ant poRMING PROCESSES = oo finish 6 145 = T Surface finish i #004: = Surlace finish ie not 00 good doc Sana . ip marred he i __ high temperatures, good due to oxidation at is easy (0 jimen: i eee ele ioe tilt. sions within the | It is difficult to control th a +33 contraction occurring eames because of . Alloy steel 7 oy steels are necessary for sh a “Handlin of materials is easy _| the cost of the hot working plant igh ee 5 in 7 aioli " : rae | Handling of materials is difficult ROLLIN 53. i : Rolling is a forming operation on cylindrical rolls wherein cros plat is reduced with a corresponding increase in lengih. The custal ae lareaiof a bar or Sd shear forces ut increased in width only lightly easiest pein ted e high surface comp! . sh maintained on the rolls, the surface of stock is b is ees is burnished by the rolling action and attains a This process is one of the most widely used of all the met: c \ al worki i Piojion throughout its length. Many shapes such as I, T, L and channel ee ble, but not very complex shapes. It is also possible to roduc ‘i He eels by rolling individual pieces produce special sections such as railway Fulling is normally a hot working process unless 8 of Rolling fhe process is illustrated in Fig. 3.1. The rolls are in contact with the passing metal er a sufficient distance, represented by the are LM. The angle LOM subtended at he arc LM is called the ‘angle of contact’ or the ‘maximum angle between the surfaces of the metal piece and the rolls which f rolls over the metal piece to draw the latter through them. more the possible reduction. rm throughout, it is mini- pecifically mentioned as cold rolling 2 Be Bsinciple and Mechanism piece ove the centre of the roll by of bite’. It is the friction provides the required grip o| The greater the coefficient of friction _— The pressure exerted over the metal by the roller is not unifo mum at both the extremities L and Mand maximum at a point, known as no-slip point or the point of maximum pressure. ‘At this point the surfaces of the metal and the roll move at the same speed. Before reaching this point, i. from L to S the metal moves slower than the roll and the frictional force acts in the direction to draw the metal piece into the rolls. After crossing the ngutral point S, ie, from 5 to M, the metal moves faster than the roll surface, aS if it is being extruded, _ - a be bes tending to hold the metal track. ‘This results in setting UI obstruct its reduction. Refer to Fig. 3.1. Let & 4, bj and tp I,and bj be the initial breadths of the metal piece respectively: ‘Then, Absolute draft, w= Absolute elongation, al=(y- mm Absolute spread, ab = - 5m . — Spread is proportional to the draft and ee job. Spread increases with increase in oe ae ‘as with a fall in temperature of the me" and final thickness, lengths and - 1) mm width of the well upon the thickness and ter and co-efficient of friction, as @ of hot rolling.al ‘A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURIN: ‘6 TECHNO, 136 : Relative draft, Elongation co-efficient, @ At the moment of bite, two forces act on the metal from the side of each roll, radial or normal force P and the tangential forced frictional force uP where j is the co-efficient of friction between the metal and roll surfaces. The part would be dragged in if the result. ant of horizontal component of the normal force P and tangential force uP i directed in that direction. In the limiting case, Pesin a= uP cos a or. (3.1 (@) 3.1 6) ace between the rolls automatically, that When a > tan y, the metal would not enter the 1s unaided, ‘The maximum permissible turn depends upon = Materials of rolls ; — sob being rolled ; — Roughness of their surfaces ; — Rolling temperature ; — Speed, ‘angle of bite (or contact) depends upon the value of \' which in — onsano PROCESSES et value of a - pee nan tio a et tee a Incase of primary reduction rolling mills auch as booag pee structural elements the rolls may sometimes be “ragged™ ator tt FONG mill foe procese of making soe rlleg ert he ect see so tn cold rolling, ince w loads are very high 4. should not be ws ch. fire ground and lubricants are employed to reduce Peete eae rolling and strip and strip For hot rolling of heavy billets and blooms, = ~ | fle woul beat higher velty than whee enced ele a ee Sate Reetnel coed ie Shae ce ae ‘ of the incoming metal, wt the metal velocity at the ent is higher than that of surlae speed afte rts Pens the entrance and exit, the velocity of the metal is continuously changing, where te rol velocity remains constant. yaw Now. Forward stip = ~L** 5 100 vay Backward stip = “x 100 where, V, = Initial metal speed, V;= Final metal speed, and V, = Surfaceperipheral sped of rls i Ana, AEM 100 A 9% age of cold work . ae He 5 100 where A; and A, are the initial and final areas of cross-section. variables in soli process “nate in ling se zi (ii) Angle of bite. Seta wok er Proce: ‘The main proc ( Diameter of roll, Gi) Speed of rolling.yr 1s s A TEXTBOOK OF MASUFACTURING THEHNOL, (©) Temperature (oi) Roll emp or dat. = (oii) Co-elficient of friction (oii) Dimensions of sheet The rolling load (P) can be calculated a P=1b.py where, where, R= Roll