Learning Module 01: The Earth's Atmosphere: AE 311 - Aerodynamics I

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 1: The Earth’s Atmosphere
LEARNING MODULE 01:

The Earth’s Atmosphere
AE 311 – AERODYNAMICS I
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Introduction to Earth’s Atmosphere 5 5
Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas 1 6
The Source of all Aerodynamic Forces 1 8
Equation of State for a Perfect Gas 1 9
Sample Problems 10
Assessment Activity 10
Plate No. 1 11
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TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd Edition) [E-book].
1
McGraw-Hill Book Company
Jones, B. (1939). Elements of Practical Aerodynamics (2nd Edition) [E-
2
book]. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing Limited. 3
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th Edition)
4
[E-book]. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
S. (2020b, August 8). THE EARTH. ShakeTheMind.
5
https://shakethemind.com/2020/03/07/the-earth/
Figures and Tables No.
Figures 1.2-1.5 are taken from the reference above. 1
TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time (min)
Introduction to Earth’s Atmosphere 25
Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas 60
The Source of all Aerodynamic Forces 25
Equation of State for a Perfect Gas 33.8
Activities Time (min)

Sample Problems 45
Assessment Activity 170
Plate No. 1 180
Quiz No. 1 30
TOTAL 568.8 min (9.48 hrs)
HONESTY CLAUSE
As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and
uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. The institution assumes as a
basic and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters that students be honest
at all times and that they submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Course Learning Outcomes

(CLO) Module Learning Outcomes (MLO)
CLO 1: Apply the fundamental Topic Learning
concepts of aerodynamics through Outcomes (TLO)
MLO 1: Explain the composition
discussions and problem solving.
CLO 2: Produce accurate of the Earth’s atmosphere by TLO 1: Identify
enumerating chemicals present in composition of the
solution for a certain logical
problem at utmost ease through the atmosphere atmosphere and its layers
MLO 2: Explain the layers of the through enumeration of the
the application of correct formulae.
atmosphere by definition of each chemical composition of the
CLO 3: Develop engineering
layer. atmosphere.
skills such as critical thinking, and TLO 2: Define different
self-learning through discussion MLO 3: Differentiate the different
fundamental quantities for a
fundamental physical quantities of
and problem solving. flowing gas by discussing
CLO 9: Commit to the scientific a flowing gas through enumeration
quantities concerning fluids
process of solving problems in and definition of each quantity. in a flow.
MLO 4: Describe the source of TLO 3: Recall the
aerodynamics by producing
solutions following the basic steps all aerodynamic forces.by importance of system of
definition of terms. units (SI and English) in the
of scientific method.
MLO 5: Describe the relationship dimensional analysis of
of the fundamental physical solutions by employing
quantities of a gas through the different system of units for
given quantities in worded
ideal gas equation
problems.
MLO 6: Differentiate between a
TLO 4: Identify the
normal gas and a perfect gas by source of all aerodynamic
discussion of thermodynamic forces by defining terms
considerations. involved in its origins.
TLO 5: Determine the
relationships of quantities
of a perfect gas using the
ideal gas equation or
equation of state for a
perfect gas.
TLO 6: Explain the
difference between a
perfect gas and a normal
gas using thermodynamic
and aerodynamic
considerations.
TLO 7: Solve problems
involving equation of state
for ideal gas through
sample problems, problem
sets and/or module
activities presented in the
module.
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CONTENT
I. Introduction to the Earth’s Atmosphere
The earth’s atmosphere is a multiple layer of gases, commonly known as air
which is retained by the earth’s gravity. This atmosphere is responsible for
creating pressure which allows liquid water to exist on the surface, absorbing UV
solar radiation, retain heat (greenhouse effect), and reducing diurnal temperature
variation.
The atmosphere is composed of:
1. Nitrogen – 78%
2. Oxygen – 21%
3. All other gases – 1% (Carbon Dioxide – 0.038%, Argon – 0.93%)
Layers of the Atmosphere:

