Problem 7.1: Given: Find: Solution

Problem 7.
1 [Difficulty: 2]
Given: Equation describing the propagation speed of surface waves in a region of uniform depth
Find: Nondimensionalization for the equation using length scale L and velocity scale Vo. Obtain the dimensionless
groups that characterize the flow.
Solution: To nondimensionalize the equation all lengths are divided by the reference length and all velocities are divided by
the reference velocity. Denoting the nondimensional quantities by an asterisk:
 h c
*  h*  c* 
L L V0
  2 g* L  2h* L
Substituting into the governing equation: c V 
* 2
   
2 
tanh Simplifying this expression:
 L * L
0 *
  2 gL *  2h*
c*    tanh *
2
 2
 LV0  V0 2 
2 *

g L σ
The dimensionless group is which is the reciprocal of the square of the Froude number, and
2 2
V0 ρ L V0
which is the inverse of the Weber number.

Problem 7.2 [Difficulty: 2]
Given: Equation for beam
Find: Dimensionless groups
Solution:
Denoting nondimensional quantities by an asterisk

A y I x
A*  y*  t*  t I*  x* 
L2 L L4 L
t*
Hence A  L2 A * y  Ly* t I  L4 I * x  Lx*

2 y * 4 1 4 y *
Substituting into the governing equation L L A *
2 2
 EL 4 LI * 0
t *2 L x *4
2 y *  E  4 y *
A*  I * 0
t *2   L2 2  x *4
The final dimensionless equation is
 E 
The dimensionless group is  2 2 
 L 
Given: Equation describing the slope of a steady wave in a shallow liquid layer
Find: Nondimensionalization for the equation using length scale L and velocity scale V o. Obtain the dimensionless
h x u
h*  x*  u* 
L L V0
 
 h* L
 
 
u*V0  u *V0 h*
 
V02 * u *
   
Substituting into the governing equation: u
 x* L g  x* L x* gL x*
2
V0
The dimensionless group is which is the square of the Froude number.
g L
Given: Equation describing one-dimensional unsteady flow in a thin liquid layer

Find: Nondimensionalization for the equation using length scale L and velocity scale Vo. Obtain the dimensionless
x h u t
x*  h*  u*  t* 
L L V0 L V0
 u *V0 
*  u *V0

 

 h* L  
Substituting into the governing equation:

 t * L V0
u V

0
 x* L  
g
 x* L   Simplifying this expression:
V02 u * V02 * u * h * u * * u
*
gL h *
 u   g Thus:  u  
L t * L x * x * t * x * V02 x *
g L
The dimensionless group is which is the reciprocal of the square of the Froude number.
2
V0
Given: Equation describing two-dimensional steady flow in a liquid

Find: Nondimensionalization for the equation using length scale L and velocity scale V 0. Obtain the dimensionless
x h u y
x*  h*  u*  y* 
L L V0 L
Substituting into the governing equation:
*  
 u *V0
 g 
 
 h * L    2 u *V0
 
 
 2 u *V0   

u V0
 
 x* L        
 x * L    x * L  x * L  y * L  y * L 
Simplifying this expression:
V02 * u * h * V0   2u *  2u * 
u  g *  2   
L x * x L  x * 2 y * 2 
 
u * gL h *    2 u *  2 u * 
Thus: u*    
x * V02 x * V0 L  x * 2 y * 2 
g L μ
The dimensionless groups are which is the reciprocal of the square of the Froude number, and which is the
2 V0  ρ L
V0
reciprocal of the Reynolds number.

Given: Equations for modeling atmospheric motion
Find: Non-dimensionalized equation; Dimensionless groups
Solution:
Recall that the total acceleration is

 
DV V  
  V  V
Dt t
Nondimensionalizing the velocity vector, pressure, angular velocity, spatial measure, and time, (using a typical velocity magnitude V
and angular velocity magnitude ):
 
 V p   x V
V*  p*  *  x*  t*  t
V p  L L
Hence
    L
V VV * p  p p *   * x  Lx* t t*
V
Substituting into the governing equation


V V * V     1 p
V  V V *  * V * 2V  * V *   p *
L t * L  L


V *    L    p
 V *  * V * 2    * V   p *
t *  V  V2
The dimensionless groups are

p L
V 2 V
The second term on the left of the governing equation is the Coriolis force due to a rotating coordinate system. This is a very
significant term in atmospheric studies, leading to such phenomena as geostrophic flow.
Given: The Prandtl boundary-layer equations for steady, incompressible, two-dimensional flow neglecting gravity
Find: Nondimensionalization for the equation using length scale L and velocity scale V 0. Obtain the dimensionless
x y u v
x*  y*  u*  v* 
L L V0 V0
Substituting into the continuity equation:    

 u *V0  v *V0
  Simplifying this expression: V0 u  V0 v  0
* *
   
 x* L  y*L
0
L x * L y *
u * v *
 0
x * y *
We expand out the second derivative in the momentum equation by writing it as the derivative of the derivative. Upon substitution:
*  
 u *V0
 v V0
*  u *V0 

1 p

  u *V0   Simplifying this expression yields:
u V0
 
 x* L  y*L     x* L  
 y*L  y*L    
u * * u
*
1 p   2 u * Now every term in this equation has been non-dimensionalized except the
u*  v   
x * y * V02 x * V0 L y * 2 pressure gradient. We define a dimensionless pressure as:
p* 
p
Substituting this into the momentum equation: u
u *
*
 v * u
*
 

1  p * V02


  2u *
V02 x * y * V02 x * V0 L y * 2
u * * u
*
p *   2u *
Simplifying this expression yields: u*  v   
x * y * x * V0 L y * 2
ν
The dimensionless group is which is the reciprocal of the Reynolds number.
V0  L
Given: Equation for unsteady, 2D compressible, inviscid flow
Solution:
Denoting nondimensional quantities by an asterisk

x y u v c t c0 
x*  y*  u*  v*  c*  t*  * 
L L c0 c0 c0 L L c0
Note that the stream function indicates volume flow rate/unit depth!
Hence
Lt *
x  Lx* y  Ly* u  c0 u * v  c0 v * c  c0 c * t   L c0  *
c0
 c03   2 *  c03   u *2  v *2   c03  2 2   *  c03  2 2   *  c03   2 *

   
2 2
   
L   
L  u *  c *    v *  c *    2 u * v * 0
 L  t *
2
  t   x *2  L  y *2  L  x * y *
 2 *  u *2  v *2  2  * 2  *  2 *
   
2 2
  u *2
 c *  v *2
 c *  2u * v * 0
t *2 t x *2 y *2 x * y *
No dimensionless group is needed for this equation!

Given: Equations Describing pipe flow
Find: Non-dimensionalized equation; Dimensionless groups
Solution:
Nondimensionalizing the velocity, pressure, spatial measures, and time:
u p x r V
u*  p*  x*  r*  t*  t
V p L L L
Hence
L
u V u* p  p p * x  Lx* r  Dr* t t*
V

u V u * 1 1 p * 1   2 u * 1 u * 
V   p  V 2  
t L t *  L x * D  r *2 r * r * 
u * p p *    L   2 u * 1 u * 
    
t * V 2 x *  DV  D  r *2 r * r * 
The dimensionless groups are
p  L
V 2 DV D
Given: Functional relationship between pressure drop through orifice plate and physical parameters
Find: Appropriate dimensionless parameters
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.
1 p   V D d n = 6 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:
3 p   V D d
M M M L L L
r = 3 dimensions
Lt 2 L3 Lt t
4  V D m = r = 3 repeating parameters
5 We have n - m = 3 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

a b
a b c  M    M    L   Lc  M0 L0 t0
Π1  Δp ρ  V  D
 2   3   t 
Thus:
 L t   L 
Summing exponents:
M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: Δp

Π1 
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 a  1 b  2 c  0 2
ρ V
t: 2  b  0
4 2
F L t
Check using F, L, t primary dimensions:    1 Checks
2 2 2 out.
L F t L
a b
a b c  M    M    L   Lc  M0 L0 t0
Π2  μ ρ  V  D Thus:  L t   3   t 
  L   
Summing exponents:
M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: μ

Π2 
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V D
(This is the Reynolds number, so it checks out)
t: 1  b  0
a b
L 
M
 
a b c cL 0 0 0
Π3  d  ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents:
M: a  0 The solution to this system is: d

Π3 
L: 1c0 a0 b0 c  1 D
(This checks out)
t: b0
Given: That drag depends on speed, air density and frontal area
Find: How drag force depend on speed
Solution:
Apply the Buckingham  procedure
 F V  A n = 4 parameters
 Select primary dimensions M, L, t
F V  A
 r = 3 primary dimensions
ML L M
L2
t2 t L3
 V  A m = r = 3 repeat parameters
 Then n – m = 1 dimensionless groups will result. Setting up a dimensional equation,
1  V a  b Ac F
 
a b
L M  c ML
    3  L2  M 0 L0 t 0
 t  L  t2
Summing exponents,
M: b 1  0 b  1
L : a  3b  2c  1  0 c  1
t: a20 a  2
Hence
F
1 
V 2 A
 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions
 1
F
1  2
Ft L2
L2
L4 t 2
The relation between drag force F and speed V must then be

F  V 2 A  V 2
The drag is proportional to the square of the speed.
Given: At low speeds, drag F on a sphere is only dependent upon speed V, viscosity μ, and diameter D
1 F V  D n = 4 parameters
3 F V  D n = 4 parameters
ML L M L
r = 3 dimensions
t2 t Lt
4 V  D m = r = 3 repeating parameters
5 We have n - m = 1 dimensionless group. Setting up a dimensional equation:

a b
a b c  M L    L    M   Lc  M0 L0 t0
Π1  F V  μ  D
 2   t   L t 
Thus:
 t 
Summing exponents:
M: 1  b  0 The solution to this system is:

F
L: 1abc0 a  1 b  1 c  1 Π1 
μ V D
t: 2  a  b  0
2
t L 1
Check using F, L, t primary dimensions: F    1 Checks out.
L F t L
F
Since the procedure produces only one dimensionless group, it must be a constant. Therefore:  constant
μ V D
Given: Functional relationship between the drag on a satellite and other physical parameters
Find: Expression for FD in terms of the other variables

1 FD λ ρ L c n = 5 parameters
3 FD λ ρ L c
M L M L
L L r = 3 dimensions
2 3 t
t L
4 ρ L c m = r = 3 repeating parameters

a d
M L

M
 L  
a b d b L 0 0 0
Π1  D ρ  L  c Thus:
 3   M L t
2  
t
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: FD
Π1 
a  1 b  2 d  2 2 2
M: 1  a  0 ρ L  c
L: 1  3 a  b  d  0
t: 2  d  0
4 2
L 1 t
Check using F, L, t dimensions: F   1
2 2 2
F t L L
a d
L 
M
 L  
a b d b L 0 0 0
Π2  λ ρ  L  c Thus:
 3   M L t
t
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: λ (Π2 is sometimes referred to
Π2 
L as the Knudsen number.)
a0 b  1 d0
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  d  0
t: d0
1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: L 1
L
FD
 f 
λ
  FD  ρ L  c  f  
2 2 λ
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 
2 2
ρ L  c  L  L
Given: Functional relationship between buoyant force of a fluid and physical parameters
Find: Buoyant force is proportional to the specific weight as demonstrated in Chapter 3.
1 FB V γ n = 3 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions F, L, t:
FB V γ
3
3 F
F L
3 r = 2 dimensions
L
4 V γ m = r = 2 repeating parameters
5 We have n - m = 1 dimensionless group. Setting up dimensional equations:
 3  F3 
a b
a b 0 0
Π1  FB V  γ Thus: F L  F L
L 
Summing exponents:
F: 1b0 The solution to this system is: FB

Π1 
L: 3 a  3 b  0 a  1 b  1 V γ
2 2
M L 1 t  L
Check using M, L, t dimensions:   1
2 3 M
t L
FB
The functional relationship is: Π1  C C Solving for the buoyant force: FB  C V γ Buoyant force is
V γ proportional to γ
(Q.E.D.)
Given: Functional relationship between drag on an object in a supersonic flow and physical parameters
Find: Functional relationship for this problem using dimensionless parameters

1 FD V ρ A c n = 5 parameters
3 FD V ρ A c
M L L M 2 L
L
2 t 3 t r = 3 dimensions
t L
4 V ρ A m = r = 3 repeating parameters
 
a b c
M L
 
L
   L
a b c M 2 0 0 0
Π1  FD V  ρ  A Thus:     M L t
t
2  t   L3 
Summing exponents:
FD
M: 1  b  0 The solution to this system is: Π1 
2
L: 1  a  3 b  2 c  0 a  2 b  1 c  1 V  ρ A
t: 2  a  0
2 4
t L 1
2 2 2
L F t L
 2
a b c
 
L

a b c L M 0 0 0
Π2  c V  ρ  A Thus:   L  M L t
t    L3 
t
Summing exponents:
c
M: b  0 The solution to this system is: Π2  (The reciprocal of Π 2 is also referred
V to as the Mach number.)
L: 1  a  3 b  2 c  0 a  1 b  0 c0
t: 1  a  0
L t
Check using F, L, t dimensions:  1
t L
FD
 f   c
The functional relationship is: Π1  g Π2   2

 V
V  ρ A
Given: That speed of shallow waves depends on depth, density, gravity and surface tension
Find: Dimensionless groups; Simplest form of V
Solution:
 V D  g  n = 5 parameters
 
V D  g  
 
   r = 3 primary dimensions
L M L M
 t L
L3 t2 t 2 
 g  D m = r = 3 repeat parameters
a b
L M 
1  g a  b D cV   2   3  L   M 0 L0t 0
c L
t   L  t
M: b0 b0
1 V
Summing exponents, L : a  3b  c  1  0 c   Hence 1 
2 gD
1
t:  2a  1  0 a
2
a b
 L M 
 2  g a  b D c   2   3  L  2  M 0 L0t 0
c M
t   L  t
M: b 1  0 b  1

Summing exponents, L : a  3b  c  0 c  2 Hence 2 
gD 2
t:  2 a  2  0 a  1
L F
 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions   1
t  11
2  L  1
L Ft 2 2
L 2 L
 2 L t 2 L4
t 
     
1  f  2 
V
The relation between drag force speed V is  f  
2 
V  gD f  
2 
gD  gD   gD 
Given: Functional relationship between wall shear stress in a boundary layer and physical parameters
1 w x   U n = 5 parameters
3 w x   U
M L M M L
r = 3 dimensions
Lt 2 L3 Lt t
4  x U m = r = 3 repeating parameters
a c
a b c  M    M   Lb  L   M0 L0 t0
Π1  τw ρ  x  U Thus:
 2  3 t
 
 L t   L 
Summing exponents:
M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: τw

Π1 
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 a  1 b  0 c  2 2
ρ U
t: 2  c  0
 F    L    t   1
4 2
Check using F, L, t dimensions:
 2  2  L 
 L   F t 
a c
a b c  M    M   Lb  L   M0 L0 t0
Π2  μ ρ  x  U Thus:  L t   3  t
  L   
Summing exponents:

