Demerara River to the west, Vllissingen road in the east, the Atlantic Ocean
in the north and Sussex Street in the south. Opened in 1929 to serve 10,000 people in an area
of 460 ha, the system discharges into the mouth of the Demerara River via a short outfall at
Fort Groyne, Kingston. There have been no extensions since 1929. The system at Tucville
was built in 1970 and services around 3000 people draining to a treatment works which uses
the extended-aeration activated-sludge process after which the treated effluent is discarded
into a drainage canal. Unfortunately the treatment works has been out of operation for several
years so the untreated effluent discharges directly into the trench canals. In 2009 the IDB
funded works to transform the Tucville plant into a receiving station for sludge from septic
tanks around Georgetown to reduce a problem of illegal sludge dumping. Owing to excessive
density in the sludge deposited there, this is not working particularly well and collection
trucks continue illegal dumping of the sludge directly into the Demerara River estuary next to
the Fort Groyne outfall.159
GWI is keenly aware of the risk of contamination of the water supply owing to the poor
condition of the sewerage system and its leakage into canals and trenches. Indeed, it is
estimated that 40-50% of crude sewage pumped in the ring main disperses into the ground
through leaks.160 It is hoping to improve the outfall.
159
HYDEA.
160
HYDEA (2010: 46).
99
Table 29. Toilet facilities (2009)

Total Other Total
town of all of all
urban urban rural
urban households population
Improved, not shared facility
Flush/pour flush to piped
11.3 16.4 1.5 1.1 4.0 4.0
sewer system
Flush/pour flush to septic
68.6 72.1 61.7 39.8 48.0 45.9
tank
Flush/pour flush to pit
0.1 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.4
latrine
Ventilated improved pit
3.5 2.5 5.5 9.0 7.4 8.3
(VIP) latrine
Pit latrine with slab 6.6 1.6 16.2 31.2 24.2 25.4
Total improved, not
sharing 90.1 92.8 84.9 81.4 83.8 84.0
Non-improved facility
Any facility shared with
5.9 4.7 8.3 10.4 9.1 8.3
other households
Flush/pour flush not to
0.1 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.2
sewer/septic tank/pit latrine
Pit latrine without slab/open
3.3 1.8 6.1 5.5 4.9 5.5
pit
Hanging toilet/hanging
0.0 0.0 0.1 0.9 0.7 0.7
latrine
No facility/bush/field 0.3 0.2 0.5 1.3 1.0 1.0
Total non-improved 9.6 6.9 15.0 18.4 15.9 15.7
Missing 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

It is evident from Table 29. that over 90% of urban households have an improved toilet
facility which they do not share. They are mostly flush or pour-flush types draining to septic
tanks. Water-borne systems to sewers are only evident in parts of Georgetown (16%) and are
very rare in any other area. Overall, 84% of households and people nationally and over 90%
in urban areas use improved toilets. The most common non-improved toilet characteristic is
sharing.
Waste disposal from housing

In Georgetown, there has been a problem over landfill and Central Government has recently
taken over the tip. There are issues of dumping outside the tip after its opening hours. In
Georgetown, bins are emptied once or twice weekly. There is no recycling.
It is evident from Table 30. that garbage is collected across most of Georgetown but other
towns only have restricted collections and rely on burning to dispose of their wastes. This is
neither hygienic nor is it ecologically acceptable.
100
Table 30. Household by Garbage Disposal Method by Town and Major Areas
Don't
Garbage Dumping
Dumping Com- Know/
Town Collection Burning River/ Burying Other
on Land post Not
Service Sea/Pond
Stated
Georgetown 81.9 15.5 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.9 0.9 0.0
Linden 15.0 67.4 10.8 0.1 0.6 6.0 0.0 0.0
New
31.8 60.6 3.6 0.1 2.0 1.1 0.7 0.0
Amsterdam
Anna Regina 0.4 88.6 1.9 0.4 2.1 0.7 6.0 0.0
Corriverton 39.6 37.8 7.9 0.0 13.7 0.7 0.3 0.0
Bartica 16.6 69.6 7.0 0.2 1.0 5.3 0.3 0.0
Parika 6.0 81.0 0.7 0.1 11.6 0.3 0.2 0.1
Rosehall 36.0 59.8 1.4 0.0 0.2 2.1 0.4 0.0
Rosignol 0.0 80.6 13.7 0.4 4.4 0.8 0.1 0.0
Mahdia 0.2 74.4 17.1 0.2 1.5 6.1 0.5 0.0
Charity 0.3 97.6 0.0 0.0 1.7 0.3 0.0 0.0
Lethem 13.5 85.1 0.4 0.7 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0
Total 58.5 34.4 3.0 0.1 1.4 1.7 0.8 0.0
Source: Population and Housing Census, 2002
Figure 46. Garbage dumping by squatters outside of the official garbage removal
service, Vreed en Hoop
Power supplies for housing
Over 90% of urban households, and 78% nationally, have electricity.161
161
DHS table 2.7.
101
Cooking fuel
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Don't Know/Not Stated
50%
Other
40% Coal
Electricity
30%
Wood
20% Kerosene
Gas
10%
0%
n en m na n ca ka all ol ia ity m tal
or n
Ge Am n Co
ew A
N
Figure 47. Cooking fuel used by households in towns (2002)

Source: 2002 Census
In 2002, most urban households used gas but a significant minority (but a majority in some
such as Linden and Corriverton) use kerosene. Wood dominates in Anna Regina but nowhere
else (Figure 47.).
Roads and street lighting for housing