1. Exosphere – outer most layer of the atmosphere where the
environment is much like the space. In this layer and the
thermosphere is where the aerospace application such as orbiting
satellites are operating.
2. Thermosphere – layer where air is very rare. Because of the variation
of sunlight in the earth the layer of this atmosphere is commonly found
from 500 – 1000 km from the ground. High energy x-rays and UV
radiation are absorbed in this layer raising its temperature to hundred
or at times thousands of degrees.
3. Mesosphere – layer above the stratosphere extending up to 85 km.
This is where most meteors burn up and where the air is far too thin to
breathe. The air pressure at the bottom of this layer is 1% of the
surface level pressure and continues to go down as you go higher.
4. Stratosphere – layer above the troposphere extending up to 50 km
above the ground. Ozone molecules in this layer absorbs UV light
from the sun and converts its energy to heat.
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5. Troposphere – lowest level of the atmosphere, extending from the

ground up to about 10 km. This is the layer of atmosphere we live in
and where nearly all weather occurs.
Figure 1.1 Layers of the Atmosphere

Image taken from S. (2020b, August 8). THE EARTH. ShakeTheMind.
https://shakethemind.com/2020/03/07/the-earth/
For the sake of discussion, stratosphere and troposphere are the areas where
airplanes operate. Therefore, knowing these layers would give us an idea on how
we could design aircrafts available for practical applications in transportation and
military.
II. Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas

As we all know, the science that deals with the flow of air or flow of any gas is
called aerodynamics and the person who practices this science is called an
aerodynamicist.
The study on the flow of gases has limitless applications especially in the
aerospace industry e.g. airplanes, missiles, rockets.
The four fundamental quantities in the language of aerodynamics are pressure,
density, temperature, and velocity.
A. Pressure
By definition, pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface
due to the time rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting
on that surface.
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An example for this is a hand extended outside the window of a car. Pressure
is that force that tends to push your arm rearward in the direction of the flow
of air (opposite of the car’s direction). This force per unit area on your hand is
defined as pressure which basically exists because of the molecules of air
strikes the surface of your hand and transfers some of their momentum to the
surface.
Units used for pressure is Newton/meter 2 or Pascal (N/m^2 or Pa),
pounds/foot2 or pounds/inches 2 (psf or psi). Note that pressure is defined as
force per unit area but you do not actually need to have a 1 m 2 or 1 ft2 of area
to have pressure. In fact, we can define it at a point in the gas or a point in the
surface which can vary from one point to another.
Figure 1.2 Illustration

of Pressure
Consider a volume gas illustrated above and consider a point B anywhere on

it. Let us define dA as an incremental area around point B and dF as a force
on one side of dA due to pressure. We can now define pressure as:
𝑑𝐹
𝑃 = lim ( ) (𝒆𝒒. 𝟏)
𝑑𝐴 →0 𝑑𝐴
The equation above states that P is the limiting form of the force per unit area
where the area of interest has shrunk to zero at point B, therefore it can be
illustrated that pressure is a point property and can have a different value
from one point to another in the gas.
B. Density
By definition, density, designated by 𝜌, of a substance is the mass of that

substance per unit volume.
Units used commonly for density are kilogram/meter 3 (kg/m 3) and pound/feet3
(lb/ft3).
In relation to the discussion with pressure, density do not require an actual
volume of 1 m 3 or 1 ft3 because just like pressure it is a point property which
can be defined as follows where dV is an elemental volume around point B
and dm is the mass of dV:
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Figure 1.3 Illustration