radius and, = draft P_ depends on R. t, (@ Cold rolling is employed to finish bar 1 = Roll-strip contact length 6 = Breadth of sheet, and Pq = Mean specific pressure ‘Senee [ depends on roll diameter and angle of bite, it is approximately given as: 12 Re 8.2) 4 jp and yield strength of work material e Hot rolling is carried out to roll ingots into slabs, blooms or billets. On further b rece ates, bare rounds structural shapes and rails are obtained. Becnse of Kita Cae raentpment and workability of metals, rolling is done in progressive steps, that aor eg acces tnrough the rlls may be required to get the required configura: wee Par ectaaple ton wall pasces are required to get a 100 mm % 100 rm billt reduced TPE ID tums rad (Fig 32). The intial few passes are designed to merely reduce the cross ane Uiule the intermediate passes not only reduce the area but also try to Tene the shape close to the final thape. Final or finishing pastes bring the material to the required thape and size Dee eo 7 = 10 Fig. 82. Roll passes to get # 12 men rod from 100% 100 mm billet, rods, sheets and strips of most common metals eg ene voengs provides better dimensional accuracy, good surface finish and improved physical properties aoe ierits commonly used are cast iron, cast steel andlor forged steel because of hugh trength and high wear resistance requirements “a Fig. 5.3 ahows the effect of both cold working and hot working on the microstructhre of cast metals ANG PROCESSES en oN ig, 8. Eee ofboth cold working and hot working the mirstracte fat mata 43.2. Rolling Stand Arrangement 38 Magento rls ina rling mil ls clled ring sland varies dnening 8 pplication, The names of the roling stand arrangements a B50 4° Trumber of rolls ex sag the various possible configurations are presented i= Fs wo Fig 38 (ey Twonigh ig. 34. TwotiehrolleA TEXTBOOK OF MANUF, PACTURIN Teen Fig 37. Custer roll Fig. 28, Planetary mill, 1 Two-high rolls = 2B Foor un ral xa in opposite directions to one anoth ons to one anather as shown in Fig (34 (a Beh he ee cd Te rk can be red feeding from one direction only. a cep epee beeween the ros can be adjusted by ris we tel susted by raising or lowering the upper rll. The fe Theres anather typeof tworhigh mill [Fi Ber well (Fig. 2.4(0)) which incorporates a drive mech rection of rotation ofthe rolls. This facilitates rolling ‘aie nai ty Tndforth passes between the rolls spedrling mek tc gh ring ml Tans 0st a expensive oom spivcrnbe type because of the reversible drive needed. 2 three rab: Hl Pi 25 Tact eranene ed ring mann a rolling sequence thera ee al the etl aa pte ce roll set, cis re he er et of he ae nn For thin purowe srictersent is required to bring. the metal tothe level with the ° Ths arrangement may be used for bloom i medina ing, bile rolling or finish rotting © This rolling stand in ease aly a two-high rolling mil, but with emall-sized rol. "Ap other two rolls are vole the back-up rolls for providing the necessary rigidity to te small @ These mills are Tie mils are generally employed fr subsequent rolling slabs, The smn? oduct ‘hot or cold rolied sheets and fe 1g of slabs, ‘The common P weal f "| cluster rolls ¢ Refer to Fig. 37. . i toro workin alle of wale inte fhe. Te mer of bak aay en our oF more backup wap the amount of SUPPOrt poeded for the working rela during he pens ee oe ae ory il Forse eli nrngenet instead of a single s ee on ea ted os singe sal ae Seda areal ar vrangepuent shown in Fig. 38, ere Oe oan fects in Rolling 1ta in rolling process are enumerated and discussed below " rotating 3 le 2, Struetional defeets {L Surface defects = me defects may result from = ‘Thee _Tratusions and impurities in the material — Seale, rust, dirt + = Roll marks Tel nuove related tothe price treatnent and wong be material Jot sling blooms, billets, and slabs the vsurface is usually preconditioned by various pean rach as by tore (eearfing 10 TmINe scale 'p Structural defects + ral distort or affect the integrity ofthe rolled produc oe LP I Fase ee ame game ig 29. Typical defectin Nat rine (Go Wary edges. Refer o Fig, 89.0, Tet are av the strip are thinner than the cantre, Besa the edges we rained from expanding freely: tDeY Youckle. » zipper eracks and edge cracks Refer to Fig. 3.9 (i, (id. Zipper cracks in the \ lity and borrelins com contrat strip and edge eracks are wot caused by Tow ductility eve oo f gatoring is 0 complex pheneme (i Alfigatoring. Refer to TE 19° Aliataig 8 oO en he na 3 from snnomogencous deformation of ME material during cast ingot, such as Pipine: Note “Residual stresses” deformation in the rol 80P- t reductions tend 10 wo Sina diameter rolls or small dual stresses 08 18 omagencous paste ‘pe generated inrolle neetsand latestecaset inh a vere the eta asta abe ‘pieworking woetaces ana wens secs he sures to those af the pre oer stent foam the bulk 108 mn eer pe aeons Tm onorates compressive Fee — Large-diame! the sarki generates“Introduction Forging is the process bs hich heated metal is shaped by the application f sudden er oe carters of ltt of material are made use of Blog rm temperature (ld Working). oF at elevate Sea at a omg ar 8 re can be made witha envy Ranumer