NotesonAtmospher

e,Hy
drospher
eand
Li
thospher
e
1.
  TheAt
mospher
e:
Thegaseouscanopyt
hatenv
elopst
hel
i
thospher
eandt
he
hy
drospher
eisknownast
heat
mospher
e.I
tconsi
stsofami
xtur
e
ofv
ari
ousgasesandi
sbel
i
evedt
oext
endabout10,
000km abov
e
seal
evel
.Hel
dtot
heear
thbygr
avi
tat
ional
att
ract
ion,
the
at
mospher
ehasi
tsmaxi
mum densi
tyatseal
evel
anddecr
eases
r
api
dlyupwar
d.

Recentobser
vat
ionsshowt
hatabout97percentoft
he
at
mospher
eisconf
inedwi
thi
n29km oft
heear
th’
ssur
face.

Ai
risamechani
cal
mixt
ureofgases,
notachemi
cal
compound.Of
t
hemanyconst
it
uti
nggases,
Nit
rogen(
N2)
,Ox
ygen(
O2)
,Ar
gon(
Ar)
,
andCar
bon-
dioxi
de(
CO2)
,accountf
ornear
ly99-
98%oft
heai
rby
v
olume.Obser
vat
ionsmadebyr
ocket
sshowt
hatt
hesegasesar
e
mi
xedi
nremar
kabl
yconst
antpr
opor
ti
onupt
oanal
ti
tudeofabout
80km.I
naddi
ti
ont
othesegases,
othergases,
wat
erv
apourand
aer
osol
sar
eal
sopr
esenti
ntheai
r.
Theat
mospher
ecanbedi
vi
dedconv
eni
ent
lyi
ntoanumberofwel
l
-
mar
kedhor
izont
all
ayer
s,mai
nlyont
hebasi
soft
emper
atur
e.Fr
om
t
heear
th’
ssur
facet
oanal
ti
tudeofabout80km t
hechemi
cal
composi
ti
onoft
heat
mospher
eremai
nshi
ghl
yuni
for
mthr
oughout
,
i
nter
msoft
hepr
opor
ti
onsofi
tsconst
it
uentgases.

Thenamehomospher
ehasbeenappl
i
edt
othi
slower
,uni
for
mlay
er.
Theupperat
mospher
icl
ayerv
ari
essi
gni
fi
cant
lyi
nit
spr
opor
ti
onof
gases,
sot
henamehet
ero-
spher
ehasbeengi
vent
othatl
ayer
.

Thehomosphereissub-
div
idedi
ntot
wo
i
mpor t
antsub-
lay
ers:
(a)Tr
opospher
e:
Thel
owestl
ayeroft
heat
mospher
eisknownast
het
ropospher
e.I
t
i
sver
yimpor
tant
.Al
lpossi
bleweat
herphenomenaand
at
mospher
ict
urbul
encet
akepl
acewi
thi
nthi
slay
er.Tr
opospher
e
cont
ainsabout75percentoft
het
otal
mol
ecul
arorgaseousmass
oft
heat
mospher
eandv
irt
ual
l
yal
lthewat
erv
apourandaer
osol
s.

Thr
oughoutt
hisl
ayeragener
aldecr
easeoft
emper
atur
eiswel
l
-
mar
ked.Tem¬per
atur
edecr
easesatameanr
ateof6.
5°C/
km or
3.
6°F/
1,000f
eet
.Thewhol
ezonei
scappedi
nmostpl
acesbya
t
emper
atur
einv
ersi
onl
evel
andi
not
her
sbyazonewhi
chi
s
i
sot
her
mal
wit
hhei
ght
.

Thet
ropospher
ethusact
sasal
i
dwhi
chef
fect
ivel
yli
mit
s
conv
ect
ion.Thi
sinv
ersi
onl
evel
orweat
hercei
l
ingi
scal
l
edt
he
t
ropopause.Thehei
ghtoft
het
ropopausedoesnotr
emai
nconst
ant
;
i
tvar
iessi
g¬ni
fi
cant
lyei
theri
nspaceort
ime.Thehei
ghti
s
supposedt
obecor
rel
atedwi
thasea-
lev
elt
emper
atur
eand
pr
essur
e.

Thel
ati
tudi
nal
var
iat
ionoft
ropopausei
nit
sal
ti
tudei
sal
so
di
sti
nct
ive.Att
heequat
ort
hisl
i
esatanal
ti
tudeofabout16km
becauseofgr
eatheat
ingandv
ert
ical
conv
ect
ivet
urbul
ence,
whi
l
e
att
hepol
esi
tli
esatanal
ti
tudeofonl
y8km or5mi
l
es.