of Density
𝑑𝑚
𝜌 = lim ( ) (𝒆𝒒. 𝟐)
𝑑𝑉 → 0 𝑑𝑉
Therefore, density is defined as the mass per unit volume where the volume
observed has shrunk to zero around point B where in the actual value of
density can vary from one point to another in the volume of gas.
C. Temperature
Visualize gas as a collection of atoms and molecules where the particles are
in constant motion in space and occasionally colliding with one another. Due
to these motion, the said particles have Kinetic Energy. Observing a single
particle over a period of time during which it experiences numerous molecular
collisions, then we could determine the average kinetic energy of the particle
over the duration which it was observed. Consequentially, the value of the
average kinetic energy measured varies with the speed or rate at which these
collisions are happening, i.e. Temperature is directly related to the value of
the average kinetic energy.
By definition, temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
particles in the gas. Let KE be the mean molecular kinetic energy, then
temperature is given by
3
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇 (𝒆𝒒. 𝟑)
2
where k is the Boltzmann constant with a value of 1.38 x 10-23 J/K.
Units used are Kelvin, degree Celsius, degree Rankine, and degree
Fahrenheit. (K,⁰C,⁰R,⁰F)
As an example, imagine a putting your hand over a flame where you feel heat
or high temperature. Taking a molecular look at this, the molecules around
your hand facing the flame are moving faster than the surrounding molecules
to make you feel warm enough only on the side that is near the fire.
D. Velocity (Flow Velocity and Streamlines)
Velocity is a vector quantity which denotes both speed and direction. For a
flowing gas, we should recognize that each region of the gas does not
necessarily have the same velocity thus the velocity of the gas may vary from
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point to point in the flow. Therefore, flow velocity, along with Pressure,
Density and Temperature is a point property.
Figure 1.4 Illustration of Velocity and Streamlines
To visualize it clearly consider an element of mass in the gas and watch it move with
time. As it moves from the initial point to point B its velocity can vary.
Assuming that the flow is steady or does not fluctuate with time, a fluid element is
seen to trace out a fixed path in space called a streamline. This streamlines provides
a way of visualizing the motion of the gas on different surfaces for observing the
behavior of the air.
III. The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces
Once again visualize yourself in a moving car while extending your hand at the
window. You feel a rearward force acting on your hand as the vehicle moves at a
constant velocity. Why does this happen?
The source of all aerodynamic forces stems from two natural sources:
1. Pressure distribution on the surface

2. Shear stress (friction) on the surface
The pressure as discussed act normally on the surface presented below and the
magnitude of this pressure is designated by the length of the arrows. As
illustrated, the values of pressure vary and this unbalance of varying pressure
distributions creates an aerodynamic force. Meanwhile, the second figure
denotes shear stress on the surface which is caused by the frictional effect of the
flow rubbing against it. This unbalance generates aerodynamic forces on the
body.
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Figure 1.5 Sources of all Aerodynamic Forces

IV. Equation of State for a Perfect Gas
In reality, a perfect gas does not exist. For aerodynamics, air under normal
conditions of temperature and pressure behaves much like a perfect gas. This is
the reason why air under normal conditions are considered a perfect gas. By
definition a perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces are negligible. To
illustrate this definition, we should look at the molecular picture of air. Since air is
composed of different particles in random motion where each particle on average
is a long distance away from its neighboring particles. It is important to note that
each of these particles have their own intermolecular force field brought about by
the ramification of the complex interaction of the electromagnetic properties of the
electrons and nucleus. By convention, this forces have a weak attraction for
particles that are far away from each other and have a strong repulsive force for
particles that are too close to each other. It is important to note that pressure and
temperature of a gas are tangible quantities directly influenced by intermolecular
forces especially when the molecules are packed closely together.
An example would be the air around us, each particle is separated on an average
of 10 molecular diameters apart. In other words, air is considered a perfect gas
because the particles of air are spaced far enough to have a very weak attraction
with each other which gives us a negligible intermolecular force. This is also the
case for the flow of air about ordinary flight vehicles at subsonic and supersonic
speeds therefore for computations we will always deal with a perfect gas.
The relation among 𝑃, 𝜌, 𝑇 for a gas is called the equation of state where for a
perfect gas the equation of state is:
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 (𝒆𝒒. 𝟒)
Where R is the specific gas constant which varies for different types of gases but
𝐽 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
for air we have a value of 𝑅 = 287 = 1716
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ⁰𝑅
It is important to note that that the deviation of an actual gas in nature from
perfect gas behavior can be expressed approximately by the modified Berthelot
Equation of State:
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𝑃 𝑎𝑃 𝑏𝑃
= 1+ − 3 (𝒆𝒒. 𝟓)
𝜌𝑅𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
Where a and b are constants of the gas. The deviations get smaller as P
decreases and T increases. This makes sense in a way that if pres sure
increases, the molecules get packed closely together rendering us unable to
consider intermolecular forces negligible because it does not conform to the
definition of a perfect gas. On the other hand, as temperature increases, the
molecules move faster which illustrates a larger molecular separation making
intermolecular forces less significant in comparison to the inertia forces
experienced by each molecule which conforms to the definition and behavior of a
perfect gas.
Note: Specific volume ν is the inverse of density which has a unit of volume per
unit mass. Thus we can rewrite the equation of state for a perfect gas in this
manner:
𝑃𝜈 = 𝑅𝑇 (𝒆𝒒. 𝟔)
V. Sample Problems
1. The air pressure and density at a point on the wing of a Boeing 747 are 1.10 x
105 N/m 2 and 1.20 kg/m 3, respectively. What is the temperature at that point?
2. The high-pressure air storage tank for a supersonic wind tunnel has a volume
of 1000 ft3. If air is stored at a pressure of 30 atm and a temperature of 530
⁰R. What is the mass of the gas stored in the tank in slugs? In lbm ?
3. Air flowing at high speed in a wind tunnel has a pressure and temperature
equal to 0.3 atm and -100⁰C, respectively. What is the air density? What is
the specific volume?
*See solution manual
VI. Assessment Activity