and an anvil by teh — Simple ferns a es Usa though eof es anda prey an Wt at iyi ae pe amps ae fe Typical parts made by forging today re ttt <= on FOC A TEXTROOK OF MANUFACTUR 2 NG Tey 182 Log, orally epeakng the accuracy obtained Genertinan thot of drop forging i pering the metals heated a Sithis rnband pg, 210)- 1 consists of « hearth for ee ena segs {oF ag the (Hel trifugal blower driven by a power ae esta, produce the Bakthi eferably "smoke and poisonous gases to ai, a ee cae beat to water onl he ayer, i bere yock coal or coke, & water trough in Se aie col i front (oF GUO. In operation, the work is paced in orankshafts and connecting rods for engines = ; contol the Unig heated to the proper temperature for it heads, hand tools ee | — Turbine discs, gears, wheels, bl < — Many ype of stractral components for machinery and transformation equine HB 5.11 shows the various tole sed in a 44.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Forging inna mt ia Following are the advantages and disadvantages of forging process sty etn Smith | Advantages : serene improves the structure of metal and hence its mechanical properties directional fibre in such a way as to s {eR 2 Feige te pv raed en de 1. Owing to intense working, flaws are seldom found and the workpiece has a high reliability 4, Forgings are easily welded. 5, Rapid duplication of components. 6. Ability of the forging to withstand unpredictable loads. 7, Metal removing in machining is minimum. 8. The forging can withstand unpredictable loads. 9. The surface of the forging is relatively smooth. 10, Superior machining qualities. 11, Minimum weight per unit strength and better resistance to shock. 12, Forgings can be held to within fairly close tolerances. Disadvantages : Teer 1. The initial cost of dies and the cost of their maintenance is high, 2, In hot forging, due to high temperature of metal, there is rapid oxidation or sealing of the surface resulting in poor surface finish, 4, Forging operation is limited to simple shapes and has limitations for parts having under- cuts, re-entrant surfaces, ete 4, Forgings are usualy costlier than castings. 3.4.3, Classification of Forging Forging can be classified in two ways 1. Hand forging 2 Machine forging, Hand Forging : oy forging or blacksmithing is employed for small quantity production and for specialA TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURy Isa ING Hoi, Tools used in smithy Name of tool Use 1. Sledge hammers, straight, flat and ‘ross pen 2, Smith's ball pen hammer 3. Tongs, flat or square bit pick up — To forge big jobs (heavy work), = To forge light and medium work —To hold the hot work tong. 4. Chisel long cold set —To cut cold metal 5. Hot set —To cut hot metal 6 Pullers, top and bottom — To shape inside curves. To form corny 7 for elongating metal, 'Bations —To shape convex surfaces and to giy, —To give smooth finish to flat surfaces 7. Swages, top and bottom 8 Flatter or flattener 8, Set hammer —To form square shoulders and to clean rounding in corners, te 10. Punches —To make recesses of ony shape in hot a 7 11 Hardie To nck the bar and to shape the cold worn 12. Anvil — To forge art, bend and shape the work 13. Swage block —To shape or bend the work to any fon to knock heads of bolts, ete. 4nd 14. Gouge —To cut plates to curves, Forging on anvil is usually done with :() one man or (ii) two men-two hande fimih and his striker. The former uses a small hammer, the later the sledge. To he requires his mate to strike a blow the smith lightly taps the work with the small hammer ; the strikers job is to hit the spot "d working—the Hammer with the sledge. If working three handed the same procedure is followed, ligh tap from the smith preceding a heavy one from the rey striker. To indicate when to fini sn hh the smith ape the an wth us hammer. . petting. We ig. 3.12) nthe process of increasing coe Gait sinaldmesons when og. The res nln hae Hf section is increased and the length decreases, Tt may be done in a - nmin own. ach agg sey reuined andthe eupmet in t hese ate on he nel ad eo This nee the ct aa de wrk details of the article implest isto place the tly on the upper end, he length of the metal Fig. 3.12, Upsetting Drocess of increasing the length of ‘sectional area. It is illustrated in Setting down is leased drawn ion. Punching is the proce etn ot mete Fig. 8.18, Drawing down, 8 of removing a slug of metal, “Ean ar ore PROCESSES Hs wer cjlindrcal, by using & hot punch over the pritchel hoe ofthe ani te swage block. pein th gout. It isthe process of cutting large holes of cute sewage Bk a ging Machines = “eee 's one which i designed to shape a metal article while the materi sin state. ot FAS vy forging mache in ite wides ene includes Tae stamp (whether of rope, belt or board type) ‘team hammer. Pneumatic hammer. 