Π2 
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ x  U
t: 1  c  0
 F t    L    1    t   1
4 2
 2   2   L   L 
Check using F, L, t dimensions: The functional relationship is:
 L   F t  Π1  f Π2  
Given: Functional relationship between boundary layer thickness and physical parameters
1  x   U n = 5 parameters
3  x   U
L L M M L
r = 3 dimensions
L3 Lt t
4  x U m = r = 3 repeating parameters
a c
L 
M
 L  
a b c b L 0 0 0
Π1  δ ρ  x  U Thus:
 3   M L t
t
L 
Summing exponents:
M: 0  a  0 The solution to this system is: δ

Π1 
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0 a0 b  1 c  0 x
t: 0c0
Check using F, L, t dimensions: ( L)  

1
1
 L
a c
a b c  M    M   Lb  L   M0 L0 t0
Π2  μ ρ  x  U Thus:  L t   3  t
  L   
Summing exponents:

Π2 
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ x  U
t: 1  c  0
 F t    L    1    t   1
4 2
 2   2   L   L 
Check using F, L, t dimensions: The functional relationship is:
 L   F t  Π1  f Π2  
Given: That light objects can be supported by surface tension
Solution:
 W p  g  n = 5 parameters
 
W p  g  
 
 ML M L M
 t 2 L
L3 t2 t 2 
 g  p m = r = 3 repeat parameters
a b
L M 
 3  L  2  M L t
c ML
1  g  p W   2 
a b c 0 0 0
t  L  t
M: b 1  0 b  1
W
Summing exponents, L : a  3b  c  1  0 c  3 Hence 1 
gp 3
t:  2a  2  0 a  1
a b
L M 
 2  g  p    2   3  L  2  M 0 L0t 0
a b c c M
t   L  t
M: b 1  0 b  1

Summing exponents, L : a  3b  c  0 c  2 Hence 2 
gp 2
t:  2 a  2  0 a  1
F
 1  1
F L
 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions 1  2 
L Ft 2 3 L Ft 2 2
L L
t 2 L4 t 2 L4
1 Wp
Note: Any combination of 1 and 2 is a  group, e.g.,  , so 1 and 2 are not unique!
2 
Given: Functional relationship between the speed of a free-surface gravity wave in deep water and physical parameters
Find: The dependence of the speed on the other variables
1 V λ D ρ g n = 5 parameters
3 V λ D ρ g
L M L
t 3 2
L t
4 D ρ g m = r = 3 repeating parameters

b c
L 
M

a b c L a L
0 0 0
Π1  V D  ρ  g
 3   2   M L t
Thus:
t
L  t 
Summing exponents:
M: b  0 The solution to this system is: V

Π1 
1 1 g D
L: 1  a  3 b  c  0 a b0 c
2 2
t: 1  2  c  0
 L   t   1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:  t   L
  
b c
L L  
M

a b c a L 0 0 0
Π2  λ D  ρ  g
 3   2   M L t
Thus:
L  t 
Summing exponents:
M: b  0 The solution to this system is: λ

Π2 
L: 1  a  3 b  c  0 a  1 b  0 c0 D
t: 2  c  0
1
L
 f 
λ
g  D f 
λ
 
V
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2  Therefore the velocity is: V 
g D  D  D
Given: Functional relationship between mean velocity for turbulent flow in a pipe or boundary layer and physical
parameters
Find: (a) Appropriate dimensionless parameters containing mean velocity and one containing the distance from the
wall that are suitable for organizing experimental data.
(b) Show that the result may be written as:
u  yu  
 f  *  where u*  w is the friction velocity
u*    
1 u w y   n = 5 parameters
3 u w y  
L M L M M
r = 3 dimensions
t Lt 2 L3 Lt
4  y w m = r = 3 repeating parameters

a c

M
L  
L b M 0 0 0
1  u y  a b c
w
Thus:
 3  2   M L t
t
L   L t 
Summing exponents:
M: a  c  0 The solution to this system is:

1  3 a  b  c  0 a
1
b0 c
1  u
L: 1  u 
t: 1  2  c  0
2 2  w u*
 L   t   1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:  t   L
  
a c

M
L  
M M
 2   a y b wc
b 0 0 0
 2   M L t
Thus:
L t  3
L   L t 
Summing exponents:
M: 1  a  c  0 The solution to this system is:

1  3  a  b  c  0 a
1
b  1 c  
1     
L: 2    
t: 1  2  c  0
2 2
y  w y  w yu* yu*
Π2 is the reciprocal of the Reynolds number, so we know that it checks out.
    yu 
The functional relationship  
Π1  g Π2 u
 g   which may be rewritten as: u
 f *
is: u*  yu*  u*   
(The solution to this problem was first devised by G.I. Taylor

in the paper "The formation of a blast wave by a very intense
explosion. I. Theoretical discussion," Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, Vol. 201, No. 1065, pages 159 - 174 (22 March 1950).)
Given: Functional relationship between the energy released by an explosion and other physical parameters
Find: Expression for E in terms of the other variables

1 E t R p ρ n = 5 parameters
3 E t R p ρ
2
M L M M
t L r = 3 dimensions
2 2 3
t L t L
4 ρ t R m = r = 3 repeating parameters

2 a
M L

a b c Mb c 0 0 0
Π1  E ρ  t  R
 3  t L  M L t
Thus:
2
t L 
2
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: E t
Π1 
a  1 b2 c  5 5
M: 1  a  0 ρ R
L: 2  3 a  c  0
t: 2  b  0
4
L 2 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: F L t  1
2 5
F t L
a

a b c M b c M
0 0 0
Π2  p  ρ  t  R
 3  t L  M L t
Thus:
2
L t  L 
2
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: p t
Π2 
a  1 b2 c  2 2
M: 1  a  0 ρ R
L: 1  3  a  c  0
t: 2  b  0
4
F L 2 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:  t  1
2 2 2
L F t L
E t
2  p t2  ρ R
5  p t2 
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2    f  E f  
5  2 2  ρ R2 
ρ R  ρ R  t  
Given: Functional relationship between the speed of a capillary wave and other physical parameters
Find: An expression for V based on the other variables
1 V σ λ ρ n = 4 parameters
3 V σ λ ρ
L M M
L r = 3 dimensions
t 2 3
t L
4 σ λ ρ m = r = 3 repeating parameters
5 We have n - m = 1 dimensionless group. Setting up dimensional equations:
a c

M
L 
a b c L b M 0 0
Π1  V σ  λ  ρ
 3   L t
Thus:
t  2
t  L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: λ ρ
Π1  V
1 1 1 σ
a b c
M: a  c  0 2 2 2
L: 1  b  3 c  0
t: 1  2  a  0
2
 L   L F t  L  1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: t
  L
4 F
λ ρ σ
The functional relationship is: Π1  C V C Therefore the velocity is: V  C
σ λ ρ
Given: Functional relationship between the flow rate over a weir and physical parameters
Find: An expression for Q based on the other variables
1 Q h g b n = 5 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions L, t:
3 Q h g b
3
L L
t 2
t
4 h g m = r = 2 repeating parameters

3 b
L 
a b L a L 0 0
Π1  Q h  g
 2   L t
Thus:
t
t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: Q
Π1 
5 1 2
a b h  g h
L: 3ab0 2 2
t: 1  2  b  0
 L3   1  2  t 
Check:        1
 t   L  L
b
L L  
a b a L 0 0
Π2  b  h  g
 2   L t
Thus:
t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: b
Π2 
a  1 b0 h
L: 1ab0
t: 2  b  0
1
Check: L 1
L
 f 
b
Q  h  g  h  f 
b
 
Q 2
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2  Therefore the flow rate is: 
2
h  g D h h
Given: That automobile buffer depends on several parameters
Solution:
 T  F e   n = 6 parameters
 
 T  F e   
 
 ML2 1 ML M M
 2 L 
 t t t2 Lt t2 
 F e  m = r = 3 repeat parameters
a c
 ML  b  1  ML
2
1  F e  T   2  L    2  M 0 L0t 0
a b c
 t  t t
Summing exponents,
M: a 1  0 a  1
T
L: ab20 b  1 Hence 1 
Fe
t:  2a  c  2  0 c0
a c
 ML  b1 M
 2  F a eb c    2  L     M 0 L0t 0
 t   t  Lt
M: a 1  0 a  1
e2
Summing exponents, L: a  b 1  0 b2 Hence 2 
F
t :  2a  c  1  0 c  1
a c
 ML  b1 M
 3  F e     2  L    2  M 0 L0t 0
a b c
 t  t t
M: a 1  0 a  1
e
Summing exponents, L: ab0 b 1 Hence 3 
F
t :  2a  c  2  0 c  0

Ft 2 1 F
L L
 1  1  1
FL L2
t L
1  2  3 
FL F F
1 T
Note: Any combination of 1, 2 and 3 is a  group, e.g.,  , so 1, 2 and 3 are not unique!
 2 e3
Given: That the power of a vacuum depends on various parameters
Solution:
 P p D d   di do n = 8 parameters

 
 P p D d   di do 
 
 ML2 M 1 M 
 3 L L L L
 t Lt 2 t L3 
  D  m = r = 3 repeat parameters

a c
M  b  1  ML
2
1   D  P   3
a b c
 
 L   3  M Lt
0 0 0
L  t t
M: a 1  0 a  1
P
Summing exponents, L :  3a  b  2  0 b  5 Hence 1 
D 5 3
t: c30 c  3
a c
M  b 1 M
 2   D  Δp   3  L   
a b c
 M 0 L0t 0
L   t  Lt
2
M: a 1  0 a  1
p
Summing exponents, L :  3a  b  1  0 b  2 Hence 2 
D 2 2
t: c20 c  2
d d d
The other  groups can be found by inspection: 3  4  i 5  o
D D D
FL F
L
1  t  1 2  L2  1 3   4  5   1
Ft 5 1
2
Ft 2 1 2
L
L 3 L 2
L4 t L4 t
1 P
Note: Any combination of 1, 2 and 3 is a  group, e.g.,  , so the ’s are not unique!
 2 pD 3
Given: Functional relationship between the load bearing capacity of a journal bearing and other physical parameters
Find: Dimensionless parameters that characterize the problem.
1 W D l c ω μ n = 6 parameters
3 W D l c ω μ
1 F t
F L L L r = 3 dimensions
t 2
L
4 D ω μ m = r = 3 repeating parameters
b c
F t 
F L  
1

a b c a 0 0 0
Π1  W D  ω  μ Thus:     F L t
 t   L2 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: W

Π1 
a  2 b  1 c  1 2
F: 1c0 D  ω μ
L: a  2 c  0
t: b  c  0
M L 1 L t l c
Check using M, L, t dimensions:   t 1 By inspection, we can see that: Π2  Π3 
2 2 M D D
t L
   f  
W l c
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3  
2
D  ω μ  D D
Problem 7.28 (In Excel) [Difficulty: 2]
Given: That drain time depends on fluid viscosity and density, orifice diameter, and gravity
Find: Functional dependence of t on other variables
Solution:
We will use the workbook of Example 7.1, modified for the current problem
The number of parameters is: n =5

The number of primary dimensions is: r =3
The number of repeat parameters is: m =r =3
The number of  groups is: n -m =2
Enter the dimensions (M, L, t) of

the repeating parameters, and of up to
four other parameters (for up to four  groups).
The spreadsheet will compute the exponents a , b , and c for each.
REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose , g , d
M L t
 1 -3
g 1 -2
d 1
 GROUPS:
M L t M L t
t 0 0 1  1 -1 -1
 1: a = 0  2: a = -1
b = 0.5 b = -0.5
c = -0.5 c = -1.5
The following  groups from Example 7.1 are not used:
M L t M L t
0 0 0 0 0 0
 3: a = 0  4: a = 0
b = 0 b = 0
c = 0 c = 0
Hence 1  t
g and 2 


2 with  1  f  2 
d 1 3
 gd 3
2
g 2d 2
d  2 
The final result is t f 2 3
g   gd 
 
Given: Functional relationship between the power transmited by a sound wave and other physical parameters
Find: Expression for E in terms of the other variables

1 E V ρ r n n = 5 parameters
3 E V ρ r n
M L M 1
L r = 3 dimensions
3 t 3 t
t L
4 ρ V r m = r = 3 repeating parameters

a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π1  E ρ  V  r
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
3
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: E

Π1 
a  1 b  3 c0 3
M: 1  a  0 ρ V
L: 3  a  b  c  0
t: 3  b  0
4 3
F L t
Check using F, L, t dimensions:   1
L t 2 3
F t L
a b

M
 
a b c 1 c 0 0 0 L
Π2  n  ρ  V  r
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
t
L 
Summing The solution to this system is: n r
exponents: Π2 
a0 b  1 c1 V
M: a  0
L: 3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
1 t
Check using F, L, t  L 1
dimensions: t L
n r  n r 
   f  E  ρ V  f 
E 3
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2  
ρ V
3  V  V
Given: Functional relationship between the time needed to drain a tank through an orifice plate and other physical
parameters
Find: (a) the number of dimensionless parameters
(b) the number of repeating variables
(c) the Π term which contains the viscosity
1 τ h0 D d g ρ μ n = 7 parameters
3 τ h0 D d g ρ μ
L M M
T L L L r = 3 dimensions
2 3 L t
t L
4 ρ d g m = r = 3 repeating parameters We have n - m = 4 dimensionless groups.
5 Setting up dimensional equation including the viscosity:

a c

M
L 
a b c M b L 0 0 0
Π1  μ ρ  d  g
 2   M L t
Thus:
L t  3 
L  t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: μ
Π1 
3 1 3 1
a  1 b c
M: 1  a  0 2 2 2 2
ρ d  g
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  2  c  0
4
F t L 1 t
Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1
2 2 3 1
L F t
2 2
L L
Given: Functional relationship between the flow rate of viscous liquid dragged out of a bath and other physical
parameters
Find: Expression for Q in terms of the other variables

1 Q μ ρ g h V n = 6 parameters
3 Q μ ρ g h V
3
L M M L L
L r = 3 dimensions
t L t 3 2 t
L t
4 ρ V h m = r = 3 repeating parameters

3 a b

M
 
a b c L c 0 0 0 L
Π1  Q ρ  V  h Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t

Π1 
a0 b  1 c  2 2
M: a  0 V h
L: 3  3 a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
3
L t 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions:   1
t L 2
L
a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π2  μ ρ  V  h Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
L t 3 t

Π2 
a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V h
M: 1  a  0
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
4
F t L t 1
2 2 L L
L F t
a b

M
 
a b c L c 0 0 0 L
Π3  g  ρ  V  h
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: g h

Π3 
a0 b  2 c1 2
M: a  0 V
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
t: 2  b  0
2
L t
Check using F, L, t dimensions:  L 1
2 2
t L
 ρ V h V2   ρ V h V2 
 
Q
 f  Q  V h  f  
2
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3  
V h
2  μ g h   μ g h 
Given: Functional relationship between the power required to drive a fan and other physical parameters
Find: Expression for P in terms of the other variables

1 P ρ Q D ω n = 5 parameters
3 P ρ Q D ω
2 3
M L M L 1
L r = 3 dimensions
3 3 t t
t L
4 ρ D ω m = r = 3 repeating parameters

2 a c
M L

M
 L  
a b c b 1 0 0 0
Π1  P ρ  D  ω Thus:
 3   M L t
3 t 
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: P
Π1 
a  1 b  5 c  3 5 3
M: 1  a  0 ρ D  ω
L: 2  3 a  b  0
t: 3  c  0
4
F L L 1 3
Check using F, L, t dimensions:   t  1
t 2 5
F t L
3 a c

M
 L  
a b c L b 1 0 0 0
Π2  Q ρ  D  ω Thus:
 3   M L t
t t 
L 
Summing The solution to this system is: Q
exponents: Π2 
a0 b  3 c  1 3
M: a  0 D ω
L: 3  3 a  b  0
t: 1  c  0
1 t
Check using F, L, t  L 1
dimensions: t L
 f
Q 
P  ρ D  ω  f 
Q 
 
P 5 3
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2
5 3  3   3 
ρ D  ω  D ω   D ω 
Given: Functional relationship between the mass flow rate exiting a tank through a rounded drain hole and other
physical parameters
Find: (a) Number of dimensionless parameters that will result
(b) Number of repeating parameters
(c) The Π term that contains the viscosity

1 m h0 D d g ρ μ n = 7 parameters
3 m h0 D d g ρ μ
M L M M
L L L
t 2 3 L t r = 3 dimensions
t L We have n - r = 4 dimensionless groups.
4 ρ d g m = r = 3 repeating parameters
5 Setting up dimensional equation involving the viscosity:

a c

M
L 
a b c M b L 0 0 0
Π1  μ ρ  d  g
 2   M L t
Thus:
L t  3 
L  t 
Π1 
3 1 3
a  1 b c ρ d  g
M: 1  a  0 2 2
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  2  c  0
4
F t L 1 t
2 2 3 1
L F t
2 2
L L
Given: Functional relationship between the deflection of the bottom of a cylindrical tank and other physical parameters
Find: Functional relationship between these parameters using dimensionless groups.