Major roads are the responsibility of the central government but most roads in cities and
towns come under the local government, as do street lighting. Many roads are in very poor
condition owing to inadequate maintenance over many years.
Street lighting???
102
Chapter 9. Construction and building materials
The construction sector is one of the most important economic sectors in Guyana and housing
is a key component therein. Construction has contributed around GYD30 billion
(US$150 million) per annum since 2006 with an annual low of GYD27.8 billion in 2007 and
a high in 2013 of GYD35.5 billion (US$177,500)162.
Up to 2010, about 12 per cent of total annual investment took place in construction and it
generated more than 8 per cent of GDP. The housing sector holds an important place in the
economy especially because of its potential for growth and for its ability to generate jobs and
income. The National Draft Housing Policy163 estimated that more than 4,500 persons (more
than 2% of the working population) are employed directly in the housing sector so the
economy could be rapidly affected by increases or decreases in housing supply.
Over this period, construction added between 7.8 per cent (in 2012) and 10.4 per cent (2010)
to the GDP. A survey of contractors and developers, carried out for the Draft Housing Policy,
estimated that the production of each dwelling requires;
“a total intermediate consumption of 0.15 and generates 0.045 units of value added. In
addition, 10.9 percent of total housing demand is in the form of intermediate demand
and 89.1 percent is in the form of final demand for finished goods.”164
Unfortunately, however, production of one dwelling uses about 90 per cent of imports and 10
per cent of local materials.
The GHS recognises that:
“The national economic policy, as it refers to urban development, should support and
take full advantage of forwards and backwards linkages in the production, improvement
and maintenance of housing165 and of the enormous employment potential of the
construction industry for local economic development.”166
When construction uses labour-intensive methods, it can generate considerable employment,

particularly for the young and the unskilled. Within the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
162
2014 Q1 table 10.2,
163
CHPA (2012).
164
CHPA (2012: 6).
165
UNCHS (UN-Habitat) and the International Labour Organization, Shelter provision and employment generation, 1995.
166
103
2011,167 construction is important for reducing poverty and the Draft National Housing Policy
proclaimed its potential as a key engine of economic growth.168
The traditional building technology involved wooden frames and covering, which is cheap
but relatively expensive to maintain and represents a fire risk. Many houses are built on stilts,
often with no residential use at ground level. Timber is rapidly being displaced by concrete
structures but many still utilize stilts. The replacement process in Georgetown city centre is
rapidly destroying a unique cultural heritage.
The high water table in Georgetown makes piling necessary to reach the underlying clay.
Timber (even Greenheart) can rot in wet ground and concrete piles can be compromised by
rusting reinforcement bars.
Table 31. Comparing housing and construction materials with the CPI (1994=100)
CPI Housing Index Construction