4f Hydraulic hammer. The drop stamp of board type ( Ass | over a hole of correct ious shapes by using «hot chia raely employed when shaping hot bars, and Fi eee to sae and capo between eto to bring Foe In boned hammer the tup is attached to drop Stampin passes between two rollers, The later run in a board Wihd attachment, are belt-driven and run in opposite an over earrne tup is ited by means of eccentric (ot, ot directs dor cif acting) and they (ecentrics) cause the hand erator release the board, when the board i gripped rollers Were their ditection of rotation is such as to Lt it by the wt he attached tp, when the bord is released the Choa) and te height of it depend upon the ing ssn Tesh nstatancas: a ore Men producing sal drop forgings or bat pressings hedwpgempeinitevariusforms isavery effete method F814 Dapstampatbard pe. tnestavning the desired results, For shallow sheet metal oe oe etry stamp is first class production machine ait per saan were Qeokd blow tobe struck without any fear of bending frank or breaking a press fame. im Jammer. A steam hammer Fi. seiner inseam gin Tema trae, stenm chest or xine, piston, pst roland the ane, The hammer head i attached tothe piston and is raised by admitting steam inthe cylinder through the vv benenth the piston The downward tke of the hammer iota hy exusting te steam fm Bee the pnten and ating fom above the piston. The ham mer descends by gravity an seam presures 55 2085 bar Far varying the intensity ofthe hammer blows, hea steam is admtted elo the piston wl the base mer descending to create cushioning tothe aig bam ter The steam let and outlet are cntled by 8 sci tlie valve. For generating steam a boilers required. range of work is done on this class of forging machine. Fe Fig, 3:16. Steam hammer156 A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TEC Hoy, Say 3. Pneumatic hammer. In pneumatic hammer (Fig. 3.16) sir is compressed on both up- ‘ward and downward strokes of the piston which is ‘worked by the electric motor. This compressed air is supplied to the ram cylinder by the long valve ‘kept between the two cylinders which is moved by the control lever. By lowering and raising of con- trol lever, the strokes and the speeds of the blows per minute can be varied from 50 to 200. The steam and sir hammers are designed to give sharp and fast blows, reproducing to a marked extent the action ofthe smith and his ham- mer, They may be used with a standard pair of anvils or with a set of dies, the latter often being so ddosigned that the metal can be drawn out to the approximate length and width, and then placed in the dies forthe final shaping stage. The lash, which 1s formed, is clipped off as the last operation. Fig 8.16. Proumatic hammer, 4. Hydraulic hammer. For the large castings and in cases where a heavy pressure required the use of hydraulic hammer is restored to. The hydraulic forging machine being slugyich in action cannot usually compare with the steam or air hammer which operate more quickly, for small and medium sized forgings. The main advantage of the hydraulic forging press is that fives a definite squeeze and the time clement permits the material to flow. 3.44, Basic Categories of Forging Following are the three basic categories of forging 1. Open-die forging. 2. Impression-die forging 8. Closed-die forging 3.4.4.1, Opendie forging This type of forging is distinguished by 4s i & shaped by various dies Most open die forgings are produced on Ma-V, : luced on Mat-V, or swaging dies (Fig. 3.17). Round swa gan Ves are sed in paso that de. The tp atc to th rm fhe pes to the hammer anvil or, in the case of press open-die forging, to the until hot working forces the metal to the final dimensions. 7 ee eee Z the fact that the metal is never completely confined ZZ. CPO INK XK I< vies Flat de and V-cle ‘swage dios Fig. 5.17. Types dies used in opendie forging 4 Open die forging. in its simplest form on simples frm generally involves placing sli ylndie ice twee wo fa slates) and reducing its heghs oom pu orn FROCESES - 19 ess is known as upsetting. Under ideal cont | Pr. 3.18 (2); this is known as homogeneous deerme iF pntng ih cn encase e parrel shape. the specimen develops De \ | workpiece h, \ Oe @ | Freon tace \ i iy o | Fig 318 — Barreling caused by friction can be minimised by an effective lubricant or ultrasonic vibration of the platens. The use of heated platens or thermal barrier at interfaces will | also reduce barrel is hot working. \\ Advantoges of open-die forging : | {@ Simple to operate. \ i Simple for low production volume Inexpensive tooling and equipment. (jv) Wide range of workpiece sizes can be used Limitations : {) Saitable for simple shapes only {i Can be employed for short run production only. (ii) It is difficult to maintain moderately close tolerances (it) Material utilisation is poor. (@) Less control in determining grain flow, mechanical properties and dimensions. (ci) Fairly skilled workers are require. (oii) Since machining is often required, final cost of production may be higher than other forging, methods. 