Instruction: Answer the following questions. Compile all accomplished activities
on a single pdf file only which can be either scanned or type written. Outputs
should be submitted on Google Classroom on the dates designated by the
instructor.
A. Conceptual Assessment
1. Enumerate the chemical composition (and percentage) of the Earth’s
atmosphere.
2. Enumerate the layers of the atmosphere.
3. From your thermodynamics, explain how temperature and kinetic energy are
related.
4. What is the definition of pressure?
5. What are the standard units used for density?
6. What are the sources of aerodynamic forces experienced by a body?
7. Why is air considered a perfect gas?
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8. What equation estimates the deviation of an actual gas in nature from a

perfect gas behavior?
9. What equation predicts the behavior of a perfect gas?
B. Problem Solving
1. In a room, air weigh 300 grams. Calculate the density with metric units if the room is
1 m x 72 in x 9 ft.
2. Assume that air has a velocity of 100 miles/hr (mph). What is the velocity in ft/s?
3. If a mass of air has a weight of 100 grams, what is the pressure in (psf) if it acts on an
area equal to 100 in2.
4. What is the temperature of air in Rankine, if the measure temperature was 10 ⁰C?
5. Prove that change in Celsius is equal to a change in Kelvin (∆C = ∆K).
6. Prove that change in Fahrenheit is equal to a change in Rankine (∆F = ∆R).
7. At 14.7 psi of pressure, the temperature of air is 288 K. If the specific gas constant of
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
air is 1716 what is the density in kg/m 3?
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ⁰𝑅
8. At 463 R, the density of air is 0.002377 kg/m3 , what is the pressure (in psi) if R =
𝐽
287 ?
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝐽
9. At 300 psf, the density is 0.0003566 lb/ft 3. What is the temperature if R = 287 ?
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
3
10. At 600 psi, 0.002377 kg/m and 500 ⁰C, what is the gas constant R in English units?
11. At 14.7 psi of pressure, the temperature of air is 288 K. If the specific gas constant of
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
air is 1716 what is the specific volume in m 3/kg?
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ⁰𝑅
VII. Plate No. 1

Instruction: Answer the following questions. Compile all accomplished activities
on a single pdf file only which can be either scanned or type written. Outputs
should be submitted on Google Classroom on the dates designated by the
instructor.
A. Identification
1. What is defined as the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface due to
the time rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on that
surface?
2. What is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance?
3. What is defined as the average molecular kinetic energy of the particles in a
gas.
4. The average molecular kinetic energy of gas particles is directly proportional
to?
5. A fixed path taken by a moving fluid element in space is called?
6. What are the two natural sources of aerodynamic forces experienced by a
body in a flow?
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7. What kind of force is felt by two molecules in an intermolecular force field that
are too far away from each other?
8. What kind of force is felt by two molecules in an intermolecular force field that
are too close to each other?
9. A gas whose intermolecular forces are negligible?
10. The relationship of P, T and ρ for a gas is given in an equation called?
11. An equation that can express the deviation of an actual gas from a perfect
gas behavior is called?
12. Which is a vector quantity, speed or velocity?
13. What is defined as the volume per unit mass?
14. A science that deals with the flow of air (or flow of any gas)?
15. A person studying the science involved in #14?
B. Problem Solving
1. At a point in the test section of a supersonic wind tunnel, the air pressure and
temperature are 0.5 x 105 N/m2 and 240 K, respectively. Calculate the
specific volume.
2. If 1500 lbm of air is pumped into a previously empty 900 ft.3 storage tank and
the air temperature in the tank is uniformly 70⁰ F, what is the air pressure in
the tank in atmospheres?
3. Calculate the weight of air in pounds, contained within a room 20 ft. long, 15
ft. long, and 8 ft. high. Assume standard atmospheric pressure in psf and a
temperature of 59⁰ F.
4. Calculate the weight of air in pounds, contained within a room 20 ft. long, 15
ft. long, and 8 ft. high. Assume standard atmospheric pressure in psf and a
temperature of 59⁰ F.
5. Comparing results in number 4, calculate the percentage of change in the