Materials Index
2000 163.0 179.4 143.5
2001 165.4 182.2 128.03
2002 175.5 199.6 130.04
2003 184.3 213.3 137.53
2004 194.4 228.5 150.68
2005 210.4 252.3 181.39
2006 219.2 261.4 219.24
2007 250.0 277.6 260.63
2008 265.9 296.5 367.87
2009 275.6 352.7 458.44
2010 287.7 351.6 581.30
2011 297.4
2012 307.6
2013 310.3
2014 313.9
Source: Values to 2010, National Draft Housing Policy, table 4.2. Values after 2010 (from
CH&PA research) have been recalibrated to 1994=100.
167
168
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2011) and CHPA (2012).
104
It is fairly clear from Table 31. and Figure 48. that construction materials costs have
increased considerably faster that the CPI, making new housing more expensive as years
pass. This is an obvious place to apply policy interventions to reduce the runaway prices on
materials.
700
600
500
400 CPI
300 Housing Index
Construction
200 Materials Index
100
0
00 001 0 02 003 0 04 005 0 06 0 07 008 0 09 010 0 11 012 0 13 0 14
20 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Figure 48. Index numbers for general consumer prices and construction materials
Source: Based on National Draft Housing Policy169
Note: the CPI basket of goods was rebased to 100 in 2010 but this figure continues it as
before (1994=100).
Regulatory framework
Building regulations
Lenise to provide
The CH&PA has its own building regulations, based on those of Georgetown, which are
followed in some of the small towns but some have modifications. For example, setbacks are
ten feet on all sides in Linden.
Building inspectors do not visit the sites during construction or for violations but buildings
are inspected on completion. If adjustments are made during the building process it is the
builder’s job to inform the local authority. Small towns, such as Linden, do not have a full-
time engineer so their building approval meetings may be served by a part-time engineer who
sees all the plans and reports whether they should be approved or not. The approvals process
169
CHPA (2012) table 4.2c
105
only takes one month but can be even quicker if a special meeting is convened and the
councillors are paid for their attendance as normal, but by the applicant. All towns have a
representative on the board of CH&PA.
Regulations for construction firms
The sector is dominated by private contractors, who built over 95% of dwellings between
2000 and 2010, but the industry is not regulated. There is no National Construction Council
or equivalent to administer the construction industry. Thus, if dissatisfied with the
workmanship of a contractor, the householder has no redress. There have been calls for a
National Home-Owners Association but nothing has come of it yet.170
There are no local building codes; the local authorities approve the working drawings but do
not inspect construction. Thus, the quality of construction depends on the skill and devotion
of the contractors. The majority of contractors are found in and around Georgetown (Region
4).
Figure 49. Informal sector contractors advertise in newly laid out residential areas
(Eccles)
170
Intervention in the Stakeholders Workshop by Rawle Small of HfHG.
106
Employment in housing
The construction of housing is likely to generate employment especially for the young and
the unskilled so it is a very important part of the country’s economy. It is very easy to enter
and the laws and regulations in Guyana do not inhibit that.
Direct construction employment in the Perseverance homes created amounted to about 800
jobs with close to 3,000 jobs created through backward linkages and capacity building for
more than 20 small contractors. 171
Wage rates
Currently in Georgetown, construction workers’ rates of pay are shown in Table 32.. In the
informal sector they are likely to be half of these amounts.
Table 32. Formal wage rates in the building industry
Daily rates (GYD and US$) Weekly rates for a six day
week (GYD and US$)
Unskilled labourers 4,000; 20 24,000; 120
Semi-skilled labourers 6,000; 30 36,000; 180
Skilled artisans 7,500; 37.5 45,000; 225
Foremen 10,000; 50 60,000; 300
Source: Stakeholder interview with Carl Benn.
According to one of our informants in the formal construction industry, there is an issue that
construction workers are often absent on a Monday and any day following public holiday.
This is thought to be a result of alcohol consumption. The worker will then make up for time
lost through working overtime. As is common in developing countries, there is also a
problem of supervision especially with non-formally trained practitioners. Anecdotal
evidence suggests that the prospective owner of a dwelling being developed needs to appear
on site at least every day to keep the building work on track and the standard. This builds in
substantial inefficiencies in the supply system, especially for expatriates Guyana these trying
to develop housing back at home in their absence.
171
Guyana Chronicle, 18 January 2015. Accessed 17th December. http://guyanachronicle.com/housing-sector-
has-been-transformational-dynamic-housing-minister/
107
Figure 50. A builder takes advantage of a culvert to advertise his firm
Technical training
The Guyana Technical Institute and other vocational training institutions operate under the
Ministries of Education and Labour. They train students in several disciplines relating to
housing construction, including the use of heavy machinery, carpentry and joiner,y and
bricklaying, electrical and plumbing. They issue professional certificates valid throughout the
Caribbean under the Caribbean Certification Programme.172
Since 2012, most construction skills are taught through “true competency-based training”
under which each of 18 to 20 units is completed with a certificate. Once all of these have
been achieved, an NVQ is awarded without further examination. Candidates can attend night
classes between 5 and 8pm on four days a week or courses can be studied full-time in one
year or less. It has been found that competency-based trainees are more able to function in the
industry than those who have traditional diplomas. Artisans from the informal sector who
already have skills can come into the college and show competency from prior learning, and
be awarded the appropriate certificate. All the construction skills taught. Heavy equipment
training is being instigated using simulators bought by the industry. There are currently 1,786
students and 150 staff in the training colleges which are located in Georgetown, Lyndon,
Essequibo, New Amsterdam, and some small towns. Regular meetings of principals ensure
coordination.
172
CHPA (2012).
108
Building materials
There is general availability of building materials in Guyana through major (Figure 51.) and
minor suppliers. According to the draft national housing policy 2012, 90% of all building
materials used in Guyana are imported either from the Caribbean region or China.
Unfortunately cement and steel need to be imported. There are few new technologies taking
advantage of locally available materials. Most building materials are imported. One of the
reasons posted for the lack of local materials manufacture is that electricity is relatively
costly.
Building materials are not tested by the Guyana National Bureau of Standards.
CH&PA has negotiated discounts for the households who are allocated plots in its estates.
They receive Toolsie Persaud Ltd. and National Hardware allow plot holders to buy materials
at wholesale prices. Harris paints give 7% discount and TCL Guyana discount cement by
20% (Figure 52.).
Figure 51. An example of a building materials supplier in Georgetown
109
Figure 52. One of several discount certificates given to CH&PA plot recipients
Timber
Timber is the traditional material for building housing in Guyana. It is abundant and easily
available, although there is the impression that it is no longer adequately cured before sale.
There is a very hard local timber called Greenheart (Chlorocardium rodiei) which is used for
structural timberwork. It is very durable and is resistant to most insect attacks. It is one of the
best woods for use in marine environments. It is difficult to work on account of its density as
it has a moderate to high blunting effect on cutters.173
173
http://www.wood-database.com/lumber-identification/hardwoods/greenheart/.
110
Figure 53. Timber and concrete housing adjacent to each other in central
Georgetown.
Figure 54. Simple timber housing: Sophia squatter upgrading
111
Figure 55. Timber is the material of choice for many squatters (Vreed en Hoop)
Steel
Steel is imported from China and there is little value-added activity locally. There is potential
for the import of raw steel with finished products being manufactured locally.
Cement
Cement is imported, mainly from Trinidad and Tobago, in bulk by TCL Guyana Ltd (TGL), a
subsidiary of Trinidad Cement Ltd (TCL), and bagged in Guyana. Concrete is the material of
choice for most housing development (Figure 56.). There is a well-known problem of the
misuse of cement in block making, using too little cement to the amount of sand and
aggregate. This has led to several failures of structures (Figure 57.).
112
Figure 56. liberal use of cement, steel and sand in new housebuilding (Eccles)
Figure 57. A severe failure of cement-based construction materials.
113
Figure 58. Cement blocks are made in both formal and informal sector
Figure 58. shows that concrete blocks are for sale at GYD80 for a 4 inch block and GYD140
for a 6 inch block.
Bricks
Burnt bricks have been used for construction in Guyana and there used to be a brick factory.
There is abundant clay and wood is easily available for firing. Bricks were commonly used in
older housing in Linden but are not used now except for decoration as they must be imported.
The establishment of small-scale brick industries wherever there is abundant clay could be a
very good intervention in the construction of housing.
Sand
There is plenty of sand for construction available locally. In Linden, for example, it is up to
three metres deep overlying the clay.
One of the issues which gives the local construction industry a bad name is the dumping of
sand in the roadway before its use for building and leaving heaps after construction is
complete. The Guyana Chronicle of February 19, 2016 (the day after the stakeholder work
shop) carried an article about encroachment of roads by builders and shows a photograph of a
pile of sand completely blocking a road.
114
Aluminium
Bauxite is mined in Guyana but not processed into aluminium.
Other materials
There are few alternatives to cement being used for walling although there should be
potential for the manufacture and use of clay bricks. Most of the building materials are
imported. There is to be an experiment in building material use. A series of plots have been
set aside for companies to build new housing using unconventional materials and sell them on
the market.
Components and fittings
Components such as locks, door handles, etc., are imported from China, despite poor quality.
Machinery and equipment
There are a number of small-scale equipment leasing companies, chiefly for excavators, and a
few large-scale equipment-leasing companies.
Table of costs of building materials
115
No. Details Unit Cost per Unit
Cement Ordinary Portland Cement 42.5 kg sack $2,200
White Cement
Stone 3/4''minus Ton $8,500
Sand Rough/course or Ton $1,500
smooth/fine
Rough/course or Truckload $15,000
smooth/fine
Hollow Blocks 6'' Hollow Blocks per Block $110
(Concrete)
4'' Hollow Blocks per Block $90
Timber 2''x6'' H.W. per BM $200
4''x4'' H.W. per BM $200
1''x8'' H.W. per BM $200
1''x4'' (Dressed) H.W. per BM $240
2''x12'' Threader H.W per BM $240
(Dressed)
Roof Sheeting 26 Guage Pre Painted per Linear Foot $350
26 Gauge Un-Painted per Linear Foot $250
Steel Rods 3/8'' per Length (20 $600
feet)
1/4'' per Length (20 $450
feet)
1/2'' per Length (20 $900
feet)
Plywood 1/2'' 4x8 ft sheet $5,000
Ceramic Tiles 6''x8'' each $160
8''x12'' each $260
12''x12'' each $400
Paint Emulsion per gallon $3,500
Oil Paint per gallon $4,000
Enamel per gallon $4,000
Plumbing Water Closet Set $15,000
Bath Tub per piece $25,000
Kitchen Sink per piece $17,000
Face Basin per piece $15,000
116
No. Details Unit Cost per Unit
4'' PVC Pipe Length (20 feet) $3,200
2'' PVC Pipe Length (20 feet) $1,300
3/4'' PVC Pipe Length (20 feet) $800
Electrical 1/2" PVC Pipe $600
Single Switch per piece $800
Double Switch per piece $1,000
AC Circuit Panel Box (6 per piece $15,000
breakers)
Energy Saving Light Bulb per piece $600
(110V)35W
Windows Glass Louvres each $150
13 blade louvre frame each $1,800
Materials used in the housing stock