3.4.4.2. Impression-die forging In impression ie forging, the workpise seuies the sions) while itis being upeet between the closing des. ave brought together, and the © In the simplest example of this type of forging, two dies are brougt s ttorkpiece undergoes plastic deformation unt its enlarge sides wush the side was 9f | the die (Fig. 2.19), A small amount of material is foreed outside tl ape of the die cavities (impres-— _ |A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TR "WNOLOg Nv 138 can onNINE ROCESS oming flash tat i raduls thinned The ash cone rapidly and present incr ame uted in drop forging oni tw a 159 tr dtr, efecto unfleg yp ane machine, while the upper half is ed tthe ram, pyre eaot he dii fuedto the ane Frearure inside the bulk ofthe workiee ed impreason? o£ era delivers or fie Hows on the tal The heed stock is Ket a te, Iwer de wn ely fills che ie covity. When the we deat ee 9 ha he tal spreads sn To complex shapes with internal cavities, dary ee SMe cry is fred. Trin deop forging due to the limitation of the ote Te-entrant shay 2 bene ofthe withdrawl ofthe finished forging eee pone le— rasn ie. drop forging, the final desired shape cannot be, ‘nom he ‘Dapending on the shape of the component, andthe ans gel from the sack in a ingle wld be manipulated in a member of passe the vr phe retin, thee | rial Sh Fullering impression (Reducing the stock to the dese ney | Fig 319, Impression die fring $ Edging impression (Preform) desired sin), \ Bending impression (Required for 1UA3. Closed ie forging aa San an ta Wh ae xt hp | ao ome care. the example shown in Fig. 31838 also referred ts closed 2 ee neo Cad Fite In ru closed fore, no flash i formed, and the workpiece is completely Trimming (Removal of extra fash proses ‘Airounded by dies, while in impression-die forging, any excess metal in the die cavity jg ei eae hla Weak Present around the forging) ame sh Since ao fash can be formed in closed: forging, proper control of ‘ype ro eae the volume of material is essential to obtain 1 forging of desired dimensions (and to avoiq = eee : ioe ing extreme pressures inthe divs from oeriig). One approach to getting the = Crane es | TFht amount of metal for the die cavity and reduce forging time is the use of roll-formed — Cran} a a shapes or extruded preform shapes. = Grankshalt | Advantages : Onn a ee re eens ee G8 1 Can be used for production of complex shapes Note: owns benno sing Bh rpg tp tng nin (3 ean! ay nd ree ee ere | ea exmplé he Tipe hammering of the heated metal is done by hand tl to gt the dese | (Ge) Less time consuming than open die forging. fone and tol o get the desired shape B)) | (0) Workpiece materials are utilised effectively sg Beer forging \ (ui The gran flow of the metal can be controlled ensuring high mechanical properties, 3. ree ing the metal is shaped not by mean ofa series of Mowe asin drop forging, | (ci Since the forgings are made with smaller machining allowances, therefore, there is a ut by means of a single continuous squeecing action. This squeezing is obtained by ‘considerable eduction in the machining time and consumption of metal required for the tneang of presses. Owing to the continuous action of the press. the material gets unk forging formly deformed throughout its entire depth. The impressions obtained in press forging | Limitations : te clear compared to that of the ikely jarred impressions which are key inthe drop (@) More than one step required foreach fr forged components. y (i Ping resid rsh Gl sap Boers gral of eri pe and he pcg atin eared oon # | the centre of the part being pressed. Forging presses are of two types Mechanical and hydrautc. Mechanical preset maybe) Forging Pherew type used for brass forging only; oF crank type, Presses can be readily | (ii) High equipment and tooling cost. (i) Appropriate die set for production of each component. . a ‘die and ces -die forgings can be carried out in hot or cold state. automated, \ . forging obviously requires higher deformation energy and is usually carried out _— “Hydraulic presses” are used for heavy work and “mechanical press” for light work. | for only those materials which are sufficiently ductile at room-temperature, Cold forged aerenical presces operate faster than the hydraulic preses, but ‘hydraulic presses are | parts have better dimensional accuracy and have good surface finish. secur Arid petaihgh oie lower fen et ie infor ith end dimensional designed to provide greater squeezing force For prese forging operation, the dive shouldbe capable of 638 oo For PrP the end of the stroke when the metal i fared int ts i ied shape, For this eee purpose, copper alloys are well suited as these flow easily in the die and are \| extruded. Wy ‘This method of forging losed : uses a closed impression die to obtain the desired shape of th Advantages of press foraing | \ ponent. The shaping is done i shape of the com ess forging over drop forging i: \\ Es ears it dane by the repeated hammering given tthe material inthe die cil Following are the advantages of res ogi 0dr Ta rig i ile m8 plyed for delivering the blows are called drop hammers. I prosees provide a faster rate of production \ + single stroke.7 a A TEXTROOK OF MANUFACTURING TEtNoLg, sor . structural quality of the product. gw PROCESSES vers Fora automatic forging machines 3 uicker operation comparatively fe The auto AT eMPLOYEE for the m, ry 4 igh output even with unsalled operators = Nate Being OY MAM Proton 5. Low susceptibility to failure and simple maintenance ee cease ye Nt 6. Uniform forgings with exacting tolerances and low machining allowances —Vawe stems — Gear teak \ 7 Alignment of the two die halves can be move easly maintained than with ham = Couplings, ete. a. 3453 Machine forging MeFing. Favantone Ye inchine forging, asi involves the upsetting operation, sometimes itis ter aualty of forging upset forging. 