(
b)St
rat
ospher
e:
Nex
ttot
het
ropospher
eli
est
hest
rat
ospher
e,secondi
mpor
tant
l
ayeroft
heat
mospher
e.Thi
slay
erext
endsupwar
dsf
rom t
he
t
ropopauset
oabout50km.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethatt
he
st
rat
ospher
econt
ainsmuchoft
het
otal
atmospher
icozone,
that
r
efl
ect
sthehar
mful
X-r
ays,
gammar
ays,
etc.backt
otheupper
l
ayer
soft
heat
mospher
e.Themaxi
mum t
emper
atur
eoccur
satt
he
st
rat
opause,
wher
ethet
emper
atur
emayexceed0°
C.

I
nthest
rat
ospher
e,t
hedensi
tyofai
rbecomesv
eryl
owandev
en
l
i
mit
edabsor
p¬t
ionpr
oducesal
arget
emper
atur
eincr
ease.I
n
summer
,thet
emper
atur
esi
ncr
easef
air
lygener
all
ywi
thhei
ghtand
t
het
emper
atur
eist
hel
owestatt
heequat
ori
alt
ropopause.

I
nwi
nter
,thest
ruct
urebecomesr
athercompl
exwi
thv
eryl
ow
t
em¬per
atur
esav
eragi
ng-
80°
Catt
heequat
ori
alt
ropopause.
Si
mil
arl
owt
emper
atur
esar
eobser
vedi
nthemi
ddl
est
rat
ospher
e
athi
ghl
ati
tudes.

Thecl
i
mat
icev
ent
sint
hest
rat
ospher
ear
eli
nkedwi
tht
he
t
emper
atur
eandci
rcu¬l
ati
onchangesi
nthet
ropospher
e.Any
i
nter
act
ionbet
weent
heset
wosuccessi
vel
ayer
sar
eli
kel
ytobe
hi
ghl
ycompl
exandi
samaj
ort
opi
cofcur
rentmet
eor
ologi
¬cal
r
esear
ch.

TheUpperAt
mospher
e:

(
a)Ozonospher
e:
Thi
slay
erhasgoti
tsnamef
rom t
hef
actt
hatt
her
eisamaxi
mum
concent
rat
ionofozonebet
ween30t
o60km abov
ethesur
faceof
t
heear
th.Thesci
ent
ist
sar
eoft
heopi
niont
hatt
hepr
esenceoft
he
ozonel
ayeri
saboonf
ort
hesur
viv
alofl
i
fe;
itpr
otect
susf
rom
sunbur
nbyabsor
bingt
hel
argerper
cent
ageoft
heul
tr
avi
olet
r
adi
ati
on.

Theenv
ironment
ali
stshav
ecaut
ionedusaboutt
hegr
adual
det
eri
orat
ionofozonel
ayerr
ecent
lybecauseoft
heemi
ssi
onof
ni
tr
ogenoxi
desbysuper
soni
cai
rpl
aneswhi
chmaycauseaser
ious
bi
ologi
cal
damaget
oman,
ani
mal
andpl
antl
i
fe.Somesci
ent
ist
s
bel
i
evet
hatoz
onospher
eisact
ual
l
ytheupperpar
toft
he
st
rat
ospher
e.

(
b)I
onospher
e:
Accor
dingt
oPet
ter
sson,
ionospher
eli
esbey
ondt
heozonospher
e
atahei
ghtofabout60km abov
ethesur
faceoft
heear
th.The
i
oni
zat
ionoft
heat
mos¬pher
ebegi
nst
ooccuratt
hisl
evel
.Thi
s
l
ayeri
simpor
tantbecausei
tref
lect
sbackt
her
adi
owav
esf
or
gl
obal
radi
otr
ansmi
ssi
on.

Thei
onospher
eissupposedt
ost
artatanal
ti
tudeof80km abov
e
t
hesur
face.
Thel
ayerl
yi
ngbet
ween50and80km i
scal
l
edt
he
mesopause.Thet
emper
atur
ede¬cr
easeswi
thal
ti
tudei
nthi
slay
er.
Theupperboundar
yoft
hemesospher
eisknownasmesopause.
(
c)Exospher
e:
Theout
ermostl
ayeroft
heear
th’
sat
mospher
eisknownast
he
exospher
e.I
tli
esbet
ween400and1,
000km.Her
e,ai
rdensi
tyi
s
ext
remel
ylowandhy
drogenandhel
i
um gasespr
edomi
nat
e.