Table 33. Flooring material (2009)
Wood/planks 25.3 22.7 30.3 43.1 38.0 38.2
Vinyl or asphalt strips 21.5 22.5 19.5 13.5 15.7 15.9
Parquet or polished
wood 16.6 19.1 11.9 9.3 11.4 10.7
Carpet 14.9 16.4 11.9 8.8 11.4 10.1
Cement 13.1 9.2 20.5 16.9 16.7 16.2
Ceramic tiles 7.7 9.1 5.1 4.1 5.2 4.9
Earth, sand 0.1 0.2 0.0 3.1 2.3 2.9
Dung 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.3 0.3
Palm/bamboo 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.2
Other 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Missing 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
117
In Figure 48., it is clear that floors are predominantly wood. The DHS collected data on wall
and roof materials as well but the results are not published in the report and so cannot be
used.
Table 34. Wall materials, all Guyana (1991 and 2002)
1991 2002
Number Per cent Number Per cent
Wood 118,630 77.0 112,563 61.6
Wood & Concrete 20,407 13.2 34,666 19.0
Concrete 9,409 6.1 27,067 14.8
Adobe 2,540 1.6 3,325 1.8
Makeshift 1,053 0.7 51 0.0
Clay brick 361 0.2 761 0.4
Stone 20 0.0 510 0.3
Other 0 0.0 3,471 1.9
Not Stated 195 0.1 1,733 1.1
Total 182,609 154,153
Source: 2002 Census174
As a forested country, it is, perhaps, unsurprising that the main walling and a substantial
flooring material has been wood in both 1991 and 2002 Censuses and in the Guyana DHS but
it is losing ground to concrete.
174
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2002: table 7.18).
118
100%
90%
80%
70% Other
Clay brick
60% Makeshift
50% Adobe
Stone
40%
Wood & Concrete
30% Concrete
20% Wood
10%
0%
1991 2002
Figure 59. Wall materials, all Guyana (1991 and 2002)

Table 35. Roofing materials in all Guyana (1991 and 2002)
1991 2002
Roofing Materials Number Percent Number Percent
Sheet Metal (Zn, Al,
143,404 93.0 164,877 90.3
Galv)
Shingles (Wood) 1,892 1.2 1,755 1.0
Makeshift 1,726 1.1 2,522 1.4
Shingles (Asphalt) 346 0.2 1,104 0.6
Shingles (Other) 237 0.2 1,839 1.0
Concrete 30 0.0 325 0.2
Tile 17 0.0 1,953 1.1
Thatched/ Troolie
0 0.0 7,016 3.8
Palm
Other 6,501 4.2 1,193 0.7
Not Stated 0 0.0 25 0.0
Total 154,153 100 182,609 100
175
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2002): table 7.18.
176
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2002: table 7.20).
119
Chapter 10. Housing Market
The housing market in Guyana seems to be characterised by speculation and volatility. As
there is little to invest in for Guyanese households who have some capital, housing and land
are where most of the wealth is invested. The recent gold rush fuelled both speculation and
volatility. Developers found that demand for their dwellings rose and deposits were paid, but
the expected income did not materialise so some dwellings have had to be repossessed. On
the other hand, anecdotal evidence suggests that there are many vacant dwellings even though
the census of 2012 shows only 3%, and there are certainly substantial numbers of vacant plots
both in the central Georgetown and in less densely developed areas. The central city plots
remaining empty is counterintuitive as, in the past, most city centre plots have been divided
into two with one house on the back subdivision and one on the front, in close proximity
(Figure 60.. In such a densely built environment, vacant and long-neglected plots are
unexpected.
Figure 60. Subdivided land in central Georgetown give a very intense

development pattern
120
Figure 61. Open and neglected plots still exist in Central Georgetown
The volatility in the housing market is partly caused by inflation and partly because cyclical
increases in the availability of cash to invest and the coming and going of foreign investors
impose artificially high prices. There is also poor information on who owns land and housing
and this inflates the volatility.177
The Draft National Housing Policy divided the housing market into three. The upper income
housing market is said to serve those above the 75th percentile by income in which people can
afford both formal housing and finance. The middle and lower-middle-income market
segments are said to be households between the 75th and 50th percentiles in which household
have high enough incomes to buy formal housing but they tend to lack enough collateral to
attract housing finance. They often live on land which is inadequately registered or surveyed
within the cadastral system. The draft plan sets the low-income market segment as for
households in the lower half of the income distribution who are unlikely to have access to
finance unless they work for the banks or government. It is in this segment that government
intervention may be required. The current housing and subsidy policy aims to move the
mortgage frontier down into this segment of the population and to improve land and
infrastructure issues which discourage developers.
177
121
Judging by advertisements in the national press there is a thriving market in used housing.
This seems to suggest that housing is a conventional investment good in Guyana; able to be
liquidated in times of need or when relocating.
As there is a considerable amount of housing on land that has been discounted by government
at its sale time, there might be expected to be a lower market value for housing thereon than
in the non-government discount areas. There appears, however, to be no sale discount on
housing on government land.178
Perversely, house prices do not reflect the greatly reduced cost of land bought from
government. This represents a speculative gain achieved by those who “win the lottery” of
developing on publicly owned land.
The formal new housing market and, therefore, policy is almost totally dominated by the
concept of a ‘house-lot’ with a single dwelling upon it. There is a strong narrative about how
this is culturally required in Guyana and that the size of the plot is generous because
households want to farm and keep chickens, etc. Windshield surveys of old and new areas in
Georgetown and Linden show that gardening and animal husbandry are not as dominant as
this narrative indicates.179 Indeed. One of the delegates at the Stakeholder Workshop referred
to “the house lot trap”. If discussions were held with low-income households, many
alternatives might be suggested, including multi-household housing (especially for care of the
elderly) and housing suited to occupation by several married siblings.
Rental housing is important in urban Guyana and there is a system of rent controls which
tends to limit the supply of rental units as they make property owners more reluctant to rent
out their dwellings and unwilling to maintain those that are rented. Landlords commonly
collect three months’ rent in advance. Rent contracts vary from one landlord to another.
There is usually content in the contract on the period of the lease, the rental amount and
reasons for which eviction is allowed.
Real estate agency and brokerage