36 simply catteg ee 1 there is no or litte draft is needed 2, Since th is needed on f Like press forging. in machine forging also, the material is plastically deformed by ee eee Pressure into the shape provided by the dies in the forging machine ; but unlike press ;tuee% operates in horizontal direction. It isthe forging method which is often selec = ted when ce Parte are required with an increased volume of metal at the centre or only at one end. "i Upsetting machines called up setters are generally horizontal acting. The ale sat sists of a die and a corresponding punch or a heading tool. The die consis aol ‘one called stationary gripper die which is fixed to the machine fr mein ade by Upsetters, ther “sac mati ant ae machin nes et {As compared to drop forging hammers, heir maintenance is much cheaper 5. In forging machine the forging — he forging the flash is quite largey varied by Ul ro faa (here ia dp ar sate sess Sa ae STE ae gin eo OS 1 Hh held between these two jes by friction. The upset forg =o It is difficult to forge intricate, non. Te a a a ee ee fing Soe th 2 Onne he mal dg dink nase Se ere few ie ei ti {th cm Santer of srk meh ee ee ie hod pa cope fi ean Tang epi ye een boat 20 heading ‘moves to its back position. Then the movable r die a 4.6 Other Forging Processes the stock by sliding backwards. cahiiiiadte = plea ompdoegs drop forging. the operation is carried out in @ num ‘stages. The die cavities required for the various operations are all arrang ao ripper dies. The sack i then moved from ones forging is ready ‘Under this heading the following processes wil be discussed 1. Roll forging, 2, Rotary forging oF swaging 3. High velocity forging (HVF) 4, Orbital forging 5. Incremental forging Fed de 6. Liquid metal forging 7. Gatorizing. 3.4.6.1 Roll forging Movabe ce ‘d vertically on the tage to the other in a proper sequence till the final Fig. 3.20 shows the operation of upsetting the end of a bay. ‘Stock The primary function of the forging role ea retin ke comedion ofa Soret staat = wi eres paes ae anor tam length en tu rsh udhohle ee Z mochine, and consists of two horivontal rolls See v- {Hag 3.15 arranged sirecly over each her These ae 4 rolls are not completely circular ; about half or more B portion of these rolls is cut away to allow the stock Teentes thug hear One or more sea of OS hh See eis aa pind ae een Grearranged onthe earl portion the ras. THe Pants an Fie 320.Upae torpor total reduction is accomplished in several stages ‘When the rolls open, the bar is fed into groove and rolled. During the next opening it is ig 321 Rallforgoe shifted to the next groave and rolled, This continueswe ses 162 | TEXTOOOK OF MANUFACTURING They onc PROCES ‘OLoay velocity forging (HVF) 6 till the total reduction is achieved. After each rolling the bar is turned through 90°, before f sage ae forging is also known as Hi into the next groove to prevent the lash formation eng Fgh wl ty Forging (PMEVE), tn LOT Rate erming (HER, Pressure on rolls may be as high as 1 MN. oct Seale provide a very high impact rate at on | ‘© Roll forging is employed for producing long slender forged components, such ag HVE maeyion essentially the same principles as are drop econ Cm Thee ana lea springs. ines 2 mee vide greater eerie fora gen ram nos Crt th nee pg Ag four forging or swaging sine imes tow of hammers, These ar based un by using ra we oe fe TW process can be used to reduce diameters of round bars or tubings. The oth ter 2 Ppucle—Hih eles, opel sents Bact eee applications include fabrication of stepped and tapered shafts, pipes with forged ea coe Henan, matic Gel om ends, ete. ut ego de mnhine can be ctv ted fr ong entrain. com \ The process can be done both in hot and cold state, However, cold working is preferable oa ran operations, Te moe eat gerne rato, bring an any er because of the greater use of handling and better surface finish obtained. set rl, athoug eve ceramics an be worked on these machines md | Tn ewaging, alo known as rotary swaging or radial forging, 0 solid rod or tube ig sore 4 wide variety of materials an be formed or forged inuding exotic and rtactory a ae tr by the reciprocating radial movement of two or four dies (Fig. 2.2) ainless steels, nonferous alloy, and hghstrengthmatral oee of ho met usually frgeable ‘advantages: imple pars ea be made i one Vow 5 rat allowances are reduced and is some cass eliminated 2 and deenraietin 9 meta ere ang the oprtis nm ne | + Outer tng ; nated. \ M ne cof even such materials, which either cannot be extruded on the \W 4, Extrusion onthe conventional wy a Baan fi aed conventional mache gaat nr ie pare ae : {ving ada! maton ible on these machines. (2) See vow ey Fromew (©) othe casstownin s.toerance an surface nish re improved over thoe tained ith convention fg Mie eee techniques. Because strength and fatigue resistance are improved parts can be mae small ‘The die movements are generally obtained by means