1 δ D h d γ E n = 6 parameters
3 δ D h d γ E
F F
L L L L r = 2 dimensions
3 2
L L
4 D γ m = r = 2 repeating parameters We have n - m = 4 dimensionless groups.
5 Setting up dimensional equations:

b
L L   
a b a F 0 0
Π1  δ D  γ
 3   F L
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: δ
Π1 
F: b0 a  1 b0 D
L: 1  a  3 b  0
1
Check using M, L, t dimensions: L 1
L
Now since h and d have the same dimensions as δ, it h d
would follow that the the next two pi terms would be: Π2  Π3 
D D
b
L  
a b F a F 0 0
Π4  E D  γ
 3   F L
Thus:
2
L L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: E
Π4 
F: 1b0 a  1 b  1 D γ
L: 2  a  3  b  0 2 2
M 1 L t
Check using M, L, t dimensions:   1
2 L M
L t
 f 
h d E 
 
δ
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3 Π4   
D  D D D γ 
(For further reading, one should consult an appropriate text, such as Advanced Strength of Materials by Cook and Young)
Given: Functional relationship between the diameter of droplets formed during jet breakup and other physical
parameters
Find: (a) The number of dimensionless parameters needed to characterize the process
(b) The ratios (Π-terms)
1 d ρ μ σ V D n = 6 parameters
3 d ρ μ σ V D
M M M L
3 L t 2 t
L t
4 ρ V D m = r = 3 repeating parameters We have n - m = 3 dimensionless groups.

a b
L 
M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π1  d  ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: d
Π1 
a0 b0 c  1 D
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
1
t: b  0 L
a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π2  μ ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
L t 3 t

Π2 
a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V D
M: 1  a  0
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 4
F t L t 1
t: 1  b  0 2 2 L L
L F t
a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0L
Π3  σ ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: σ

Π3 
a  1 b  2 c  1 2
M: 1  a  0 ρ V  D
4 2
L: 3  a  b  c  0 F L t 1
t: 2  b  0 L 2 2 L
F t L
Given: Functional relationship between the height of a ball suported by a vertical air jet and other physical parameters
Find: The Π terms that characterize this phenomenon
1 h D d V ρ μ W n = 7 parameters
3 h D d V ρ μ W
L M M M L
L L L r = 3 dimensions
t 3 L t 2
L t
4 ρ V d m = r = 3 repeating parameters

a b
L 
M
 
a b c L
c 0 0 0
Π1  h  ρ  V  d
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: h
Π1 
a0 b0 c  1 d
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
1
t: b  0 L
a b
L 
M
 
a b c L
c 0 0 0
Π2  D ρ  V  d
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: D
Π2 
a0 b0 c  1 d
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
1
t: b  0 L
a b

M
 
a b c M c L0 0 0
Π3  μ ρ  V  d
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L t
L 
Π3 
a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V d
M: 1  a  0
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 4
F t L t 1
t: 1  b  0 2 2 L L
L F t
a b
M L

M
 
a b c L
c 0 0 0
Π4  W ρ  V  d
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: W
Π4 
a  1 b  2 c  2 2 2
M: 1  a  0 ρ V  d
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0 4 2
L t 1
t: 2  b  0 2 2 2
F t L L
Given: That dot size depends on ink viscosity, density, and surface tension, and geometry
Find:  groups
Solution:


REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose , V , D
M L t
 1 -3
V 1 -1
D 1
 GROUPS:
M L t M L t
d 0 1 0  1 -1 -1
1: a = 0 2: a = -1
b = 0 b = -1
c = -1 c = -1
M L t M L t
 1 0 -2 L 0 1 0
3: a = -1 4: a = 0
b = -2 b = 0
c = -1 c = -1
1 
d  VD  L
Hence 2   3  4 
D VD  V 2 D D
Note that groups 1 and 4 can be obtained by inspection

Given: Bubble size depends on viscosity, density, surface tension, geometry and pressure
Find:  groups
Solution:


REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose , p , D
M L t
 1 -3
p 1 -1 -2
D 1
 GROUPS:
M L t M L t
d 0 1 0  1 -1 -1
1: a = 0 2: a = -0.5

b = 0 b = -0.5
c = -1 c = -1
M L t M L t
 1 0 -2 0 0 0
3: a = 0 4: a = 0
b = -1 b = 0
c = -1 c = 0
d  2 
Hence 1  2   3 
D 1 1
pD 2 Dp
 2 p 2 D
Note that the 1 group can be obtained by inspection

Given: Speed depends on mass, area, gravity, slope, and air viscosity and thickness
Find:  groups
Solution:


REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose g , , m
M L t
g 1 -2
 1
m 1
 GROUPS:
M L t M L t
V 0 1 -1  1 -1 -1
1 : a = -0.5 2 : a = -0.5
b = -0.5 b = 1.5
c = 0 c = -1
M L t M L t
 0 0 0 A 0 2 0
3 : a = 0 4 : a = 0
b = 0 b = -2
c = 0 c = 0
3
V V2  2  2 3 4 
A
Hence 1   2   3  
1 1 g 1 2
m g 2
g 2 2 g 2m
Note that the 1 , 3 and 4 groups can be obtained by inspection

Given: Functional relationship between the length of a wake behind an airfoil and other physical parameters
1 w V L t ρ μ
n = 6 parameters
3 w V L t ρ μ
L M M
L L L
t 3 L t r = 3 dimensions
L
4 ρ V L m = r = 3 repeating parameters

a b
L 
M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π1  w ρ  V  L
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: w
Π1 
a0 b0 c  1 L
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
1
t: b  0 L
a b
L 
M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π2  t ρ  V  L
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: t
Π2 
a0 b0 c  1 L
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
1
t: b  0 L
a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π3  μ ρ  V  L Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
L t 3 t

Π3 
a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V L
M: 1  a  0
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0 4
F t L t 1
t: 1  b  0 2 2 L L
L F t
Given: That the power of a washing machine agitator depends on various parameters
Solution:
 P H D h max f   n = 8 parameters

 
 P H D h max f  
 
 ML2 1 1 M M
 3 L L L 
 t t t L3 Lt 
  D max m = r = 3 repeat parameters

a c
M  b  1  ML
2
a b c

max 
1   D  P   3  L   3  M 0 L0t 0
L  t t
M: a 1  0 a  1
P
Summing exponents, L :  3a  b  2  0 b  5 Hence 1 
D max
53
t: c30 c  3
a c
M  b1 M
 2   D     3  L   
a b c
max  M 0 L0t 0
 
L  
t Lt
M: a 1  0 a  1

D max
2
t:  c 1  0 c  1
H h f
The other  groups can be found by inspection: 3  4  5 
D D max
FL Ft
1  t  1 2  L2  1  3   4   5  1
Ft 2 5 1 Ft 2 2 1
L 3 L
L4 t L4 t
1 P
Note: Any combination of ’s is a  group, e.g.,  , so the ’s are not unique!
 2 D 3max
2

Given: Functional relationship between the mass flow rate of gas through a choked-flow nozzle and other physical
parameters
Find: (a) How many independent Π terms that characterize this phenomenon
(b) Find the Π terms
(c) State the functional relationship for the mass flow rate in terms of the Π terms

1 m A p T R (Mathcad can't render dots!) n = 5 parameters
3 m A p T R
2
M 2 M L
L T r = 4 dimensions
t 2 2
L t t T
4 p A T R m = r = 4 repeating parameters We have n - m = 1 dimensionless group.

d
c L 
 
a b 2

M 
 L T    M0 L0 t0 T0
a b c d M 2
Π1  m p  A  T  R Thus:
t  2  2 
 L t   t T 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: m
Π1   R T
1 1 p A
a  1 b  1 c  d
M: 1  a  0 2 2
L: a  2  b  2  d  0 1
2
t: 1  2  a  2  d  0 F t L 1 L 2
Check using F, L, t dimensions:    T  1
T: cd0 L F 2 1
L
2
t T
m p A
The functional relationship is: Π1  C  R T  C So the mass flow rate is: m  C
p A R T
Given: Time to speed up depends on inertia, speed, torque, oil viscosity and geometry
Find:  groups
Solution:


REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose , D , T
M L t
 -1
D 1
T 1 2 -2
 GROUPS:
Two  groups can be obtained by inspection: /D and L /D . The others are obtained below
M L t M L t
t 0 0 1  1 -1 -1
1: a = 1 2: a = 1
b = 0 b = 3
c = 0 c = -1
M L t M L t
I 1 2 0 0 0 0
3: a = 2 4: a = 0
b = 0 b = 0
c = -1 c = 0
Hence the  groups are
t  L  D 3 I 2
D D T T
Note that the 1 group can also be easily obtained by inspection
Given: Functional relationship between the mass flow rate of liquid from a pressurized tank through a contoured nozzle
and other physical parameters
Find: (a) How many independent Π terms that characterize this phenomenon
(b) Find the Π terms
(c) State the functional relationship for the mass flow rate in terms of the Π terms

1 m A ρ h Δp g n = 6 parameters
3 m A ρ h Δp g
M 2 M M L
t 3 2 2
L L t t
4 ρ A g m = r = 3 repeating parameters We have n - m = 3 dimensionless groups.
 2  L2 
a b c

a b c M M 0 0 0
Π1  m ρ  A  g Thus:  L  M L t
t  3
L  t 
Π1 
5 1 5 1
a  1 b c
M: 1  a  0 4 2 4 2
ρ A  g
L: 3  a  2  b  c  0
4
t: 1  2  c  0 F t L 1 t
L 2 5 1
F t
2 2
L L
 2  L2 
a b c
L 
a b c M 0 0 0
Π2  h  ρ  A  g Thus:  L  M L t
 3
L  t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: h
Π2 
1 A
a0 b c0
M: a  0 2
L: 1  3 a  2 b  c  0
t: 2  c  0 1
L
 2  L2 
a b c

a b c M M 0 0 0
Π3  Δp ρ  A  g Thus:  L  M L t
2  3
L t  L  t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: Δp
Π3 
1 ρ g  A
a  1 b c  1
M: 1  a  0 2
L: 1  3  a  2  b  c  0
4 2
t: 2  2  c  0 F L t 1
2 2 L L
L F t
 f  
m h
 
Δp
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3   So the mass flow rate is:
5 1  A ρ g  A 
5 1
4 2
ρ A  g
m  ρ A  g  f  
4 2 h Δp
 
 A ρ g  A 
Given: Functional relationship between the aerodynamic torque on a spinning ball and other physical parameters
1 T V ρ μ D ω d n = 7 parameters
3 T V ρ μ D ω d
2
M L L M M 1
2 t 3 L t t
t L
4 ρ V D m = r = 3 repeating parameters

2 a b
M L

M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π1  T ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: T
Π1 
a  1 b  2 c  3 2 3
M: 1  a  0 ρ V  D
L: 2  3 a  b  c  0
4 2
t: 2  b  0 L t 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: F L   1
2 2 3
F t L L
a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0L
Π2  μ ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
L t 3 t

Π2 
a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V D
M: 1  a  0
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
4
t: 1  b  0 F t L t 1
2 2 L L
L F t
a b

M
 
a b c 1 c L
0 0 0
Π3  ω ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: ω D

Π3 
a0 b  1 c1 V
M: a  0
L: 3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0 1 t
Check using F, L, t dimensions:  L 1
t L
a b
L 
M
 
a b c cL 0 0 0
Π4  d  ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: d
Π4 
a0 b0 c  1 D
M: a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
t: b  0 1
Check using F, L, t dimensions: L  1
L
ω D d 
 f 
T
 
μ
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3 Π4   
2
ρ V  D
3  ρ V D V D 
Given: Ventilation system of cruise ship clubhouse
Solution:
 c N p D  p  g  n = 9 parameters
 
c N p D  p  g 
 
1 M 1 M M L M
 L3 1 L
Lt 2 t L3 L3 t2 Lt 
  D  m = r = 3 repeat parameters

a c
M  b1 M
1   D  Δp   3  L   
a b c
 M 0 L0t 0
L
  t
  Lt 2
M: a 1  0 a  1
p
D 2 2
t: c20 c  2
a c
M  b1 M
2   D     3  L     M 0 L0t 0
a b c
L  t
  Lt
M: a 1  0 a  1

D 2
t:  c 1  0 c  1
p g
The other  groups can be found by inspection:  3  cD 3 4  N 5  6 
 D 2
F Ft
1  L2  1 2  L2  1  3   4   5   6  1
Ft 2 2 1 Ft 2 2 1
L 2 L
L4 t L4 t
1 p
Note: Any combination of ’s is a  group, e.g.,  , so the ’s are not unique!
 2 
Given: Functional relationship between the mass burning rate of a combustible mixture and other physical parameters
Find: The dependence of mass burning rate