Over the 2006 to 2013 period, real estate activities have grown year on year from
GYD3.3 billion to 4.2 billion in 2013. Over this period, real estate activity added between 1.0
per cent (in 2011 and 2012) and 1.3 per cent (2006). 180
178
Stakeholder interview, CA Raphael, Estate Agent.
179
Exactly the same narrative, and mismatch between it and behaviour, was found during the preparation of the
Lesotho Housing Profile(UN-HABITAT, 2015).
180
Co-operative Republic of Guyana (2014b: table 10.2)
122
Figure 62. Informal estate agency advertising, Central Georgetown
Estate agency is not regulated but formal sector firms operate on established practice. Though
many estate agents have business registration, there should be professional registration, also,
as more order is needed as informal sector operators enter the market (Figure 62.). There are
probably 50+ estate agents in the country. Estate agents in Guyana do not value property; this
is left to independent valuers.181
Every day, agents place adverts in the ‘classified ads’ column of the national newspapers and
on the Internet. The Internet allows overseas sales but require more information for the buyer
and many more photographs than a simple newspaper advertisement. Selling fees are 3%, if
land and house together are being offered, or 5% if just the land. It is very rare for a
Guyanese to sell and move somewhere else within Guyana; most who sell then move abroad.
Most re-migrants want to live in new areas.
For property management, agents tend to charge one month rent for finding a tenant; then
management are costs 15% of the rent. 182
The ‘caveat emptor’ rule,183 which exists in many countries, does not apply in Guyana. The
agent will provide as much information as possible for the buyer. Searches are only really
181
182
183
Caveat emptor is Latin for “Let the buyer beware”. Under this rule, it is the buyer’s duty to find if there are
any problems with the property and not the seller’s to declare them.
123
necessary for documentary accuracy. As part of the sale, the local authority must confirm that
the relevant property taxes are all paid.
124
Chapter 11. Conclusions and Ways forward
Conclusions
With a small population, positive economic growth over several years, a stable currency, and
relatively low interest rates, Guyana is well placed to achieve decent and adequate housing
for all its people. Most of the population is still based in rural areas while the few towns are
mainly in the coastal belt, dominated by the capital, Georgetown. Housing has featured in
public policy since before independence (1966), with institutional housing being an important
component of supply.
The Central Housing and Planning Authority (CH&PA) has the central role in providing both
policy and dwellings. In addition to accepting housing’s important developmental role, the
CH&PA has consistently regarded housing as a welfare good so that subsidies are part of the
fabric of housing supply in Guyana. Unfortunately, as is common in subsidised systems, the
benefits tend to accrue to those in middle income groups rather than to the poorest quartile.
The Guyana Housing Sector Profile is compiled within the framework of the Global Housing
Strategy (GHS) which is a pro-poor strategy focusing on ensuring that all income groups
achieve adequate housing putting housing at the centre of urban development.
Guyana’s housing supply system is, thus, highly centralised in the CH&PA and the ministries
and quasi-government authorities which provide land, finance and infrastructure for housing,
generally at a subsidised rate and in purpose-built estates. All these institutions tend to be
jealous of their spheres of influence, working with a silo mentality with minimal liaison and
inter-sectoral communication. The CH&PA has delivered an impressive number of plots,
complete dwellings, and other housing-related services such as infrastructure and financial
solution during its history. Even so it cannot keep pace with all the demand and its top-down
functioning will tend to diminish informal private sector activity at the lowest end of the
market. The relatively poor targeting of its subsidies is evident from the high-end housing
which can be seen on many of its plots. The upgrading of squatter settlements, which falls
within the remit of CH&PA, has been remarkably successful especially in leveraging
household investment; many of the dwellings have noticeably been improved following
service provision and land regularisation. The formal private sector tends to focus on high-
end housing, increasingly in gated estates, some of which is sold to the members of the
diaspora via the internet. There is some NGO activity in housing provision, chiefly through
125
Habitat for Humanity and Food for the Poor, both Christian charities based in the United
States.
The regulatory framework under which housing is supplied is outmoded but recent efforts to
updated, especially through the Draft National Housing Policy of 2012, have been relatively
unsuccessful. Planning permissions can be obtained relatively quickly and transaction costs
are relatively low.
Housing in Guyana is relatively well supplied in comparison to many developing countries.

Overcrowding is not a general problem and most dwellings have water, sanitation, access and
power services at some level. There is a very high home-ownership rate. There are few data,
however, later than 2009 as the only published document from the 2012 Census gives very
general data on the distribution of residential buildings across the Regions. Both public and
private provision is chiefly for owner occupier dwellings on fully serviced plots. Home-
ownership percentages of over 70% showed both the success of these supply methods and the
unhelpful lack of choice in tenure, especially for low-income households. The multi--
generation household is still common in Guyana and needs suitable housing solutions.
There is little overcrowding in the urban housing supply with the average household
occupying three rooms with less than two persons per room average occupancy rate. There is
remarkably little variation in housing occupied across different household sizes. Almost all
formal sector dwellings have water supply and electrical power but much of the informal
sector still lacks servicing. Sanitation through sewerage exists in parts of Georgetown but
elsewhere waterborne systems to septic tanks are the norm.
In the absence of up-to-date information on household income or expenditure, it is difficult to