total weight of air in the room if the temperature is reduced to - 10⁰ F. Assume
standard atmospheric pressure in psf.
6. If 1500 lbm of air is pumped into a previously empty 900 ft. 3 storage tank and
the air temperature in the tank is uniformly 70⁰ F, what is the air pressure in
the tank in atmospheres?
7. Assume that, at a point in the wing of the Concorde supersonic transport, the
air temperature is - 10⁰ C and the pressure is 1.7 x 104 N/m 2. Calculate the
density at this point.
8. Consider the low-speed flight of the space shuttle as it is nearing a landing. If

the air pressure and temperature at the nose of the space shuttle are 1.2 atm
and 300 K, respectively, what are the density and specific volume?
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9. Consider a 1 kg of helium at 500 K. Assuming that the total internal energy of

helium is due to the mean kinetic energy of each atom summed over all the
atoms, calculate the internal energy of this gas. The molecular weight of
helium is 4 and Avogadro’s Number is 6.02 x 1023 molecules or atoms
10. A type of gas whose intermolecular forces are not negligible?
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ANSWER KEY:
1. The air pressure and density at a point on the wing of a Boeing 747 are 1.10 x 105 N/m2 and
1.20 kg/m3, respectively. What is the temperature at that point?
Solution:
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑇 = 𝑃/𝜌𝑅
1.10𝑥105 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑇= 𝐽 = 319 𝐾
(1.20 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 3 )[287 ( )( )]
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
2. The high-pressure air storage tank for a supersonic wind tunnel has a volume of 1000 ft 3 . If
air is stored at a pressure of 30 atm and a temperature of 530 ⁰R. What is the mass of the
gas stored in the tank in slugs? In lb m?
Solution:
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 2116 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
𝑃 = (30)(2116) 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2 = 6.348 𝑋104 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑃
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
4 𝑙𝑏
6.348 𝑋10
𝑓𝑡 2 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
𝜌= = 6.98 𝑥 10−2
𝑙𝑏 𝑓 𝑡3
1716 𝑓𝑡 ( ∗ (530 𝑅)
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔)(°𝑅)
The total mass in the tank is given by:
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
𝑚 = 6.98 𝑥 10−2 3 ∗ 1000 ft 3 = 6.98 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝑓𝑡
Recall that 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 = 32.2 𝑙𝑏𝑚
32.2 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑚 = 6.98 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 ∗ = 2248 𝑙𝑏𝑚
1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
3. Air flowing at high speed in a wind tunnel has a pressure and temperature equal to 0.3 atm
and -100⁰C, respectively. What is the air density? What is the specific volume?
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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING MODULE 01:

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Activities Time (min)

Course Learning Outcomes

Layers of the Atmosphere:

5. Troposphere – lowest level of the atmosphere, extending from the

Figure 1.1 Layers of the Atmosphere

II. Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas

Figure 1.2 Illustration

Consider a volume gas illustrated above and consider a point B anywhere on

By definition, density, designated by 𝜌, of a substance is the mass of that

Figure 1.3 Illustration

D. Velocity (Flow Velocity and Streamlines)

Figure 1.4 Illustration of Velocity and Streamlines

III. The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces

1. Pressure distribution on the surface

Figure 1.5 Sources of all Aerodynamic Forces

*See solution manual

VI. Assessment Activity

8. What equation estimates the deviation of an actual gas in nature from a

VII. Plate No. 1

5. Comparing results in number 4, calculate the percentage of change in the

8. Consider the low-speed flight of the space shuttle as it is nearing a landing. If

9. Consider a 1 kg of helium at 500 K. Assuming that the total internal energy of

10. A type of gas whose intermolecular forces are not negligible?

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