1 m δ ρ α D (Mathcad can't render dots!)
n = 5 parameters
3 m δ ρ α D
2 2
M M L L r = 3 dimensions
L
t 3 t t
L
4 δ ρ α m = r = 3 repeating parameters
c
b  2
L      M L t
a b c M Ma L 0 0 0
Π1  m δ  ρ  α Thus:
t  3  t 
L 
Π1 
M: 1  b  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 δ ρ α
L: a  3 b  2 c  0
t: 1  c  0
c
2 b  2
L      M L t
a b c L Ma L 0 0 0
Π2  D δ  ρ  α Thus:
t  3  t 
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: D
Π2 
M: b  0 a0 b0 c  1 α
L: 2  a  3 b  2 c  0
t: 1  c  0
4 2
F t 1 L t L t
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1  1
L L 2 2 t 2
F t L L
 f 
D
 
m
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 
δ ρ α α
Given: Functional relationship between the power loss in a journal bearing and other physical parameters
Find: The Π terms that characterize this phenomenon and the function form of the dependence of P on these
parameters
1 P l D c ω μ p n = 7 parameters
3 P l D c ω μ p
F L 1 F t F
L L L
t t 2 2
4 D ω p m = r = 3 repeating parameters
b c
F L
 L  
1
   F L t
a b c a F 0 0 0
Π1  P D  ω  p Thus:   
t  t   L2 

Π1 
F: 1c0 a  3 b  1 c  1 3
D  ω p
L: 1  a  2 c  0
t: 1  b  0
b c
L L  
1
   F L t
a b c a F 0 0 0
Π2  l D  ω  p Thus:   
 t   L2 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: l

Π2 
F: c0 a  1 b0 c0 D
L: 1  a  2 c  0
t: b  0
b c
L L  
1
   F L t
a b c a F 0 0 0
Π3  c D  ω  p Thus:   
 t   L2 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: c

Π3 
F: c0 a  1 b0 c0 D
L: 1  a  2 c  0
t: b  0
b c
F t
 L  
1
   F L t
a b c a F 0 0 0
Π4  μ D  ω  p Thus:   
L
2  t   L2 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: μ ω

Π4 
F: 1c0 a0 b1 c  1 p
L: 2  a  2  c  0
t: 1b0
2 2 2
M L 1 L t 1 1 M 1 L t
6 Check using M, L, t dimensions:   t  1 L 1 L 1   1
3 3 M L L L t t M
t L
c μ ω  c μ ω 
 f  P  ω p  D  f 
P l l
The functional relationship is: 
Π1  f Π2 Π3 Π4  3
 
D D p 

3
 
D D p 

ω p  D
Given: Functional relationship between the heat transfer rate in a convection oven and other physical parameters
Find: The number of Π terms that characterize this phenomenon and the Π terms
1 Q cp Θ L ρ μ V n = 7 parameters
2 Select primary dimensions F, L, t, T (temperature):
3 Q cp Θ L ρ μ V
2 2
F L L F t F t L
T L
t 2 4 2 t r = 4 dimensions
t T L L
4 ρ V L Θ m = r = 4 repeating parameters We have n - m = 3 dimensionless
groups.
a
F L  F t2   L  b c d 0 0 0 0
    L T  F L t T
a b c d
Π1  Q ρ  V  L  Θ Thus:
t  4  t
L 
Π1 
F: 1a0 a  1 b  3 c  2 d  0 3 2
ρ V  L
L: 1  4 a  b  c  0
t: 1  2  a  b  0
T: d0
a
 F t2   L  b c d 0 0 0 0
2
    L T  F L t T
a b c d L
Π2  cp  ρ  V  L  Θ Thus:
2  4   t
t T  L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: cp  Θ
Π2 
F: a0 a0 b  2 c0 d1 2
V
L: 2  4 a  b  c  0
t: 2  2  a  b  0
T: 1  d  0
a
 F t2   L  b c d 0 0 0 0
F t
    L T  F L t T
a b c d
Π3  μ ρ  V  L  Θ Thus:
2  4   t
L  L 
Π3 
F: 1a0 a  1 b  1 c  1 d  0 ρ V L
L: 2  4  a  b  c  0
t: 1  2 a  b  0
T: d0
2 3 2 2 2 3
M L L t 1 L t M L t 1
6 Check using M, L, t, T dimensions:    1  T  1    1
3 M 2 3 2 2 L t M L L
t L L t T L
Q  cp Θ μ   cp  Θ μ 
   f Q  ρ V  L  f 
3 2
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3  
3 2  V2 ρ V L   V2 ρ V L 
ρ V  L    
Given: Functional relationship between the thrust of a marine propeller and other physical parameters
1 FT ρ D V g ω p μ n = 8 parameters

3 FT ρ D V g ω p μ
M L M L L 1 M M
L
2 3 t 2 t 2 L t
t L t L t r = 3 dimensions
a b
M L

M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π1  FT ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: FT
Π1 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  2 c  2 2 2
ρ V  D
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
t: 2  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c L c 0 0 0 L
Π2  g  ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
t L   
2 3 t
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: g D

Π2 
M: a  0 a0 b  2 c1 2
V
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
t: 2  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c 1 c 0 0 0 L
Π3  ω ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t

Π3 
M: a  0 a0 b  1 c1 V
L: 3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π4  p  ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
L t  L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: p

Π4 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  2 c0 2
ρ V
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 2  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 L
Π5  μ ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
L t 3 t

Π5 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V D
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
4 2 2 4 2 4
L t 1 L t 1 t F L t F t L t 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions: F   1  L 1  L 1   1    1
2 2 2 2 2 t L 2 2 2 2 2 L L
F t L L t L L F t L L F t
Given: That the cooling rate depends on rice properties and air properties
Find: The  groups
Solution:
 dT/dt c k L cp   V n = 8 parameters
 Select primary dimensions M, L, t and T (temperature)
dT dt c k L cp   V
 r = 4 primary dimensions
T L2 ML L2 M M L
L
t t 2T t 2T t 2T L3 Lt t
 V  L cp m = r = 4 repeat parameters
Then n – m = 4 dimensionless groups will result. By inspection, one  group is c/cp. Setting up a dimensional equation,
d
c L  T
a b
dT  L   M  2
1  V  L c a
    3  L   2 
b c d
p   T 0 M 0 L0t 0
dt  t   L  t T  t
Summing exponents,
T: d  1  0 d 1
M: b0 b0
L: a  3b  c  2d  0 a  c  2  c  1
t:  a  2d  1  0 a  3
dT Lc p
Hence 1 
dt V 3
k 
By a similar process, we find 2  and 3 
L2 c p LV
Hence
 c 
dT Lc p
 f  , k ,  
dt V 3  c p L2 c LV 
 p 
Given: Functional relationship between the power to drive a marine propeller and other physical parameters
Find: (a) The number of Π terms that characterize this phenomenon
(b) The Π terms
1 P ρ D V c ω μ n = 7 parameters
3 P ρ D V c ω μ
2
M L M L L 1 M
L
3 3 t t t L t

2 a b
M L

M
 
a b c c L
0 0 0
Π1  P ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
3
t L 
Π1 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  3 c  2 3 2
ρ V  D
L: 2  3 a  b  c  0
t: 3  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c L c 0 0 0 L
Π2  c ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: c

Π2 
M: a  0 a0 b  1 c0 V
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c 1 c 0 0 0 L
Π3  ω ρ  V  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t

Π3 
M: a  0 a0 b  1 c1 V
L: 3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c M cL 0 0 0
Π4  μ ρ  V  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L t
L 
Π4 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V D
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
4 3 4
F L L t 1 L t 1 t F t L t 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:    1  1  L 1    1
t 2 3 2 t L t L 2 2 L L
F t L L L F t
Given: Boundary layer profile
Find: Two  groups by inspection; One  that is a standard fluid mechanics group; Dimensionless groups
Solution:
Two obvious  groups are u/U and y/. A dimensionless group common in fluid mechanics is U (Reynolds number)
 u y U dU/dx   n = 6 parameters
 
u y U dU dx  
 
   m = r = 3 primary dimensions
L L 1 2
L 
 L L
t t t t 
 U  m = r = 2 repeat parameters
 Then n – m = 4 dimensionless groups will result. We can easily do these by inspection
1 
u
2 
y
3 
dU dy 
4 

U  U U
 Check using F, L, t as primary dimensions, is not really needed here
Note: Any combination of ’s can be used; they are not unique!
Given: Functional relationship between the maximum pressure experienced in a water hammer wave and other physical
parameters
Find: (a) The number of Π terms that characterize this phenomenon
(b) The functional relationship between the Π terms
1 p max ρ U0 EV n = 4 parameters
3 p max ρ U0 EV
M M L M
2 3 t 2
L t L L t r = 3 dimensions
4 ρ U0 m = 2 repeating parameters because p max and Ev have the same dimensions.
We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups.
a b

M
 
a b M 0 0 0 L
Π1  p max ρ  U0
 3   t   M  L  t
Thus:
2
L t  L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: p max

Π1 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  2 2
ρ U0
L: 1  3  a  b  0
t: 2  b  0
a b

M
 
a b M 0 0 0 L
Π2  Ev  ρ  U0
 3   t   M  L  t
Thus:
2
L t  L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: Ev

Π2 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  2 2
ρ U0
L: 1  3  a  b  0
t: 2  b  0
4 2 4 2
F L t F L t
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:   1   1
2 2 2 2 2 2
L F t L L F t L
p max  Ev 
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2   Thus:  f 
ρ U0
2  ρ U 2 
 0 
Given: Model scale for on balloon
Find: Required water model water speed; drag on protype based on model drag
Solution:
kg  5 Ns kg  3 Ns
From Appendix A (inc. Fig. A.2) ρair  1.24 μair  1.8  10  ρw  999 μw  10 
3 2 3 2
m m m m
m
The given data is Vair  5  Lratio  20 Fw  2 kN
s
ρw Vw Lw ρair Vair Lair

For dynamic similarity we assume 
μw μair
μw ρair Lair μw ρair  10 3 

m    1.24   20 m
Then Vw  Vair    Vair   Lratio  5    999  Vw  6.90
μair ρw Lw μair ρw s  1.8  10 5    s
 
Fair Fw

For the same Reynolds numbers, the drag coefficients will be the same so we have 1 2 1 2
 ρair Aair Vair  ρw Aw Vw
2 2
2
Aair  Lair  2
where    Lratio
Aw
 Lw 
2
ρair  Vair 
2  1.24   202   5 
2
Hence the prototype drag is Fair  Fw  Lratio     2000 N   999   6.9  Fair  522 N
ρw
 Vw     
Given: Airship is to operate at 20 m/s in air at standard conditions. A 1/20 scale model is to be tested in a wind tunnel at
the same temperature to determine drag.
Find: (a) Criterion needed to obtain dynamic similarity
(b) Air pressure required if air speed in wind tunnel is 75 m/s
(c) Prototype drag if the drag on the model is 250 N
ρ V L 
 f 
F
Solution: Dimensional analysis predicts:  Therefore, for dynamic similarity, it would follow that:
2
ρ V  L
2  μ 
ρm Vm Lm ρp  Vp  Lp

μm μp
Since the tests are performed at the same temperature, the viscosities are the same. Solving for the ratio of densities:
ρm Vp Lp μm 20 p
     20  1  5.333 Now from the ideal gas equation of state: ρ  Thus:
ρp Vm Lm μp 75 R T
ρm Tp 5
pm  pp  p m  101  kPa  5.333  1 p m  5.39  10 Pa
ρp Tm
2 2
Fp Fm ρp  Vp   Lp 
From the force ratios:  Thus: Fp  Fm    
ρm Vm
2
ρp  Vp  Lp
2 2
ρm Vm  Lm
2
   Lm 
2
1  20   ( 20) 2
Substituting known values: Fp  250  N    75  Fp  1.333  kN
5.333  
Given: A model is to be subjected to the same Reynolds number in air flow and water flow
Find: (a) Which flow will require the higher flow speed
(b) How much higher the flow speed needs to be
ρw Vw Lw ρa  Va La Va ρw μa νa
Solution: For dynamic similarity:  We know that Lw  La Thus:   
μw μa Vw ρa μw νw
2 2
6 m 5 m
From Tables A.8 and A.10 at 20 deg C: νw  1.00  10  and νa  1.51  10  Therefore:
s s
Va 5
1.51  10
  15.1 Air speed must be higher than
Vw 6 water speed.
1.00  10
To match Reynolds number: Va  15.1 Vw

Given: Vessel to be powered by a rotating circular cylinder. Model tests are planned to determine the required power
for the prototype.
Find: (a) List of parameters that should be included in the analysis
(b) Perform dimensional analysis to identify the important dimensionless groups
Solution: From an inspection of the physical problem: P  f ( ρ μ V ω D H)
We will now use the Buckingham pi-theorem to find the dimensionless groups.
1 P ρ μ V ω D H n = 7 parameters
3 P ρ μ V ω D H
2
M L M M L 1
3 3 L t t t
t L
4 ρ ω D m = r = 3 repeating parameters
2 a b
M L

M
 
a b c c 1
0 0 0
Π1  P ρ  ω  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
3
t L 
Π1 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  3 c  5 3 5
ρ ω  D
L: 2  3 a  c  0
t: 3  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c M c 1
0 0 0
Π2  μ ρ  ω  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L t
L 
Π2 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  1 c  2 2
ρ ω D
L: 1  3  a  c  0
t: 1  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c L c 0 0 0 1
Π3  V ρ  ω  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: V

Π3 
M: a  0 a0 b  1 c  1 ω D
L: 1  3 a  c  0
t: 1  b  0
a b
L 
M
 
a b c 1
c 0 0 0
Π4  H ρ  ω  D
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: H
Π4 
M: a  0 a0 b0 c  1 D
L: 1  3 a  c  0
t: b  0
4 4
F L L 3 1 F t L 1 L 1 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:  t  1   t 1  t 1 L 1
t 2 5 2 2 2 t L L
F t L L F t L
 f
V H
 
P μ
The functional relationship is: Π1  f Π2 Π3 Π4  
3 5  2 ω D D 
ρ ω  D  ρ ω D 
Given: Measurements of drag are made on a model car in a fresh water tank. The model is 1/5-scale.
Find: (a) Conditions requred to ensure dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype.
(b) Required fraction of speed in air at which the model needs to be tested in water to ensure dynamically similar
conditions.
(c) Drag force on the prototype model traveling at 90 kph in air if the model drag is 182 N traveling at 4 m/s in
water.
Solution: The flows must be geometrically and kinematically similar, and have equal Reynolds numbers to be dynamically
similar:
Geometric similarity requires a true model in all respects.
Kinematic similarity requires the same flow pattern, i.e., no free-surface or cavitation effects.
The problem may be stated as F = f(ρ,V,L,μ)
F ρ V L V L
Dimensional analysis gives this relation:  g ( Re) where Re  
2 2 μ ν
ρ V  L
Vm Lm Vp  Lp Vm νm Lp
Matching Reynolds numbers between the model and prototype  Thus:  
flows: νm νp Vp νp Lm
2 2
6 m 5 m
From Tables A.8 and A.10 at 20 deg C: νw  1.00  10  and νa  1.51  10  Therefore:
s s
Vm 6 Vm
1.00  10 5
   0.331  0.331
Vp 5 1 Vp
1.51  10
2 2
Fm Fp  Vp   Lp 
ρp
If the conditions are dynamically similar:  Thus: Fp  Fm    
ρm Vm
2
ρm Vm  Lm
2 2
ρp  Vp  Lp
2
   Lm 
2 2
1.20  km 1000 m hr s  5
Substituting in known values: Fp  182  N    90      1 Fp  213 N
999  hr km 3600  s 4  m  
Given: Flow around ship's propeller
Find: Model propeller speed using Froude number and Reynolds number
Solution:
V V L
Basic equations: Fr  Re 
g L ν
Assumptions: (a) The model and the actual propeller are geometrically similar
(b) The flows about the propellers are kinematically and dynamically similar
Vm Vp Vm Lm
Using the Froude number Fr m   Fr p  or  (1)
g  Lm g  Lp Vp Lp
Vm Lm ωm
But the angular velocity is given by V  L ω so   (2)
Vp Lp ωp
Lm ωm Lm
Comparing Eqs. 1 and 2   ωm Lp
Lp ωp Lp 
ωp Lm
Lp
The model rotation speed is then ωm  ωp  9
Lm ωm  100  rpm  ωm  300  rpm
1
Vm Lm Vp  Lp Vm Lp νm Lp
Using the Reynolds number Rem   Rep  or    (3)
νm νp Vp Lm νp Lm
(We have assumed the viscosities of the sea water and model water are comparable)
Lm ωm Lp 2
Comparing Eqs. 2 and 3   ωm  Lp 
Lp ωp Lm  
ωp
 Lm 
2
 Lp  2
The model rotation speed is then ωm  ωp    9
 Lm 
ωm  100  rpm  1 ωm  8100 rpm
 