analyse how much households can afford to spend on housing themselves. There are rules of
thumb which state that GYD35,000 (US$168) per month is the lower income threshold for
mortgages, while non-banking organisations tend to regard households with less than
GYD50,000 (US$241) gross income per month as low income.
There is currently a zero or negative population growth rate with the medium projection
estimating only 69,328 more people in 2025 over the 2002 population. The future housing
need is much greater than might be expected, however, as households are decreasing in
average size and there is need for replacement of deteriorating housing, and easing of
crowding for larger households. There is little overcrowding in larger dwellings but people
living in single rooms are almost all overcrowded and more than half of people in two
126
bedroomed dwellings are overcrowded. This suggests that such dwelling sizes are unsuited to
Guyanese households.
Estimates at the time of the Draft Housing Policy (2012) suggested that approximately 15,000
dwellings per year would be required to keep pace with need. For this Profile, the estimated
need for new dwellings between 2002 and 2025 is about 60,000; more than the increase in
population would suggest because of the reducing household size. Considering that there
were 182,000 dwellings in 2002, this need constitutes growth of one third in the housing
stock between 2002 and 2025. There will be additional needs for renovations, renewals, and
reductions in current crowding. To be appropriate for the low-income households in need of
housing, dwellings must cost less than the maximum affordability for that group, i.e., those
on GYD60,000 (US$300) per month, GYD720,000 (US$3,600) per annum. At a house cost
to income ratio (HC : Y) of three, this gives a maximum capital cost of housing suitable for
the low-income group of GYD2.2 million (about US$10,500). At formal-sector buildings of
about US$35 per square feet (US$376 per square metres) this only buys 300 square feet or 28
square metres if all the money was spent on the dwelling structure itself. If reasonable land
and servicing costs of 40% are applied, the dwelling structure reduces to 180 square feet (17
sqm).
Despite several attempts to form one, there is no land use policy in Guyana. The land tenure
system is complex as it has inherited land legislation from Roman Dutch Law, English
Common Law and Colonial Statute, all of which continue to apply. Land is identified as a
major issue in housing supply, especially the costly nature of the 90% of peri-urban land
owned by Government and GUYSUCO. Comment: It is puzzling that land sold at over 80%
discount can be seen as expensive! CH&PA controls all land development for housing
purposes. CH&PA allocates residential land through its housing schemes and at large
discounts, ranging from 85 to 90 per cent, but there is slow occupation of plots laid out with
large residential areas close to Georgetown standing vacant. Plots tend to be large, of at least
300 m² which leads to low-density development and expensive infrastructure.
Until recently, land held on leasehold from the state was not subject to sub-leasing but this
has been changed which should have a positive effect on housing supply. Records are kept in
hard copy. Property taxation is based on outdated valuations and poorly collected. The
Registrar of Deeds can’t keep pace with the demand for land and mortgage registration and
the sale and leasing of land holdings and properties. All plots are surveyed under the cadastral
system, even when regularising squatter settlements. The regularisation of informal
127
occupation has so far affected 20,440 plots. In addition to the regularisation process, some
squatter areas are designated “zero-tolerance” areas, indicating that no upgrading or servicing
will be carried out.
The financial sector in Guyana is small. There are six commercial banks and eight non-bank
financial institutions (NBFIs), nine insurance companies and 18 foreign exchange dealers.
Unusually for Caribbean countries, pension schemes are quite large, accounting for almost
7% of total assets. The Prime lending rate used by commercial banks has averaged 12.83%
since September 2013 while interest rates for savers have been between 1.26 and 1.53%. The
New Building Society dominates mortgages for housing.
There is a tradition of subsidising mortgages in Guyana, with central government picking up

the bill, starting at as little as 4.25% per annum and rising to 11% according to the income of
the household at the time of granting the mortgage. Even so, a lack of affordable housing
finance has proved to be a major obstacle in housing supply, especially for low-income
households who either do not qualify for, or cannot afford, one of the mortgages on offer.
Residents can benefit from 30% tax relief on mortgages. Remittances from the diaspora play
a major part in housing supply, from paying rent for relatives to financing housing
construction. Despite there being some micro-finance for housing in the past, there is none at
present.
The rapid growth in housing in Guyana has not been matched by the same increase in
servicing so there is a deficit in infrastructure provision. Poor maintenance has also limited
the effectiveness of services provided. The agencies which provide infrastructure in Guyana
tend not to report to each other or to housing providers except on a case-by-case basis. There
is a Public Utilities Commission that sets tariffs.
Water supply and electricity tend to suffer from many illegal connections; there is at least
50% wastage in the water supply system. CH and PA is also a major provider of
infrastructure for housing within its new estates. Almost all urban households have access to
improved water though many choose to save it in water tanks as the service may be
intermittent. Unusually, it is the men in Guyana who are mainly responsible for collecting
water if it is not available on the premises. There is a subsidy for pensioners to help them pay
their water bills.
Over 90% of urban households have an improved toilet which they do not share Sanitation is
mainly provided through septic tanks as there are few sewerage systems outside central
128
Georgetown. Treatment of effluent is relatively poor and much of it is discharged untreated
into surface water or the sea. Solid waste collection covers much of Georgetown but,
elsewhere, most is disposed of by burning. There is a problem of indiscriminate dumping,
especially where this affects watercourses and drainage channels. Most households use gas
for cooking while many, especially in Linden and Corriverton use kerosene.
The construction sector is very important economically with housing as a key component
therein. Unfortunately, most construction materials are imported with only 10% locally
sourced. The traditional building technology involves wooden frames and covering, which is
cheap to build but relatively expensive to maintain and represents a fire risk. Many houses are
built on stilts, often with no residential use at ground level. Timber is rapidly being displaced
by concrete structures; many still utilize stilts. The cost of construction materials is rising
ahead of the general consumer price index.
Construction regulations: to follow.
Residential construction is dominated by the private sector, both formal and informal. There
is no National Construction Council or equivalent to administer the construction industry.
Thus, if dissatisfied with the workmanship of a contractor, the householder has no redress.
As is common in developing countries, there is also a problem of supervision especially with