2.TheHy
drospher
e:
Thehy
drospher
e,orwat
erspher
e,most
lycov
erst
hedepr
essi
onsof
t
hel
i
thospher
e.Someamountofwat
eri
sal
sof
oundi
nther
ocks
andmuchexi
stsi
nthef
orm ofwat
erv
apouri
ntheat
mospher
e.The
oceansr
epr
esentabout71percentoft
hegl
obeandt
her
efor
e
cont
aint
hegr
eatbul
koft
hewat
er.Theav
eragedept
hoft
he
oceansi
sabout3,
800m.

Thet
otal
vol
umeoft
hewor
ldoceansi
sabout1-
4bi
l
li
oncu.km.
whi
chcompr
isesmor
ethan97percentoft
hewor
ld’
sfr
eewat
er.
Oft
her
emai
ning3percent
,about2percenti
slockedupi
nthei
ce
sheet
sofAr
cti
candAnt
arct
icaandabout1percenti
sbei
ng
r
epr
esent
edbyf
reshwat
eroft
hel
ands.

Seaoroceanwat
eri
sasol
uti
onofsal
twhoseconst
it
uent
shav
e
mai
ntai
nedmor
eorl
essf
ixedpr
opor
ti
onsov
eraconsi
der
abl
espan
ofgeol
ogi
cti
me.I
naddi
ti
ont
othei
rimpor
tancei
nthechemi
cal
env
ironmentofmar
inel
i
fe,
thesesal
tsmakeupav
astst
ore-
house
ofmi
ner
almat
ter
.

Thefol
lowingt
abl
esshowst
hecomposi
ti
onof
seawater:
Theear
th’
swat
ermov
est
hroughani
nter
est
ingcy
cleknownas
hy
drol
ogi
cal
cycl
e.I
tismadeupoft
wopar
ts.I
nthef
ir
stof
at
mospher
icpar
t,t
hehor
izont
almov
ementofwat
erv
apour
pr
edomi
nat
es.I
nthet
err
est
ri
al,
thesecondpar
t,t
hemov
ementof
wat
eri
nthel
i
qui
dandsol
i
dphasepr
edomi
nat
es.

Byev
apor
ati
on,
wat
erent
erst
heai
raswat
erv
apourf
rom t
he
oceansandot
herwat
er-
bodi
esasal
sof
rom pl
ant
sandani
mal
sby
t
ranspi
rat
ion.Ast
hewat
erv
apourmov
esupt
heai
ritcondenses
andul
ti
mat
elyr
etur
nst
othesur
faceaspr
eci
pit
ati
on.

Fr
om t
hel
andi
tret
urnsbackt
otheoceansoraddsdi
rect
lyt
othe
ai
rthr
oughev
apor
ati
onandt
ranspi
rat
ion.Thi
sfunct
ional
i
nter
rel
ati
onofhy
drospher
e,at
mospher
eandl
i
thospher
emakes
possi
blet
hecont
inuedex
ist
enceofpl
antandani
mal
li
fe.

3.TheLi
thospher
e:
Thel
i
thospher
eist
heupperr
igi
dshel
loft
heear
thandi
sdi
sti
nct
ly
sub-
div
idedi
ntot
hreel
ayer
s.Theyar
e:t
hecent
ral
one,
ort
hecor
e;
t
hei
nter
medi
atel
ayercal
l
edt
hemant
le;
andt
heout
erl
ayerknown
ast
heear
th’
scr
ust
.Sei
smi
cst
udi
eshav
emadei
tpossi
blet
o
di
sti
ngui
sht
hesol
i
dpar
toft
heear
thi
ntosuchdi
sti
nct
ivel
ayer
sor
zones.

Cor
e:
Thecor
eort
hecent
rospher
eist
hei
nnerandt
hedensestl
ayerof
t
heear
th.Sei
smi
cdat
arev
eal
sthef
actt
hatt
heout
ercor
eisi
na
l
i
qui
d-l
i
kest
ate.Thet
emper
atur
eher
e,pr
esum¬abl
y,r
eachesa
maxi
mum ofabout2,
500–3,
000°
Cont
hebor
dersepar
ati
ngt
he
mant
lef
rom t
hecor
e.Thedensi
tyoft
hecor
eisabout13gr
am per
cubi
ccent
imet
re.