Of the two models, the Froude number appears most realistic; at 8100 rpm serious cavitation will occur, which would
invalidate the similarity assumptions. Both flows will likely have high Reynolds numbers so that the flow becomes
independent of Reynolds number; the Froude number is likely to be a good indicator of static pressure to dynamic
pressure for this (although cavitation number would be better).
Given: A torpedo with D = 533 mm and L = 6.7 m is to travel at 28 m/s in water. A 1/5 scale model of the torpedo is to be
tested in a wind tunnel. The maximum speed in the tunnel is fixed at 110 m/s, but the pressure can be varied at a
constant temperature of 20 deg C.
Find: (a) Minimum pressure required in the wind tunnel for dynamically similar testing.
(b) The expected drag on the prototype if the model drag is 618 N.
Solution: The problem may be stated as: F  f ( ρ V D μ) From the Buckingham pi theorem, we expect 2 Π terms:
F ρ V D
 g ( Re) where Re 
2 2 μ
ρ V  D
ρm Vm Dm ρp  Vp  Dp Vp Dp μm
Matching Reynolds numbers between the model and prototype flows:  Thus: ρm  ρp   
μm μp Vm Dm μp
 3 N s  5 N s
At 20 deg C: μp  1.00  10  and μm  1.81  10  So substituting in values yields:
2 2
m m
5
kg 28 5 1.81  10 kg
ρm  998     ρm  23.0 From the ideal gas equation of state: p m  ρm R Tm
3 110 1 3 3
m 1.00  10 m
2
kg N m Pa m
Substituting in values: p m  23.0  287   293  K  p m  1.934  MPa
3 kg K N
m
2 2
Fm Fp  Vp 
ρp  Dp 
If the conditions are dynamically similar:  Thus: Fp  Fm    
ρm Vm
2
ρm Vm  Dm
2
ρp  Vp  Dp
2 2
   Dm 
2 2
998  28    5 
Substituting in known values: Fp  618  N    110   1  Fp  43.4 kN
23.0    
Given: A 1/10 scale airfoil was tested in a wind tunnel at known test conditions. Prototype airfoil has a chord length of
6 ft and is to be flown at standard conditions.
Find: (a) Reynolds number at which the model was tested
(b) Corresponding prototype speed
Solution:
Assumptions: (a) The viscosity of air does not vary appreciably between 1 and 5 atmospheres
(b) Geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity applies
The problem may be stated as: F  f ( ρ V L μ) From the Buckingham pi theorem, we expect 2 Π terms:
F ρ V L 6  ft
 g ( Re) where Re  The model chord length is Lm   1.20 ft
2 2 μ 5
ρ V  L
pm
We can calculate the model flow density from the ideal gas equation of state: ρm  Substituting known values:
R  Tm
2116 lbf  lbm R

ρm   5  atm 
1 slug slug
   53.33  ft lbf  519  R  32.2 lbm
2
ρm  0.0119
3
 atm ft  ft
2 2
 7 lbf  s slug ft ft lbf  s
At 59 deg F: μm  3.74  10  Therefore: Rem  0.0119  130   1.2 ft  
2 3 s 7 slug ft
ft ft 3.74  10  lbf  s
6
Rem  5.0  10
ρm Vm Lm ρp  Vp  Lp ρm Lm μp
Matching Reynolds numbers between the model and prototype flows:  Thus: Vp  Vm  
μm μp ρp Lp μm
ρm p m Tp p m Tp Lm μp
From the ideal gas equation of state:   Therefore: Vp  Vm    So substituting in values yields:
ρp p p Tm p p Tm Lp μm
7
ft 5 519 1 3.74  10 ft
Vp  130      Vp  130.0 
s 1 519 5 7 s
3.74  10
Given: Model of weather balloon
Find: Model test speed; drag force expected on full-scale balloon
Solution:
 f 
F ν V
From Buckingham Π 
  F( Re M )
2
ρ V  D
2  V D c 
For similarity Rep  Rem and Mp  Mm (Mach number criterion

satisified because M<<1)
Vp  Dp Vm Dm
Hence Rep   Rem 
νp νm
νm Dp
Vm  Vp  
νp Dm
2 2
 5 ft  4 ft
From Table A.7 at 68 oF νm  1.08  10  From Table A.9 at 68 oF νp  1.62  10 
s s
  2
 1.08  10 5 ft 
Vm  5   
ft s 
  10 ft  Vm  20.0
ft
s  2 1  s
 1.62  10 4 ft    ft 
6 
 s 
2 2
Fm Fp ρp Vp Dp
Then  Fp  Fm  
2 2 2 2 ρm. 2 2
ρm Vm  Dm ρp  Vp  Dp Vm Dm
 0.00234  slug  2
  5 ft 
3   s   10 ft  2
 ft 
Fp  0.85 lbf    ft    1  Fp  0.231  lbf
 slug 
1.94  20    ft 
 3   s 6 
 ft 
Given: Model of wing
Find: Model test speed for dynamic similarity; ratio of model to prototype forces
Solution:
We would expect F  F( l s V ρ μ) where F is the force (lift or drag), l is the chord and s the span
ρ V l l 
 f 
F
From Buckingham Π  
2
ρ V  l s  μ s
ρm Vm lm ρp  Vp  lp
For dynamic similarity 
μm μp
ρp lp μm
Hence Vm  Vp   
ρm lm μp
 3 N s  5 N s
From Table A.8 at 20 oC μm  1.01  10  From Table A.10 at 20oC μp  1.81  10 
2 2
m m
 1.21 kg   1.01  10 3 N s 

 3  2 
m  m   10   m  m
Vm  7.5    Vm  5.07
s  kg   1    5 N s  s
 998  3   1.81  10  2 
 m   m 
2 2
Fm Fp Fm ρm Vm lm sm 998  5.07   1  1  3.77
Then        7.5 
2
ρm Vm  lm sm
2
ρp  Vp  lp  sp
Fp ρp
Vp
2 l p  sp 1.21   10 10
Given: The fluid dynamic charachteristics of a gold ball are the be tested using a model in a wind tunnel. The
dependent variables are the drag and lift forces. Independent variables include the angular speed and dimple
depth. A pro golfer can hit a ball at a speed of 75 m/s and 8100 rpm. Wind tunnel maximum speed is 25 m/s.
Find: (a) Suitable dimensionless parameters and express the functional dependence between them.
(b) Required diameter of model
(c) Required rotational speed of model
Solution:
Assumption: Wind tunnel is at standard conditions
The problem may be stated as: FD  FD( D V ω d ρ μ) FL  FL( D V ω d ρ μ) n = 7 and m = r = 3, so
from the Buckingham pi theorem, we expect two sets of four Π terms. The application of the Buckingham pi theorem will not be
shown here, but the functional dependences would be:
FD ρ V D ω D d  FL ρ V D ω D d 
 f      g    
2 2
ρ V  D  μ V D  2
ρ V  D
2  μ V D
To determine the required model diameter, we match Reynolds numbers between the model and prototype flows:
ρm Vm Dm ρp  Vp  Dp ρp Vp μm 75
 Thus: Dm  Dp    Substituting known values: Dm  4.27 cm  1  1
μm μp ρm Vm μp 25
Dm  12.81  cm
To determine the required angular speed of the model, we match the dimensionless rotational speed between the flows:
ωm Dm ωp  Dp Dp Vm 4.27 25
 Thus: ωm  ωp   Substituting known values: ωm  8100 rpm   ωm  900  rpm
Vm Vp Dm Vp 12.81 75
Given: Model of water pump
Find: Model flow rate for dynamic similarity (ignoring Re); Power of prototype
Solution:
Q P
and where Q is flow rate, ω is angular speed, d
From Buckingham Π 3 3 5
ω D ρ ω  D is diameter, and ρ is density (these Π
groups will be discussed in Chapter 10)
Qm Qp

For dynamic similarity 3 3
ωm Dm ωp  Dp
3
 Dm 
ωm
Hence Qm  Qp   
ωp Dp
 
3 3 3
ft  2400   1 ft
Qm  15   750  4 Qm  0.750 
s     s
slug slug
From Table A.8 at 68 oF ρp  1.94 From Table A.9 at 68 oF ρm  0.00234 
3 3
ft ft
Pm Pp
Then 
3 5 3 5
ρm ωm  Dm ρp  ωp  Dp
3 5
 ωp   Dp 
ρp
Pp  Pm    
   Dm 
ρm ωm
3 5
1.94  750    4  3
Pp  0.1 hp    2400   1  Pp  2.59  10  hp
0.00234    
Note that if we had used water instead of air as the working fluid for the model pump, it would have drawn 83 hp. Water would have
been an acceptable working fluid for the model, and there would have been less discrepancy in the Reynolds number.
Given: Model of Frisbee
Find: Dimensionless parameters; Prototype speed and angular speed
Solution:
Assumption: Geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity between model and prototype.
The functional dependence is F  F( D V ω h ρ μ) where F represents lift or drag
ρ V D ω D h 
 f 
F
From Buckingham Π   
2
ρ V  D
2  μ V D
ρm Vm Dm ρp  Vp  Dp ρm Dm μp ft  1   ( 1)
For dynamic similarity  Vp  Vm   Vp  140   ( 1 )  7
μm μp ρp Dp μm s  
ft
Vp  20
s
ωm Dm ωp  Dp Dm Vp
1   20 
Also  ωp  ωm  ωp  5000 rpm  7  140 
Vm Vp Dp Vm    
ωp  102  rpm
Given: A 1:20 model of a hydrofoil is to be tested in water at 130 deg F. The prototype operates at a speed of 60 knots
in water at 45 deg F. To model the cavitation, the cavitation number must be duplicated.
Find: Ambient pressure at which the test must be run
Vm Vp
Solution: To duplicate the Froude number between the model and the prototype requires:  Thus:
g  Lm g  Lp
Lm 1
Vm  Vp  Vm  60 knot Vm  13.42  knot
Lp 20
p m  p vm p p  p vp
To match the cavitation number between the model and the prototype:  Therefore:
1 2 1 2
 ρm Vm  ρp  Vp
2 2
2 2
ρm Vm   Vm 
p m  p vm   p p  p vp    Assuming that the densities are equal: p m  p vm  p p  p vp    
ρp Vp
   Vp 
From table A.7: at 130 deg F p vm  2.23 psi at 45 deg F p vp  0.15 psi Thus the model pressure is:
2
p m  2.23 psi  ( 14.7 psi  0.15 psi)  
13.42 
 p m  2.96 psi
 60 
Given: Oil flow in pipe and dynamically similar water flow
Find: Average water speed and pressure drop
Solution:
 f    
Δp μ l e
From Example 7.2
ρ V
2  ρ V D D D 
μH2O μOil
 μH2O ρOil νH2O
For dynamic similarity ρH2O VH2O DH2O ρOil VOil DOil so VH2O    Voil  V
ρH2O μOil νOil Oil
2 2
 5 ft  4 ft
From Fig. A.3 at 77 oF νOil  10.8  8  10   8.64  10 
s s
2
 5 ft
From Table A.8 at 60 oF νH2O  1.21  10 
s
2
 5 ft
1.21  10 
s ft ft
Hence VH2O   3 VH2O  0.0420
2 s s
 4 ft
8.64  10 
s
2
ΔpOil ΔpH2O ρH2O VH2O
Then  ΔpH2O   ΔpOil
2 2 2
ρOil VOil ρH2O VH2O ρOil  VOil
From Table A.2 SG Oil  0.92
2
1  0.0420   7 psi 3
ΔpH2O    3  ΔpH2O  1.49  10  psi
0.92  
Given: The frequency of vortex shedding from the rear of a bluff cylinder is a function of ρ, d, V, and μ. Vortex shedding
occurs in standard air on two cylinders with a diameter ratio of 2.
Find: (a) Functional relationship for f using dimensional analysis
(b) Velocity ratio for vortex shedding
(c) Frequency ratio for vortex shedding

1 f ρ d V μ n = 5 parameters

3 f ρ d V μ
1 M L M
L
t 3 t L t
L r = 3 dimensions
4 ρ V d m = r = 3 repeating parameters
a b

M
 
a b c 1 c L
0 0 0
Π1  f  ρ  V  d Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: f d

Π1 
M: a  0 a0 b  1 c1 V
L: 3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
a b

M
 
a b c M c L
0 0 0
Π2  μ ρ  V  d Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
L t 3 t

Π2 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  1 c  1 ρ V d
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  b  0
4
1 t F t L t 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:  L  1    1
t L 2 2 L L
L F t
 f 
f d ρ V d 
The functional relationship is:  
Π1  f Π2
V