non-formally trained practitioners. There is an extensive network of training institutes
operated under the Ministries of Education and Labour and within the Caribbean Certification
Programme. Regular meetings of principals ensure programme coordination. Candidates can
study part-time or full-time.
Building materials are easily available particularly in Georgetown. CH&PA has negotiated
discounts in some of the major stores for the households who are allocated plots in its estates.
Timber is still the dominant walling material though concrete is increasing in frequency.
Roofing is mainly covered with corrugated sheet metal.
There is an active housing market in Guyana both for new and used homes it seems to be
characterised by speculation and volatility. A spike in demand occurred during the recent
gold-rush. There are substantial numbers of vacant plots in central Georgetown and in less
densely developed areas. The land which is discounted by governments at its time of sale
seems to gain the same value as private land upon resale so it is an attractive target for
speculators. The formal new housing market and, therefore, policy is almost totally
129
dominated by the concept of a ‘house-lot’ with a single dwelling upon it. There is a strong
narrative about how large plots are culturally required in Guyana.
Rental housing is important in urban Guyana and there is a system of rent controls which
tends to limit the supply of rental units. Landlords commonly collect three months’ rent in
advance.
Current ideas for inclusion in Ways Forward

Some ideas stored here for future use.
It is quite clear that public land is very heavily subsidised, probably by 80-90% of market
value. This must be a great drain on public funds and should be very precisely targeted at the
poor to be maintained in the long term. As development is required within the first two years,
and allocators are likely to favour households who seem to be able to do that, it is unlikely
that they are directly targeted at the poorest households. The future of this should be
examined.
The guiding principles of the housing policy included:
 Rights of persons to housing (as a Human right; MDG Secure tenure);

 Special government financing package to provide housing to low income households
up to a pre-defined threshold;
 Role of Housing in reducing poverty;
 Expanding private sector role in housing development;
 Increasing choices available to consumers;
 Consultations – participation of stakeholders and consumers to guide decision
making in the housing sector;
 New approaches to accelerate housing production including the use of alternative
building materials and building systems;
 Improved coordination among the key actors within the housing sector with the
Ministry of Housing and Water playing a key role; and
 Policy focus on cohesive housing development including community participation
and empowerment through the development of community plans).
130
These appear to be very similar with the philosophy underlying the Housing Profile.
Consider allowing squatters on canal banks to stay on condition that they keep their section
of canal free from weeds or obstructions. This would make canal clearing a community
function there.
The Draft Housing Policy of 2012 proposed the following subsidies;
 tax incentive for construction of affordable housing which could be in either of two
forms;
o allowing developers to deduct part or all of the cost from their taxable income
from all sources;
o giving a credit of part or all of the amount invested against a developers tax
bill.
These incentives would only be given if dwellings were let at below market rent for a specific
period or sold at sub-market prices to households with incomes below a specific minimum.
(How is it implemented)
 VAT exemption or reduction for construction of affordable housing and

manufacturing of building materials.
 Special concessions for vulnerable groups including disabled people in recognition of
the failure of the market to provide for them.
It is fairly clear from Table 31. and Figure 48. that construction materials costs have
increased considerably faster that the CPI, making new housing more expensive as years
pass. This is an obvious place to apply policy interventions to reduce the runaway prices on
materials.
The establishment of small-scale brick industries wherever there is abundant clay could be a
very good intervention in the construction of housing.
131
There is a clear gap in representation of homeowners; indeed Habitat for Humanity wanted to
start a national homeowners association with some public sector support but this did not
happen there are some issues of debt in Guyana based on cheap mortgages over a very long
repayment time. In this and national homeowners Association might be useful for advocacy.
One exists in Jamaica.
The design of suitable housing finance instruments is regarded by the Draft Housing Policy
as one of the immediate, short-term needs of the housing finance system.184
Ways forwards from GHS
Related income-generating activities and job creation for lower-income groups represent an
important component of bridging the affordability gap to ensure improved access to adequate
housing. Sustainable local economic development strategies are inseparable from housing
strategies and from urban planning in general. Predictable availability of land and
infrastructure is a precondition for economic growth at all scales. Mixed land-use zoning,
combined with regulations supporting family-based and small and medium-sized enterprises,
facilitate better income levels thus enhancing the ability to afford housing. Regulations
supporting incremental expansion of single family homes by adding rental units also improve
family and local economy, while improving rental housing opportunities, increasing urban
densities and reducing urban sprawl.185
“A variety of options for infrastructure provision levels, including the option of

incremental provision, need to be availed while ensuring that the planning and layout
framework allows for rational upgrading in the future.186”
It is important that legislation, regulations and procedures encourage the efficient use of
urban land and infrastructure. Subdivision regulations need to encourage mixed land use,
social mixing and the incremental upgrading of infrastructure. Building codes should allow
for incremental improvement, expansion and densification. They should also encourage local
construction materials and technologies. Regulations need to be flexible and appropriate to
local conditions, preferably performance-based and not prescriptive.187
184
CHPA (2012).
185
UN-Habitat 2013 para 24
186
UN-Habitat, Urban Patterns for Green Economy: Optimizing Infrastructure, Nairobi 2012. Quoted in UN-Habitat, 2013.
Para 28
187
GHS para 25.
132
Forward planning should enable varied tenure rather than the monolithic home-ownership
envisaged in Guyana’s housing programmes. Land management should be able to cope with
the supply of major land use and infrastructure ahead of development.
“Appropriate subdivision regulations, enabling community-oriented urban design, are

required to ensure adequate provision of land for public spaces, streets, other
infrastructure, services and other public uses.” 188
The GHS favours a variety of housing finance options, including not only mortgages but also
“financing for social and rental housing, non-collateral credit mechanisms for owner-
builders, credit for developers and contractors, and producers of building materials and
components. Cross-subsidy mechanisms, within urban projects, between commercial
and housing land uses, and between high-cost and low-cost housing and plots are
important to encourage socially mixed development.”189
Not only is finance important but also there is a need for improved job opportunities and
decent wages so that housing will be more affordable, especially for low-income households.
This underlines the need for a choice of tenures as renting is often a key housing tenure for
households with no savings.
When deciding infrastructure provision levels, the option of incremental provision should be
present so that rational upgrading can take place in the future.190
Housing and neighbourhood designs should be functional and cultural adequacy, energy
efficient, climatically and environmentally appropriate, affordable, flexible for expansion and
for upgrading of standards, and adaptable for future needs. Technologies use should be all of
the above plus maximising the use of local labour and contractors, and using local materials,
components and technologies for energy efficiency in use and to reduce the use of imported
materials.191
The GHS encourages a continuum of tenure types including customary forms of tenure, all
providing enough security of tenure to guarantee the welfare of households and stimulate
improvements and expansion.192 Special attention should be accorded to the equal rights of
women, young people and the elderly as well as social and ethnic minorities. Other tenures to
188
GHS para 26.
189
GHS para 27
190
GHS Para 28
191
GHS paras 29 to 31
192
Geoffrey Payne, Land rites: Innovative approaches to secure tenure for the urban poor, 2001.
133
be encouraged, include leaseholds, condominiums, cooperatives, shared leaseholds and
various forms of rental housing.193
The GHS194 also expects
“(f)ully inclusive community collaboration and neighbourhood-level self-governance should