I
tisev
identf
rom t
hesei
smi
cst
udi
est
hatt
heconst
it
uti
ng
subst
anceoft
hecor
eremai
nsappar
ent
lyi
nasol
i
dst
ate.Onecan
r
eadi
l
yassumet
hatatsuchhi
ghv
aluesofpr
essur
ether
eoccur
s
t
hedest
ruct
ionofsubst
ancewhi
ch,
int
hei
nnercor
e,exi
stsi
na
met
ali
zedst
ateorpl
asma.

Sof
arast
hechemi
cal
composi
ti
onoft
heout
erandi
nnercor
eis
concer
ned,
itr
emai
nsmor
eorl
esst
hesamef
ort
hebot
hsub-
lay
ers.
Thel
ayeri
scal
l
ed‘
Nif
e’becauseoft
hepr
e-domi
¬nancyofNi
ckel
(
Ni)andI
ron(
Fe)asmaj
orconst
it
uent
s.

Mant
le:
Themant
lei
sthel
argesti
nter
medi
atel
ayeroft
heear
thandi
s
conf
inedbet
weent
hecr
ustandt
hecor
e.I
tisdi
sti
nct
lysepar
ated
byt
heMohor
ovi
cicdi
scont
inui
tyf
rom abov
eandt
heWei
cher
t-
Gut
enber
gdi
scont
inui
tyf
rom t
hebot
tom.Themant
lecompr
isesof
near
lyoft
heear
th’
smass.Sof
aronl
yhy
pot
het
ical
assumpt
ionsar
e
av
ail
abl
eregar
dingt
hecomposi
¬ti
onoft
hemant
le.

Theuppermant
lei
schar
act
eri
zedbyt
hepr
esenceofv
ert
ical
and
hor
izont
alhet
erogenei
ti
eswhi
l
ethel
owermant
leandt
he
i
nter
medi
atel
ayer
sar
efarmor
ehomogeneous.Theuppermant
le
i
spr
imar
il
ycomposedofi
ronandmagnesi
um si
l
icat
es,
suchas
ol
i
vine,
pyr
oxenesandgar
net
s.Thel
owermant
le,
presumabl
y,
whol
l
yconsi
stsofdensev
ari
eti
es,
miner
alox
ideswi
tht
hepr
e-
domi
nancyofSi
O2.
Geophy
sical
dat
apr
ovet
hatwi
thi
ntheconf
inementoft
hemant
le,
sol
i
dst
ateofmat
terpr
edomi
nat
es.Thet
emper
atur
ereachesabout
1,
000°
Cont
hebor
derbet
weent
hecr
ustandmant
le.Theav
erage
densi
tyoft
heconst
it
uent
sis5t
o6t
imesgr
eat
ert
hant
hewat
er
andi
sabout2,
895km.t
hick.

Cr
ust
:
Theear
th’
scr
usti
stheuppersol
i
dpar
toft
heear
thconsi
sti
ngof
magmat
ic,
met
amor
phi
candsedi
ment
aryr
ockswi
tht
het
hickness
t
hatv
ari
esbet
ween7t
o70-
80km.Thecr
ust
all
ayerr
epr
esent
sthe
mostact
ivel
ayeroft
hesol
i
dear
th—t
hespher
eofact
ivi
tyofal
l
geol
ogi
cpr
ocesses.

I
twasbel
i
eved,
unt
ilr
ecent
ly,
thatt
heear
th’
sout
ercr
yst
all
ayerwas
com¬posedofl
i
ght
err
ocksknownasSI
AL(
Si—Si
l
ica,
Al
—Al
umi
nium.
)whi
chf
loat
edonaseaofheav
ierr
ocksknownas
SI
MA(
Si—Si
l
ica,
Ma—Magnesi
um)
.But
,recenti
nvest
igat
ionshav
e
r
eveal
edt
hatl
argear
easoft
heout
ercr
yst
all
ayerar
emadeof
basal
ti
crocks,
simi
l
ari
ncomposi
ti
ont
otheSi
ma.

Theear
th’
scr
usti
snowr
egar
dedasaser
iesofpl
ates,
someof
whi
char
ebei
ngcar
ri
edonbyt
heSi
alr
ocks.Thecr
ustoft
he
cont
inen¬t
alt
ypeconsi
stsoft
hreel
ayer
s:t
heyar
ethesedi
ment
ary
,
gr
ani
ti
candbasal
ti
cones.Theoceani
ccr
ustdi
ff
ersf
rom t
he
cont
inent
alv
ari
etyi
nthati
tst
hicknessi
sconsi
der
abl
ysmal
l
er.