 μ 
To achieve dynamic similarity between geometrically similar flows, we must duplicate all but one of the dimensionless groups:
ρ1  V1  d 1 ρ2  V2  d 2 V1 ρ2 d 2 μ1 1 V1 1
     1  1 
μ1 μ2 V2 ρ1 d 1 μ2 2 V2 2
ρ1  V1  d 1 ρ2  V2  d 2 f1  d 1 f2  d 2 f1 d 2 V1 1 1 f1 1
Now if  it follows that:  and     
μ1 μ2 V1 V2 f2 d 1 V2 2 2 f2 4
Given: 1/8-scale model of a tractor-trailer rig was tested in a pressurized wind tunnel.
Find: (a) Aerodynamic drag coefficient for the model
(b) Compare the Reynolds numbers for the model and the prototype vehicle at 55 mph
(c) Calculate aerodynamic drag on the prototype at a speed of 55 mph into a headwind of 10 mph
Solution: We will use definitions of the drag coefficient and Reynolds number.
Governing FD
CD  (Drag Coefficient)
Equations: 1 2
 ρ V  A
2
ρ V L
Re  (Reynolds Number)
μ
2
Assume that the frontal area for the model is: Am  Wm Hm Am  0.305  m  0.476  m Am  0.1452 m
3 2
m  s   1 kg m
The drag coefficient would then be: CDm  2  128  N    75.0 m   CDm  0.0970
3.23 kg   0.1452 m
2
N s
2
Rem ρm Vm Lm μp
From the definition of Re:     Assuming standard conditions and equal viscosities:
Rep ρp Vp Lp μm
Rem 3600 s 
  75
3.23 m hr mi ft 1
      8 11 Rem  Rep
Rep 1.23  s 55 mi 5280 ft 0.3048 m hr 
Since the Reynolds numbers match, assuming geometric and kinetic similarity we can say that the drag coefficients are equal:
1 2
FDp   CD ρp  Vp  Ap Susbstituting known values yields:
2
2 2
1 kg  mi 5280 ft 0.3048 m hr  2 2 N s
FDp   0.0970  1.23  ( 55  10)      0.1452 m  8  kg m FDp  468 N
2 3  hr mi ft 3600 s
m
Given: Flow around cruise ship smoke stack
Find: Range of wind tunnel speeds
Solution:
Vm Dm Vp  Dp Dp 15
For dynamic similarity  or Vm   Vp   V  15 Vp
νm νp Dm 1 p
nmi
Since 1  knot  1  and 1  nmi  6076.1 ft
hr
nmi 6076.1 ft hr ft ft ft
Hence for Vp  12   Vp  20.254 Vm  15  20.254 Vm  304 
hr nmi 3600 s s s s
nmi 6076.1 ft hr ft ft ft
Vp  24   Vp  40.507 Vm  15  40.507 Vm  608 
hr nmi 3600 s s s s
Note that these speeds are very high - compressibility effects may become important, since the Mach number is
no longer much less than 1!
Given: Model of flying insect
Find: Wind tunnel speed and wing frequency; select a better model fluid
Solution: For dynamic similarity the following dimensionless groups must be the same in the insect and model (these are
Reynolds number and Strouhal number, and can be obtained from a Buckingham Π analysis)
Vinsect Linsect Vm Lm ωinsect Linsect ωm Lm

 
νair νm Vinsect Vm
2
kg 5 m
From Table A.9 (68oF) ρair  1.21 νair  1.50  10 
3 s
m
m Linsect 1
The given data is ωinsect  60 Hz Vinsect  1.5 
s Lm 8
Linsect νm Linsect m 1 m
Hence in the wind tunnel Vm  Vinsect   Vinsect Vm  1.5  Vm  0.1875
Lm νair Lm s 8 s
Vm Linsect 0.1875 1
Also ωm  ωinsect  ωm  60 Hz   ωm  0.9375 Hz
Vinsect Lm 1.5 8
It is unlikely measurable wing lift can be measured at such a low wing frequency (unless the measured lift was averaged, using an
integrator circuit, or perhaps a load cell and data acquisition system). Maybe try hot air (100 oC) for the model
2 2
5 m 5 m
For hot air try νhot  2.29  10  instead of νair  1.50  10 
s s
Vinsect Linsect Vm Lm Linsect νhot 5
m 1 2.29  10 m
Hence  Vm  Vinsect  Vm  1.5   Vm  0.286
νair νhot Lm νair s 8 5 s
1.50  10
Vm Linsect 0.286 1
Also ωm  ωinsect  ωm  60 Hz   ωm  1.43 Hz
Vinsect Lm 1.5 8
2
6 m
Hot air does not improve things much. Try modeling in water νw  1.01  10 
s
Vinsect Linsect Vm Lm Linsect νw 6
m 1 1.01  10 m
Hence  Vm  Vinsect  Vm  1.5   Vm  0.01262
νair νw Lm νair s 8 5 s
1.50  10
Vm Linsect Vm 0.01262 1
Also ωm  ωinsect   ωinsect  Lratio ωm  60 Hz   ωm  0.0631 Hz
Vinsect Lm Vinsect 1.5 8
This is even worse! It seems the best bet is hot (very hot) air for the wind tunnel. Alternatively, choose a much
smaller wind tunnel model, e.g., a 2.5 X model would lead to V m = 0.6 m/s and ωm = 9.6 Hz
Given: A model test of a 1:4 scale tractor-trailer rig is performed in standard air. The drag force is a function of A, V, ρ,
and μ.
Find: (a) Dimensionless parameters to characterize the model test results
(b) Conditions for dynamic similarity
(c) Drag force on the prototype vehicle based on test results
(d) Power needed to overcome the drag force
1 FD A V ρ μ n = 5 parameters

3 FD A V ρ μ
M L 2 L M M
L
2 t 3 L t
4 ρ V A m = r = 3 repeating parameters
 
a b c
M L

M
 
a b c 2 L
0 0 0
Π1  F ρ  V  A
 3   t   L  M  L  t
Thus:
2
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: FD
Π1 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  2 c  1 2
ρ V  A
L: 1  3  a  b  2c  0
t: 2  b  0
 2
a b c

M
 
a b c M L 0 0 0
Π2  μ ρ  V  A
 3   t   L  M L t
Thus:
L t
L 
Π2 
M: 1  a  0 1 ρ V A
a  1 b  1 c
L: 1  3  a  b  2  c  0 2
t: 1  b  0
4 2 4
L t 1 F t L t 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions: F   1    1
2 2 2 2 2 L L
F t L L L F t
For dynamic similarity: We must have geometric and kinematic similarity, and
The Reynolds numbers must match.
FDm FDp
Once dynamic similarity is insured, the drag coefficients must be equal: 
1 2 1 2
ρ V A  ρ  V  Ap
2 m m m 2 p p
2 2
 Vp  Ap
ρp 0.00237  75  2
So for the prototype: FDp  FDm   A FDp  550  lbf    300   4 FDp  550  lbf
ρm Vm
  m 0.00237  
ft hp s
The power requirement would be: P  FDp Vp P  550  lbf  75  P  75.0 hp
s 550  ft lbf
P  55.9 kW
Given: Model of boat
Find: Model kinematic viscosity for dynamic similarity
Solution:
Vm Lm Vp  Lp Vm Vp
For dynamic similarity  (1)  (2) (from Buckingham Π; the first
νm νp g  Lm g  Lp is the Reynolds number, the
second the Froude number)
Vm g  Lm Lm
Hence from Eq 2  
Vp g  Lp Lp
3
2
Vm Lm Lm Lm  Lm 
Using this in Eq 1 νm  νp    νp    νp   
Vp Lp Lp Lp
 Lp 
3
2 2 2 2
 5 ft  5 ft 1  7 ft
From Table A.8 at 50 oF νp  1.41  10  νm  1.41  10    10  νm  4.46  10 
s s   s
Note that there aren't any fluids in Figure A.3 with viscosities that low!
Given: Model the motion of a glacier using glycerine. Assume ice as Newtonian fluid with density of glycerine but one
million times as viscous. In laboratory test the professor reappears in 9.6 hours.
Find: (a) Dimensionless parameters to characterize the model test results
(b) Time needed for professor to reappear
1 V ρ g μ D H L n = 7 parameters

3 V ρ g μ D H L
L M L M
L L L
t 3 2 L t
L t r = 3 dimensions
4 ρ g D m = r = 3 repeating parameters
a b

M

a b c L c L
0 0 0
Π1  V ρ  g  D Thus: L  M L t
t  3   2 
L  t 
Π1 
1 1 g D
M: a  0 a0 b c
2 2
L: 1  3 a  b  c  0
t: 1  2  b  0
a b

M

a b c M c L
0 0 0
Π2  μ ρ  g  D Thus: L  M L t
L t  3   2 
L  t 
Π2  (This is a gravity-driven
1 3
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b c 3 version of Reynolds #)
2 2 ρ g D
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 1  2  b  0
a b
L 
M

a b c c L
0 0 0
Π3  H ρ  g  D
 3   2  L  M L t
Thus:
L  t 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: H
Π3 
M: a  0 a0 b0 c  1 D
L: 1  3  a  b  c  0
t: 2  b  0
L
By inspection we can see that Π4 
D
4
L t 1 F t L t 1 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:   1    1 L 1
t 1 1 2 2 1 3 L
L F t
2 2 2 2
L L L L
The functional relationship would be: 

Π1  f Π2 Π3 Π4  Matching the last two terms insures geometric similarity.
μm μp
For dynamic similarity:  From Tables A.1 and A.2: SG ice  0.92 SG glycerine  1.26
3 3
ρm g m Dm ρp  g p  Dp
2 2
3 3
Dm  μm ρp   1  0.92   8.11  10 5 Since we have geometric similarity, the last two terms
Therefore:  μ ρ 
 
 6 1.26 
Dp
 p m  10  must match for model and prototype:
Lm 5 5 Vm Dm
So  8.11  10 Lm  1850 m  8.11  10 Matching the first Π term:   0.00900
Lp Vp Dp
Lm  0.1500 m
L Lm Lm
The time needed to reappear would be: τ Thus: τm  Vm  Solving for the actual time:
V Vm τm
Lp Lm Lp Vm Lp Vm 1 day
τp      τm  τp  9.6 hr   0.00900  τp  44.4 day
Vp Vm Lm Vp Lm Vp 5 24 hr
8.11 10
Your professor will be back before
the end of the semester!
Given: Model of automobile
Find: Factors for kinematic similarity; Model speed; ratio of protype and model drags; minimum pressure for no cavitation
Solution:
ρm Vm Lm ρp  Vp  Lp ρp Lp μm
For dynamic similarity  Vm  Vp   
μm μp ρm Lm μp
For air (Table A.9) and water (Table A.7) at 68 oF

slug  7 lbf  s
ρp  0.00234  μp  3.79  10 
3 2
ft ft
slug  5 lbf  s
ρm  1.94 μm  2.10  10 
3 2
ft ft
ft
88  2.10  10 5 
s  0.00234   5    ft
Vm  60 mph    1.94  1 Vm  29.4
60 mph      3.79  10 7  s
 
Fm Fp
Then 
2 2 2 2
ρm Vm  Lm ρp  Vp  Lp
2 2
Fp ρp  Vp  Lp 2 2 Fp
 0.00234    88    5 
Hence    1.94   29.4   1   0.270
Fm
ρm Vm  Lm
2 2       Fm
p min  p v 1 2
For Ca = 0.5  0.5 so we get p min  p v   ρ V for the water tank
1 2 4
 ρ V
2
From steam tables, for water at 68oF p v  0.339  psi so
2 2 2
lbf  s 1  ft 
  29.4
ft 
 
1 slug
p min  0.339  psi   1.94    p min  3.25 psi
ft
4  3 s slug ft  12 in 
This is the minimum allowable pressure in the water tank; we can use it to find the required tank pressure
p min  p tank 1.4 2 2
Cp  1.4  p tank  p min   ρ V  p min  0.7 ρ V
1 2 2
 ρ V
2
2 2 2
lbf  s 1  ft 
  29.4
ft 
 
slug
p tank  3.25 psi  0.7  1.94    p tank  11.4 psi
ft
3  s slug ft  12 in 
Given: A scale model of a submarine is to be tested in fresh water under two conditions:
1 - on the surface
2 - far below the surface
Find: (a) Speed for the model test on the surface

(b) Speed for the model test submerged
(c) Ratio of full-scale drag to model drag
Vm Vp Lm
Solution: On the surface, we need to match Froude numbers:  or: Vm  Vp 
g  Lm g  Lp Lp
1 m
Thus for 1:50 scale: Vm  24 knot  Vm  3.39 knot or Vm  1.75
50 s
ρm Vm Lm ρp  Vp  Lp ρp Lp μm
When submerged, we need to match Reynolds numbers:  or: Vm  Vp   
μm μp ρm Lm μp
 3 N s
From Table A.2, SG seawater  1.025 and μseawater  1.08  10  at 20oC. Thus for 1:50 scale:
2
m
3
1.025 50 1.08  10 m
Vm  0.35 knot    Vm  19.41  knot or Vm  9.99
0.998 1 3 s
1.00  10
FDm FDp
Under dynamically similar conditions, the drag coefficients will match: 
1 2 1 2
ρ V A  ρ  V  Ap
2 m m m 2 p p
2 2
FDp  Vp  Ap ρp  Vp Lp 
ρp
Solving for the ratio of forces:     A  ρ   V  L  Substituting in known values:
FDm ρm Vm
  m m  m m
FDp 2 FDp
1.025  24  50   1.29  105 5
For surface travel:    3.39 1   1.29  10 (on surface)
FDm 0.998   FDm
FDp 2 FDp
1.025  0.35  50   0.835
For submerged travel:      0.835 (submerged)
FDm 0.998  19.41 1  FDm
Given: Model size, model speed, and air temperatures.
Find: Equivalent speed of the full scale vehicle corresponding to the different air temperatures.
Solution:
VL
Re L  (Reynolds Number)
Governing

where V is the air velocity, L is the length of the rocket or model, and , ν is the kinematic viscosity of air.
Equation: Subscript m corresponds to the model and r is the rocket.
Assumption: Modeling follows the Reynolds equivalency.
The given or available data is: Lm  LR  12in VT  100mph VR  120mph
ft 2 ft 2
 40 F  1.47 10 4 (Table A.9)  68 F  1.62 10  4 (Table A.9)
s s
2
4 ft
 150 F  2.09 10 (Table A.9)
s
m2
 CO2  8.3 10 6 (Figure A.3 or other source)
s
Determine the Reynolds Number for expected maximum speed at ambient temperature:
mile 5280ft hr ft
120    12in 
VR LR hr mile 3600s 12in
Re L   Re L  1.09  106
R ft 2
1.62  10-4 
s
VL LM  68 F
Re-arrange the Reynolds Number Equation for speed equivalents: Re L   VR  VT  
 LR  T
In this problem, the only term that changes is νT
ft 2
1.62  10  4
LM  68 F 12in s  110mph
Solve for speed at the low temperature: VR  VT    100mph  
LR  40 F 12in ft 2
1.47  10  4
s
ft 2
4
1.62 10
LM  68 F 12in s  77.5mph
Solve for speed at the high temperature: VR  VT    100mph  
LR  150 F 12in ft 2
2.09 10  4
s
ft 2
1.62  10 4
LM  68 F 12in s
Solve for CO2: VR  VT    100mph    181mph
LR  CO2 12in m 2
 ft 
2
8.3 10 6  
s  0.305m 
VR @ 40 F  110mph VR @150 F  77.5mph VR @ CO2  181mph
Chilling the air to 40°F increases the model speed, but not enough to achieve the target. Heating the air works against the desired
outcome.
This shows that the equivalent speed can be increased by decreasing the kinematic viscosity. An inspection of figure A.3 shows that
cooling air decreases the kinematic viscosity. It also shows that CO2 has a lower kinematic viscosity than air resulting in much higher
model speeds.
Given: The drag force on a circular cylinder immersed in a water flow can be expressed as a function of D, l, V, ρ, and μ.
Static pressure distribution can be expressed in terms of the pressure coefficient. At the minimum static
pressure, the pressure coefficient is equal to -2.4. Cavitation onset occurs at a cavitation number of 0.5.
Find: (a) Drag force in dimensionless form as a function of all relevant variables
(b) Maximum speed at which a cylinder could be towed in water at atmospheric pressure without cavitation
Solution: The functional relationship for drag force is: FD  FD( D l V ρ μ) From the Buckingham Π-theorem, we have
6 variables and 3 repeating parameters. Therefore, we will have 3 dimensionless groups. The functional form of
these groups is:
FD ρ V D 
 g 
l
 