be encouraged for the management and upgrading of housing areas, including through
condominiums and cooperatives, homeowners’ and tenants’ associations and local area
improvement committees.” Such organizations, and other community groups especially in
lower- and mixed-income areas, can be encouraged to bid for contracts for maintenance of
infrastructure, etc., within the local neighbourhood. This will support the local economy and
create income-generating opportunities, and also strengthen the local sense of ownership of
and identification with the infrastructure and environment in the neighbourhood. This is
likely to result in better maintenance and less reliance on central systems. Organizational and
financial mechanisms should be available for the maintenance and replacement or mains
servicing and the improvement of housing and the neighbourhood.
Expected outcomes of GHS
44. This approach is expected to result not only in the (re)positioning of housing within the
global contemporary debate on economically viable, environmentally and culturally
sustainable and socially inclusive cities, but also critical outcomes such as:
Paradigm shift in thinking and practice in housing policy and serviced land
(a)
delivery, given the powerful impact of housing on the economy, within the new charter
for urban planning, strengthening the linkages between urban planning, neighbourhood
development and housing, including slum improvement and prevention;
Contribution to the global discourse and definition of the post-Millennium
(b)
Development Goals and sustainable development goals;
(c) Redefined role of Governments beyond enablement to a continuing, or
reassuming, as appropriate, of a leadership role in encouraging pro-poor performance of
the markets, and in facilitating and supporting the demand capabilities of the
economically weakest sectors of society; (d) Systemic reforms to enable wider
accessibility to adequate housing, with the variety of housing solutions matching the
variety of effective demands;
Strengthened linkages of housing with other parts of the economy and
(e)
consequent economic development, employment generation and poverty reduction;
(f) Decentralization of housing production and empowerment of different actors
and modalities of housing development;
Increased use of sustainable building and neighbourhood designs and
(g)
technologies towards more cost-effective, flexible and energy-efficient solutions.
193
UN-Habitat, Rental Housing: An essential option for the urban poor in developing countries, 2003.
194
GHS para 33 and 34.
134
45. And, most importantly of all, result in a:
(a)Significant and measurable improvement of housing and living conditions of a
large proportion of population, while facilitating at the same time the role of housing
production and use as an important support for poverty reduction.
135
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UN-Habitat

and Central Housing and Planning Authority

Guyana Housing Profile

Lead Author: Dr Graham Tipple BA, MA, PhD, MRTPI

Local counterpart: Miss Lenise Tucker

April 11th, 2016

Urban centres in Guyana........................................................................................................7

Other areas included in the Profile Survey..........................................................................14

La Parfaite Harmonie Development.................................................................................14

Eccles to Diamond Housing Development......................................................................14

History of housing policy in Guyana...................................................................................14

The Housing Profile.............................................................................................................18

Chapter 2. Institutional Framework.........................................................................................21

CH&PA’s housing function.............................................................................................24

Housing supply performance indicators for CH&PA (2010 to 2015).............................26

Sea Defence Board...............................................................................................................29

Habitat for Humanity Guyana (HfHGY).............................................................................33

Food for the Poor.................................................................................................................35

Community Development Organisations.............................................................................36

Chapter 3. Regulatory Framework...........................................................................................37

The National Development Strategy (NDS)........................................................................37

Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, 2011-2015 (PRSP).......................................................38

The Housing Act, Chapter 36:20.....................................................................................38

The Town and Country Planning Act (TCPA), Chapter 20:01........................................39

The Housing Development Act, Chapter 36: 24..............................................................40

The Public Health Ordinance, Chapter 145.....................................................................41

The Local Government Act, Chapter, 28: 02...................................................................41

The Municipality and District Council Act, Chapter 28: 01............................................41

National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), 1994.......................................................43

Chapter 4. Housing Supply......................................................................................................44

Recent CH&PA housing interventions................................................................................44

Second Low Income Settlement Programme...................................................................44

The Revolving Funds Homes: Turnkey Approach..........................................................47

Recent private sector housing supply initiatives..................................................................50

House price inflation............................................................................................................61

Chapter 5. Housing Need.........................................................................................................62

Cost of housing needed........................................................................................................68

Publicly owned land.........................................................................................................74

Freehold Private land.......................................................................................................74

Taxing land and property.................................................................................................80

Land regularisation and squatter upgrading.....................................................................80

Chapter 7. Finance for housing................................................................................................83

New Building Society (NBS)...........................................................................................84

Other financial institutions offering housing finance.......................................................85

Home Improvement and Hinterland Housing Subsidies..................................................88

Mortgage Interest Relief (MIR).......................................................................................88

Microfinance for housing.....................................................................................................89

Guyana Water Inc. (GWI)................................................................................................91

Guyana Power and Light Company (GPL)..........................................................................93

Guyana Telephone and Telegraph (GTT)............................................................................93

CH&PA as infrastructure provider.......................................................................................93

The regulatory framework....................................................................................................95

The Water and Sewerage Act, 2002.................................................................................95

More laws – for electricity supply? Waste disposal?......................................................95

Water supply to housing.......................................................................................................96

The sewerage system for housing........................................................................................99

Waste disposal from housing.............................................................................................100

Power supplies for housing................................................................................................102

Roads and street lighting for housing.................................................................................102

Chapter 9. Construction and building materials.....................................................................103

Regulations for construction firms.................................................................................106

Materials used in the housing stock...............................................................................117