of a set of rollers in cage. The internal diameter and thickness of the tube can be controlled with or without mandrels 7, Repeatability is excellent Mandrelscan also be made with longitudinal groove (similar in appearance toa splined 3. Overall production cost i very low shaft) thus, internally shaped tubes can be swaged. Limitations : fe The waging process is usually limited to workpiece diameters of about 50 mm, al- sr conoration ul ited oe dn twee ar ei ene though epecial machinery has been built-up to swage gun barrels of large diameter. Par fe economics of process become debatable i — Die angles are usually only a few degrees and may be compound, that is, the die may ey imitation of size and weight of the pout these machin have nore than one angle, for more favourable material flow during swaging. 2. Thee slang and very beat frigs ay aove 25) cannot be easly produced | — Lubricants are used for improved surface finish and longer die lif. these machines. fe The process is generally carried out at room temperature “Applications = Parts produced by swaging have improved mechanical properties and good dimensional ao zante ofthe tpeof procs mage on thse acne AS ‘accuracy. — Valve bodies; Advantages : oe (i Tooling cost is low. — gine hoosings : (i) Low inital investment. = Rocket components } (iii) Consistency of the product. 7 —Aissile components, ee OS ae $4.64. Orbital forging (oF Rote forming) ‘ ee | It is a cold forming process af the workine i omen on on (ci) Maintenance is eas | se lgcens, dhe pres te weet a werk nal fan. Te PP Limitation : aa he nal HOPI sa hgh frequen’? area at any time, and not on ‘The process is limited to parts of symmetrical crosssection only. Mighty inclined to the vertical oss of" be_ A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING 14 HN L06, 7 ripiece. At the same tine, the wort Ae orbiting upDer dis The Forget ® it yy reseed oeaieact stop. The am is then lowered an see aton eon the lower die hyde ew rocking motion across the top surface of 1 moved hydraulically upward and pressed er i nero lically operated ejector ejects the forging aeamoge sou gue Moe en rol 18 10 pr cot of Bde a 2 Fe cme ee a ae cal sett Woe ». Ber vce sh imino tht te ren aie By HE he ower di se i eae at det — i aie rt pate Pur Alone wth indent og opt od Ute en = 3.4.6.5 Incremental forging 2468 Incremental OM ings remade by woking deren sen ey te cg ne ie . 1 rig ae an ine te ging eainment can be much matey Sonventionay {in capacity 25 ‘e conventional forging. This makes it possible to forge har pars on presses of modest capacity: = Limitation : aor arrrrrece tends to cool below the forging temperature as it moves from incremental apt ip. Tebtatng the pert sits origina orang temperature may destroy the thermomechaniea seer egear oni in the ease of many alloys. It may be prevented as follows sibs reheating the workpice progressively toa lower temperature after its temperature falls below the forging temperature i) By covering the billet using insulating blankets and other coatings so as to reduce the heat oss, 3466. Liquid metal forging Liquid metal forging process also called squeeze casting is hybrid between conventional canting and forging methods and produces complex shaped components from molten metal in a single step 4¢ In this process of forging, the molten metal is poured into the bottom forging die and tllewed to solidify partially. Then the upper and bottom dies are closed and pressure is fpplied and maintained for a fixed time until solidification is completed. ‘The dies are then opened and the forged component is ejected from the bottom dic. Advantages : peaaet forging procese claims the following advantages over conventional casting and forging 1. Low capacity presses are required. 2, Ezonomical from material point of view. 4. Yield is higher in comparison to sand castings, since gates and risers are not needed 4. The tooling and equipment needed are basically simple, low cost and readily available. 5. No gas and shrinkage porosities {Thinner and more complex component can he produced 1 cast as well wrought alloys can be used, 8. The mechanical properties of the they are considerably better th prone! are comparable to those by conventional forging: ets gre aoe spanufacturing Process in for senna PROCESSES tations imitat " voces cannot be employed to his» a 4 Tui forged part necenniate dierent eat tena Lagu tre the eomanent wl be ee ke m7 Gacorising * st compared rag a — 165 Preconditioned in inert cinaapheg a re eine rary Splshed bY mechanically working the workyicy yO STEED and ih dy vy eomperature) Aer preconditioning te eae ee yt sn ip rcralizaon taper chr ean er rings to get Normal high eenge age ne Maton pron ie forging method is employed for making ei nn Fewed alls 7 Component of nicl ond tani 4 Defects n Fortin Bt Op te forging process generally gives spear quai ‘here are some defects that ar aly ome fps ee nace esa. Abit deer of such ce en tel i ry shut. ‘This taal occur atthe crers and et engi the his i tad any by he impr den hee ween he cer he Frc are small aa a Teaul of which the meta drs pot low propery oe, and ends up as a cold shut. ‘property into the comer a, Untiied section, Tt in sill to migrn in canting and ocr when metal sot atplcely il the die cavity. sa is usually eaused by using insufcien metal or inslient baing of he meta 4 Flakes. Basically, these are internal ruptures, vanncve nne caused by the improper cain of large osing and can be remeied by following proper cooling practic. 