ρ V  D
2 2 D μ 
p  p inf p  pv
The pressure coefficient is: CP  and the cavitation number is: Ca 
1 2 1 2
 ρ V  ρ V
2 2
1 2
At the minimum pressure point p min  p inf   ρ Vmax  CPmin where CPmin  2.4
2
1 2
At the onset of cavitation p min  p v   ρ Vmax  Ca where Ca  0.5
2
1 2 1 2
Equating these two expressions: p inf   ρ Vmax  CPmin  p v   ρ Vmax  Ca and if we solve for Vmax:
2 2
 
2 p inf  p v slug
Vmax  At room temperature (68 deg F): p v  0.339  psi ρ  1.94
ρ  Ca  CPmin 3
ft
Substituting values we get:
3 2
lbf ft 1 slug ft 144  in ft
Vmax  2  ( 14.7  0.339 )      Vmax  27.1
2 1.94 slug [ 0.5  ( 2.4) ] 2 2 s
in lbf  s ft
Given: A circular container partiall filled with water is rotate about its axis at constant angular velocity ω. Velocity in the
θ direction is a function of r, τ, ω, ρ, and μ.
Find: (a) Dimensionless parameters that characterize this problem
(b) If honey would attain steady motion as quickly as water if rotated at the same angular speed
(c) Why Reynolds number is not an important parameter in scaling the steady-state motion of liquid in the
container.
Solution: The functional relationship for drag force is: Vθ  Vθ( ω r τ ρ μ) From the Buckingham Π-theorem, we have
6 variables and 3 repeating parameters. Therefore, we will have 3 dimensionless groups. The functional form of
these groups is:
Vθ
 g ω τ
μ
ω r  2 
 ρ ω r 
μ
From the above result Π2  containing the properties μ and ρ, and Π3  ω τ containing the time τ
2
ρ ω r
μ μ τ ν τ νh  τh νw τw
Π2  Π3   ω τ   Now for steady flow:  and at the same radius:
2 2 2 2 2
ρ ω r ρ r r r r
νw
νh  τh  νw τw τh  τw Now since honey is more viscous than water, it follows that: τh  τw
νh
At steady state, solid body rotation exists. There are no viscous forces, and therefore, the Reynolds number would
not be important.
Given: Model of tractor-trailer truck
Find: Drag coefficient; Drag on prototype; Model speed for dynamic similarity
Solution
:For kinematic similarity we need to ensure the geometries of model and prototype are similar, as is the incoming flow field
Fm
The drag coefficient is CD 
1 2
ρ V A
2 m m m
kg  5 N s
For air (Table A.10) at ρm  1.21 μp  1.81  10 
20oC 3 2
m m
3 2 2
m  s   1  N s
CD  2  350  N    75 m  CD  1.028
1.21 kg   0.1 m
2 kg m
This is the drag coefficient for model and prototype

2
1 2 Ap  Lp  2
For the rig Fp   ρp  Vp  Ap  CD with    100 Ap  10 m
2 Am
 Lm 
2 2
1 kg  km 1000 m 1  hr  2 N s
Fp   1.21   90     10 m  1.028  Fp  3.89 kN
2 3  hr 1  km 3600 s  kg m
m
ρm Vm Lm ρp  Vp  Lp ρp Lp μm Lp
For dynamic similarity  Vm  Vp     Vp 
μm μp ρm Lm μp Lm
km 1000 m 1  hr 10 m
Vm  90    Vm  250
hr 1  km 3600 s 1 s
For air at standard conditions, the speed of sound is c k R T
N m kg m m
c  1.40  286.9   ( 20  273 )  K  c  343
kg K 2 s
s N
Vm 250
Hence we have M   0.729 which indicates compressibility is significant - this model
c 343 speed is impractical (and unnecessary)
Given: Recommended procedures for wind tunnel tests of trucks and buses suggest:
-Model frontal area less than 5% of test section area
-Reynolds number based on model width greater than 2,000,000
-Model height less than 30% of test section height
-Model projected width at maximum yaw (20 deg) less than 30% of test section width
-Air speed less than 300 ft/s to avoid compressibility effects
Model of a tractor-trailer to be tested in a tunnel 1.5 ft high x 2 ft wide. Full scale rig is 13'6" high, 8' wide, and 65'
long.
Find: (a) Max scale for tractor-trailer model in this tunnel
(b) If adequate Reynolds number can be achieved in this facility.
Solution: Let s be the scale ratio. Then: h m  s h p wm  s wp lm  s lp
2 0.15
Area criterion: Am  0.05  1.5 ft  2.0 ft Am  0.15 ft Therefore: s  s  0.0373
13.5  8
0.45
Height criterion: h m  0.30  1.5 ft h m  0.45 ft Therefore: s  s  0.0333
13.5
Width criterion: we need to account for the yaw in the model. We make a relationship for the maximum width as a
function of the model dimensions and the yaw angle and relate that to the full-scale dimensions.

wm20deg  wm cos( 20 deg)  lm sin( 20 deg)  s wp  cos( 20 deg)  lp  sin( 20 deg) 
wm20deg  0.30  2.0 ft wm20deg  0.60 ft
0.60
Therefore: s  s  0.0202
8  cos( 20 deg)  65  sin( 20 deg)
To determine the acceptable scale for the model, we take the smallest of these scale factors: s  0.0202
1 1
 49.58 We choose a round number to make the model scale easier to calculate: Model  Prototype
s 50
Vm wm  4 ft
2
For the current model conditions: Re  For standard air: νm  1.57  10  Substituting known values:
νm s
ft  1  8 ft  s 5
Re  300     Re  3.06  10 This is less than the minimum stipulated in the problem, thus:
s  50  1.57  10 4 ft2
An adequate Reynolds number can not be achieved.
Given: Power to drive a fan is a function of ρ, Q, D, and ω.

3 3
ft ft
Condition 1: D1  8  in ω1  2500 rpm Q1  15 Condition 2: Q2  88 ω2  1800 rpm
s s
Find: Fan diameter for condition 2 to insure dynamic similarity
1 P ρ Q D ω n = 5 parameters

3 P ρ Q D ω
2 3
M L M L 1
L
3 3 t t

2 a c
M L

M
 L  
a b c b 1 0 0 0
Π1  P ρ  D  ω Thus:
 3   M L t
3 t
t L 
Π1 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  5 c  3 3 5
ρ ω  D
L: 2  3 a  b  0
t: 3  c  0
3 a c

M
 L  
a b c L b 1 0 0 0
Π2  Q ρ  D  ω Thus:
 3   M L t
t t 
L 
Π2 
M: a  0 a0 b  3 c  1 3
ω D
L: 3  3 a  b  0
t: 1  c  0
4 3
F L L
 f
1 3 L 1 P Q 
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:   t  1  t 1 Thus the relationship is:
t 2 5 t 3 3 5  3
F t L L ρ ω  D  ω D 
Q1 Q2
For dynamic similarity we must have geometric and kinematic similarity, and:  Solving for D2
1 3 3
1 ω1  D1 ω2  D2
3 3
 Q2 ω1   88  2500 
D2  D1     D2  8  in   
 15 1800  D2  16.10  in
 Q1 ω2 
Given: Data on model of aircraft
Find: Plot of lift vs speed of model; also of prototype
Solution:
V m (m/s) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
F m (N) 2.2 4.8 8.7 13.3 19.6 26.5 34.5 43.8 54.0
This data can be fit to
1 2 2
Fm   AmCDVm or Fm  kmVm
2
From the trendline, we see that
k m = 0.0219 N/(m/s)2
(And note that the power is 1.9954 or 2.00 to three signifcant

figures, confirming the relation is quadratic)
Also, k p = 1110 k m
Hence,
2
kp = 24.3 N/(m/s) F p = k p V m2
V p (m/s) 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
F p (kN)
137 243 380 547 744 972 1231 1519
(Trendline)
Lift vs Speed for an Airplane Model
60
50 y = 0.0219x1.9954
R2 = 0.9999
F m (N)
40
30
20
Model
10 Power Curve Fit
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
V m (m/s)
Lift vs Speed for an

Airplane Prototype
1600
1400
1200
F p (kN)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
V p (m/s)
Lift vs Speed for an Airplane Model
(Log-Log Plot)
100
y = 0.0219x1.9954
R2 = 0.9999
F m (N)
10
Model
Power Curve Fit
1
10 100
V m (m/s)
Lift vs Speed for an Airplane Prototype (Log-Log Plot)
10000
1000
F p (kN)
100
10
1
10 100 1000
V p (m/s)
Given: Information relating to geometrically similar model test for a centrifugal pump.
Find: The missing values in the table
1 Δp Q ρ ω D n = 5 parameters

3 Δp Q ρ ω D
3
M L M 1
L
2 t 3 t
L t L r = 3 dimensions
a b

M
 
a b c M c 0 0 0 1
Π1  Δp ρ  ω  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L t  L   
2 3 t
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: Δp

Π1 
M: 1  a  0 a  1 b  2 c  2 2 2
ρ ω  D
L: 1  3  a  c  0
t: 2  b  0
3 a b

M
 
a b c L c 0 0 0 1
Π2  Q ρ  ω  D Thus:
   L  M L t
L   
t 3 t

Π2 
M: a  0 a0 b  1 c  3 3
ω D
L: 3  3 a  c  0
t: 1  b  0
4 3
 f
F L 2 1 L 1 Δp Q 
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions:  t  1  t 1 Thus the relationship is:
2 2 2 t 3 2 2  3
L F t L L ρ ω  D  ω D 
The flows are geometrically similar, and we assume kinematic similarity. Thus, for dynamic similarity:
Qm Qp Δpm Δpp
If  then 
3 3 2 2 2 2
ωm Dm ωp  Dp ρm ωm  Dm ρp  ωp  Dp
3
 Dp 
ωp m
3
183  150 
3
m
3
From the first relation: Qp  Qm   Qp  0.0928    50  Qp  1.249 
ωm Dm
  min 367   min
2
 ωm Dm 
ρm 999  367  50 
2
From the second relation: Δpm  Δpp     Δpm  52.5 kPa    183 150  Δpm  29.3 kPa
ρp ωp Dp
  800  
D D
For drag we can use CD  As a suitable scaling area for A we use L 2 CD 
1 1
V 2
A  V 2 L2
2 2
Model: L= 3 ft
For water  = 1.94 slug/ft3

Wave Drag
 = 2.10E-05 lbf·s/ft2
The data is: 3.5E-05
V (ft/s) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 3.0E-05
D Wave (lbf) 0 0.028 0.112 0.337 0.674 0.899 1.237 2.5E-05
D Friction (lbf) 0.022 0.079 0.169 0.281 0.45 0.618 0.731
2.0E-05
CD
Fr 1.017 2.035 3.052 4.070 5.087 6.105 7.122 1.5E-05
Re 2.77E+06 5.54E+06 8.31E+06 1.11E+07 1.39E+07 1.66E+07 1.94E+07
C D(Wave) 1.0E-05
0.00E+00 8.02E-06 1.43E-05 2.41E-05 3.09E-05 2.86E-05 2.89E-05
C D(Friction) 2.52E-05 2.26E-05 2.15E-05 2.01E-05 2.06E-05 1.97E-05 1.71E-05 5.0E-06
0.0E+00
The friction drag coefficient becomes a constant, as expected, at high Re .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The wave drag coefficient appears to be linear with Fr , over most values
Fr
Ship: L= 150 ft
V (knot) 15 20
V (ft/s) 25.32 33.76 1 Friction Drag
D  V 2 L2 C D
Fr 0.364 0.486 2
Re 3.51E+08 4.68E+08 3.5E-05
3.0E-05
Hence for the ship we have very high Re , and low Fr .
-5 2.5E-05
From the graph we see the friction C D levels out at about 1.9 x 10
From the graph we see the wave C D is negligibly small 2.0E-05
CD
C D(Wave) 1.5E-05
0 0
C D(Friction) 1.90E-05 1.90E-05 1.0E-05
5.0E-06
D Wave (lbf) 0 0
D Friction (lbf) 266 473 0.0E+00
0.0.E+00 5.0.E+06 1.0.E+07 1.5.E+07 2.0.E+07 2.5.E+07
D Total (lbf) 266 473 Re
Given: Data on centrifugal water pump
Find:  groups; plot pressure head vs flow rate for range of speeds
Solution:


REPEATING PARAMETERS: Choose , g , d
M L t
 1 -3
 -1
D 1
 GROUPS:
M L t M L t
p 1 -1 -2 Q 0 3 -1
 1: a = -1  2: a = 0
b = -2 b = -1
c = -2 c = -3
The following  groups from Example 7.1 are not used:
M L t M L t
0 0 0 0 0 0
 3: a = 0  4: a = 0
b = 0 b = 0
c = 0 c = 0
p Q
Hence 1  and 2  with 1 = f(2).
 2 D 2 D 3
Based on the plotted data, it looks like the relation between 1 and 2 may be parabolic
2
p  Q   Q 
Hence  a  b   c 
 D
2 2
 D 3   D 3 
The data is
Q (ft3/min) 0 50 75 100 120 140 150 165

p (psf) 7.54 7.29 6.85 6.12 4.80 3.03 2.38 1.23

3
1.94 slug/ft
 800 rpm
D = 1 ft (D is not given; use D = 1 ft as a scale)
3
Q /(D ) 0.00000 0.00995 0.01492 0.01989 0.02387 0.02785 0.02984 0.03283
p /( D )
2 2
0.000554 0.000535 0.000503 0.000449 0.000353 0.000223 0.000175 0.000090
Centifugal Pump Data and Trendline

0.0006
0.0005
p /( D )
2 2
0.0004
Pump Data
0.0003 Parabolic Fit
0.0002
0.0001
0.0000
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035
3
Q /(D )
The curve fit result is: p /( 2D 2) = -0.6302 (Q /( D 3))2 + 0.006476 (Q /( D 3)) + 0.0005490
From the Trendline analysis
a = 0.000549
b = 0.006476
c = -0.6302
  Q   Q  
2
and p   2 D 2 a  b   
 c  
  D 3   D 3  
Finally, data at 500 and 1000 rpm can be calculated and plotted
 600 rpm
Q (ft3/min) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 132

p (kPa) 4.20 4.33 4.19 3.77 3.08 2.12 0.89 0.00
 1200 rpm
Q (ft3/min) 0 50 75 100 120 140 150 165

p (kPa) 16.82 17.29 16.88 16.05 15.09 13.85 13.12 11.91
Centifugal Pump Curves Pump Data at 800 rpm

20 Pump Curve at 600 rpm
18
Pump Curve at 1200 rpm
16
p (psf)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
3
Q (ft /min)
Given: Model of water pump
Find: Model head, flow rate and diameter
Solution:
 Q ρ ω D2   Q ρ ω D2 
 f   f 
h P
From Buckingham Π  and 
2 2  ω D3 μ  3 5  ω D3 μ 
ω D   ω D  
Qm Qp hm hp Pm Pp
Neglecting viscous effects  then  and 
3 3 2 2 2 2 3 5 3 5
ωm Dm ωp  Dp ωm  Dm ωp  Dp ωm  Dm ωp  Dp
3 3 3
Qm  Dm 
ωm 1000  Dm   Dm 
Hence if        2   (1)
Qp ωp Dp 500
   Dp   Dp 
2 2 2 2 2
hm ωm Dm
1000  Dm Dm


then
    2  4 2 (2)
hp 2
ωp Dp
2  500 
Dp Dp
3 3 5 5 5
Pm ωm Dm
1000  Dm Dm
and 

    5  8 5 (3)
Pp 3
ωp Dp
5  500 
Dp Dp
3
kg m J
We can find Pp from Pp  ρ Q h  1000  0.75  15  11.25 kW
3 s kg
m
1 1
5 5 5
Pm Dm  1 Pm   1  2.25 
From Eq 3  8 so Dm  Dp     Dm  0.25 m   8 11.25 Dm  0.120 m
Pp
Dp
5
 8 Pp   
3 3 3 3 3
Qm  Dm   Dm  m  0.12 m
From Eq 1  2   so Qm  Qp  2    Qm  0.75  2  0.25 Qm  0.166
Qp
 Dp   Dp  s   s
2 2 2
hm  Dm   Dm  J  0.12 J
From Eq 2  4   so hm  hp 4   h m  15  4  0.25 h m  13.8
hp
 Dp   Dp  kg   kg
Given: Data on model propeller
Find: Speed, thrust and torque on prototype
Solution: We will use the Buckingham Pi-theorem to find the functional relationships between these variables. Neglecting the
effects of viscosity:
1 F T ρ V D ω n = 6 parameters
3 F T ρ V D ω
2
M L M L M L 1
L r = 3 dimensions
2 2 3 t t
t t L

a c
M L

M
 L  
a b c b 1 0 0 0
Π1  F ρ  D  ω Thus:
 3   M L t
2 t 
t L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: F
Π1 
a  1 b  4 c  2 4 2
M: 1  a  0 ρ D  ω
L: 1  3 a  b  0
t: 2  c  0
2 a c
M L

M
 L  
a b c b 1 0 0 0
Π2  T ρ  D  ω Thus:
 3   M L t
2 t 
t L 
Π2 
a  1 b  5 c  2 5 2
M: 1  a  0 ρ D  ω
L: 2  3 a  b  0
t: 2  c  0
a c

M
 L  
a b c L b 1 0 0 0
Π3  V ρ  D  ω Thus:
 3   M L t
t t 
L 
Π3 
a0 b  1 c  1 D ω
M: 0  a  0
L: 1  3 a  b  0
t: 1  c  0
4 4
L 1 2 L 1 2 L 1
6 Check using F, L, t dimensions: F  t  1 F L  t  1  t  1
2 4 2 5 t L
F t L F t L
For dynamically similar conditions:
Vm Vp Vp Dm 130 1
 Thus: ωp  ωm  ωp  1800 rpm   ωp  585  rpm
Dm ωm Dp  ωp Vm Dp 50 8
4 2
Fm Fp  Dp 
ρp  ωp  1
4
 8    585 
2
 Thus: Fp  Fm     Fp  100  N    1   1800 
4
ρm Dm  ωm
2 4
ρp  Dp  ωp
2 ρm Dm
   ωm  1    
Fp  43.3 kN
5 2
Tm Tp  Dp   ωp 
ρp 1
5
 8    585 
2
 Thus: Tp  Tm     Tp  10 N m    1   1800 
5
ρm Dm  ωm
2 5
ρp  Dp  ωp
2 ρm Dm
   ωm  1    
Tp  34.6 kN m
Given: For a marine propeller (Problem 7.40) the thrust force is: FT  FT( ρ D V g ω p μ)
For ship size propellers viscous and pressure effects can be neglected. Assume that power and torque depend on
the same parameters as thrust.
Find: Scaling laws for propellers that relate thrust, power and torque to other variables
Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem. Based on the simplifications given above:
1 FT P T ρ D V g ω n = 8 parameters

3 FT P T ρ D V g ω
2
F L F t L L 1
F F L L
t 4 t 2 t
L t r = 3 dimensions
5 We have n - m = 5 dimensionless groups (3 dependent, 2 independent). Setting up dimensional equations:
a
 F t2   1  b c 0 0 0
F  
a b c
 L4   t 
Π1  FT ρ  ω  D Thus: L  F L t
 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: FT
Π1 
F: 1a0 a  1 b  2 c  2 2 4
ρ ω  D
L: 4  a  c  0
t: 2 a  b  0
a
F L F t2   1  b c 0 0 0
    L  F L t
a b c
Π2  P ρ  ω  D Thus:
t  4  t
L 
Π2 
F: 1a0 a  1 b  3 c  5 3 5
ρ ω  D
L: 1  4 a  c  0
t: 1  2  a  b  0
a
 F t2   1  b c 0 0 0
F L  
a b c
 L4   t 
Π3  T ρ  ω  D Thus: L  F L t
 
Π3 
F: 1a0 a  1 b  2 c  5 2 5
ρ ω  D
L: 1  4 a  c  0
t: 2 a  b  0
a
 F t2   1  b c 0 0 0
    L  F L t
a b c L
Π4  V ρ  ω  D Thus:
t  4  t
L 
Π4 
F: a0 a0 b  1 c  1 ω D
L: 1  4 a  c  0
t: 1  2  a  b  0
a
 F t2  b
 
1
 
a b c L c 0 0 0
Π5  g  ρ  ω  D Thus:  L  F L t
t  4  t 
L 
Summing exponents: The solution to this system is: g
Π5 
F: a0 a0 b  1 c  1 2
ω D
L: 1  4 a  c  0
t: 1  2  a  b  0
3 2 3 2 3
M L L 2 1 M L L 3 1 M L L 2 1
6 Check using M, L, t dimensions:  t  1  t  1  t  1
2 M 4 3 M 5 2 M 5
t L t L t L
L 2 1
L 1 t  1
 t 1 2 2
t L t L
FT
 f1 
V g 
Based on the dependent and independent variables, the "scaling laws" are: 
2 4  ω D 2 
ρ ω  D  ω D 
 f2 
P V g 

3 5  ω D 2 
ρ ω  D  ω D 
 f3 
T V g 

2 5  ω D 2 
ρ ω  D  ω D 
Given: Water drop mechanism
Find: Difference between small and large scale drops
Solution:
3

3 5
  ρ V2 D 
 D  
5
d  D ( We)
Given relation  σ 
3

5
 ρ V 2 D  2

6
m m
Dm   5 5
dm
 σ   Dm   Vm 
For dynamic similarity      where d p stands for dprototype not the original
dp

3
 Dp   Vp  d p!
5
 ρ V 2 D 
p p
Dp   
 σ 
2 6

dm 5 5 dm
 1   5
Hence   20  1  0.044
dp     dp
The small scale droplets are 4.4% of the size of the large scale
Given: Kinetic energy ratio for a wind tunnel is the ratio of the kinetic energy flux in the test section to the drive power
Find: Kinetic energy ratio for the 40 ft x 80 ft tunnel at NASA-Ames
nmi 6080 ft hr ft
Solution: From the text: P  125000 hp Vmax  300    Vmax  507 
hr nmi 3600 s s
2
V
m 2 3
2 ( ρ V A)  V ρ A V
Therefore, the kinetic energy ratio is: KEratio    Assuming standard conditions
P 2 P 2 P and substituting values:
3 2
hp s lbf  s
 ( 40 ft  80 ft)   507   
1 slug ft 1
KEratio   0.00238   
2
ft
3  s 125000 hp 550  ft lbf slug ft
KEratio  7.22
Given: A scale model of a truck is tested in a wind tunnel. The axial pressure gradient and frontal area of the prototype
are known. Drag coefficient is 0.85.
Find: (a) Horizontal buoyancy correction
(b) Express this correction as a fraction of the measured drag force.
Solution: The horizontal buoyancy force is the difference in the pressure force between the front and back of the model due
to the pressure gradient in the tunnel:
Lp Ap
 
Δp
FB  p f  p b  A  L A where: Lm  Am 
ΔL m m 16 2
16
2
lbf 60 ft 110  ft
Thus: FB  0.07   FB  0.113  lbf
2 16 2
ft  ft 16
The horizontal buoyancy correction should be added to the measured drag force on the model. The measured drag
force on the model is given by:
1 2 1 2 Ap
FDm   ρ V  Am CD   ρ V  C When we substitute in known values we get:
2 2 2 D
16
2 2 2
slug  110  ft lbf  s
  250   
1 ft
FDm   0.00238   0.85  FDm  27.16  lbf
2
ft
3  s
16
2 slug ft
0.113
Therefore the ratio of the forces is: DragRatio  DragRatio  0.42 %
27.16
Given: Flapping flag on a flagpole
Find: Explanation of the flapping
Solution:
Discussion: The natural wind contains significant fluctuations in air speed and direction. These fluctuations tend to disturb the flag
from an initially plane position.
When the flag is bent or curved from the plane position, the flow nearby must follow its contour. Flow over a convex surface tends to
be faster, and have lower pressure, than flow over a concave curved surface. The resulting pressure forces tend to exaggerate the
curvature of the flag. The result is a seemingly random "flapping" motion of the flag.
The rope or chain used to raise the flag may also flap in the wind. It is much more likely to exhibit a periodic motion than the flag
itself. The rope is quite close to the flag pole, where it is influenced by any vortices shed from the pole. If the Reynolds number is
such that periodic vortices are shed from the pole, they will tend to make the rope move with the same frequency. This accounts for
the periodic thump of a rope or clank of a chain against the pole.
The vortex shedding phenomenon is characterized by the Strouhal number, St = fD/V∞, where f is the vortex shedding frequency, D is
the pole diameter, and D is the wind speed. The Strouhal number is constant at approximately 0.2 over a broad range of Reynolds
numbers.
Given: A 1:16 scale model of a bus (152 mm x 200 mm x 762 mm) is tested in a wind tunnel at 26.5 m/s. Drag force is 6.09
N. The axial pressure gradient is -11.8 N/m2/m.
Find: (a) Horizontal buoyancy correction
(b) Drag coefficient for the model
(c) Aerodynamic drag on the prototype at 100 kph on a calm day.
Solution: The horizontal buoyancy force is the difference in the pressure force between the front and back of the model due
to the pressure gradient in the tunnel:
 
dp 2
FB  p f  p b  A  L A where: Am  152  mm  200  mm Am  30400  mm
dx m m
3
N 2  m 
Thus: FB  11.8  762  mm  30400  mm   1000 mm  FB  0.273 N
2
m m  
So the corrected drag force is: FDc  6.09 N  0.273  N FDc  5.817 N
FDc
The corrected model drag coefficient would then be: CDm  Substituting in values:
1 2
 ρ V  Am
2
3 2 2
 s   1000 mm  kg m
 
m 1
CDm  2  5.82 N    26.5 m    CDm  0.443
1.23 kg   30400  mm
2  m  N s
2
If we assume that the test was conducted at high enough Reynolds number, then the drag coefficient should be the
Dp  CDm
same at both scales, i.e.: C
2
Ap  30400  mm  16   
1 2 2 2 m 2
FDp   ρ V  Ap  CDp where  Ap  7.782  m
2  1000  mm 
2 2
1 kg  km 1000 m hr   7.782  m2  0.443  N s
FDp   1.23   100     FDp  1.636  kN
2 3  hr km 3600  s  kg m
m
(The rolling resistance must also be included to obtain the total tractive effort needed to propel the vehicle.)
Discussion: The equation given in Problem 7.2 contains three terms. The first term contains surface tension and gives a
speed inversely proportional to wavelength. These terms will be important when small wavelengths are
considered.
The second term contains gravity and gives a speed proportional to wavelength. This term will be important
when long wavelengths are considered.
The argument of the hyperbolic tangent is proportional to water depth and inversely proportional to
wavelength. For small wavelengths this term should approach unity since the hyperbolic tangent of a large
number approaches one.
2  σ  2 π  g λ   tanh 2 π h 
The governing equation is: c  ρ λ   λ 
 2 π   
m kg N
The relevant physical parameters are: g  9.81 ρ  999  σ  0.0728
2 3 m
s m
A plot of the wave speed versus wavelength at different depths is shown here:
Wave Speed versus Wavelength
h = 1 mm
h = 5 mm
h = 10 mm
0.4
h > 50 mm
Wave Speed (m/s)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.1
Wavelength (m)

Problem 7.1: Given: Find: Solution

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problem 7.1: Given: Find: Solution

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problem 7.

which is the inverse of the Weber number.

Given: Equation for beam

Find: Dimensionless groups

Denoting nondimensional quantities by an asterisk

Given: Equation describing one-dimensional unsteady flow in a thin liquid layer

Given: Equation describing two-dimensional steady flow in a liquid

Substituting into the governing equation:

reciprocal of the Reynolds number.

Given: Equations for modeling atmospheric motion

Find: Non-dimensionalized equation; Dimensionless groups

Recall that the total acceleration is

Substituting into the governing equation

The final dimensionless equation is

The dimensionless groups are

Substituting into the continuity equation:    

Given: Equation for unsteady, 2D compressible, inviscid flow

Find: Dimensionless groups

Denoting nondimensional quantities by an asterisk

 c03   2 *  c03   u *2  v *2   c03  2 2   *  c03  2 2   *  c03   2 *

The final dimensionless equation is

No dimensionless group is needed for this equation!

Given: Equations Describing pipe flow

Find: Non-dimensionalized equation; Dimensionless groups

Nondimensionalizing the velocity, pressure, spatial measures, and time:

Substituting into the governing equation

The final dimensionless equation is

The dimensionless groups are

2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:

5 We have n - m = 3 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: Δp

M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: μ

M: a  0 The solution to this system is: d

Find: How drag force depend on speed

Apply the Buckingham  procedure

 Select primary dimensions M, L, t

 Then n – m = 1 dimensionless groups will result. Setting up a dimensional equation,

The relation between drag force F and speed V must then be

2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:

5 We have n - m = 1 dimensionless group. Setting up a dimensional equation:

M: 1  b  0 The solution to this system is:

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

2 Select primary dimensions F, L, t:

5 We have n - m = 1 dimensionless group. Setting up dimensional equations:

F: 1b0 The solution to this system is: FB

Solution: We will use the Buckingham pi-theorem.

2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

Find: Dimensionless groups; Simplest form of V

Apply the Buckingham  procedure

 Select primary dimensions M, L, t

 Then n – m = 2 dimensionless groups will result. Setting up a dimensional equation,

2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: τw

M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: μ

2 Select primary dimensions M, L, t:

5 We have n - m = 2 dimensionless groups. Setting up dimensional equations:

M: 0  a  0 The solution to this system is: δ

Check using F, L, t dimensions: ( L)  

M: 1  a  0 The solution to this system is: μ

Given: That light objects can be supported by surface tension

 c03   2 *  c03   u 2  v 2   c03  2 2   *  c03  2 2   *  c03   2 *