4. Soule pits, Thove are ireguar dpresions onthe surface ofthe fring scnnnpee are primarily enused because ofthe improper caning of he atock used fr forging 3. Improper grain flow : . aera y wae by the improper dei ofthe de which makes the foe meta following the final intended drstions 6 Internal cracks : _ ‘These can result from foo drastic @ change in rate. 7, Die shift 7 ee is defect is caused by the misalignment of the i halves of the forging to be of improper shsPe 8 Burnt and overheated metal : oe whi defect is caused by improper heating long. the shape of the raw stock at to fast 8 ie halves, making the ¢¥° sing the metal £00- ee S A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING recy Cleaning and Finishing of Forgings oy Cleaning and . finishing of forgings include the following Removal of oxide scale : © Due to the contact of heated steel with air a thin layer of scale (iron oxi fon the surface of steel forging. The amount of ecale depends upon the fey’, meq erature and length of time of the operation. BING tem © The ecale can be removed by employing steam or compressed air. 2 Cleaning by pickling : © The hard scale from the surface of the forgings can be removed by pickling © The pickling process consists of immersing the forgings in a tank filed with solution, which is 12 to 15 percent concentrate of H,SO, in water. The sole Sid to loosen the hard scale from the forging surface and remove it, 1m acty 3 Tumbling process : ‘© This process is employed to remove scale and for general cleaning of the forgin, ‘© In this process, the forgings along with some abrasive materials such as coarse cor small metallic particles are placed in barrel ; the tilted barrel is rotated aga Specs This acta loosens the scale from the surface of the forgings and sect O™ general cleaning of the forgings ts in 4 Blast cleaning : © The process consists of directing 2 jet of sand, grit or metallic shots against eh, forgings . By this process the scale is removed and a smooth surface finish is imparted to the forging. 4.9. Heat Treatment of Forgings ‘The forged parts are generally heat treated for the following reasons 1. To relieve internal stresses set up during working and cooling. 2. To normalise the internal structure of the metal. 43, To improve machinability. 4. To improve hardness, strength and other mechanical properties. 4. The common heat treatments given to forged components are annealing, normalising and tempering 3.4.10, Design Considerations While designing a forging, the following considerations need be given : 1. The parting line of a forging, as far as possible, should lie in one plane. 2. The forged component should ultimately be able to achieve a radial flow of grains or fibres. 3. In order to facilitate easy removal of forgings from the dies, sufficient draft on surfaces ‘should be provided. Generally, a 1° to 5° draft is provided on press forgings and 3° to 10° on drop forgings. 4. As far as possible, sharp comers should always be avoided, to prevent concentration of, streases leading to fatigue failures and to facilitate ease in forging. 5, In order to facilitate an easy flow of metal too thin sections should be avoided 6. The presence of pockets and recesses in forgings should be avoided. 7. While deciding the forging and finishing temperatures metal shrinkage and forging ‘method should be duly taken into account. ——= wna PROCESSES ron lowances to Adequate all compensate fo fang and mismatch of die should be ppg! Abas, ma, o “ "RaSh, RuSION oa 3 FY .1, Introduction sin extremely elONKated Strip of uniform, pe through @ celint 8 untical to the oavezing of oth pare a ah 0 re nee except thot the material i pushed nt pale oo ee fen carved out at high temperate ee: vag the na opera an important feature of the extrusion py de, and the material lies in the direction moat suited to nee hat Metals that can be extruded include alumisiun ang not a i oo ue complet fpr tha can and exon rh ht Th cme op nd oy nae Ana Fone rant ote in es eared extrusion temperotie. the the work the ance charact ‘The extrusion pressure for a give! pes onthe reduction in area and the extrusion speed. The &°% vernarial, Too high an extrusion speed would cause 2% cual causing lateral cracks peed depends heat generation it extruded> 168 |A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING 10 Tee OG ‘Extrusion rato. It is defined ax the ratio of TORDSEOS of the bitte sectional area of the product. defined ox entrunon for ete! i out 40:1 and 2 the ony as high as 400: 1 hum 3.5.2. Advantages, Limitations, and Applicatis ‘Advantages : ‘Extrusion process 1. Shapes ean be extrud paratively. bbe obtained by i 2. Thinner walls ean 3. Due to high reduction ratio (the ce sectional area of the billet t0 the cross. sg cellent transverse flow Ii pee Or the shape produced) the metal hee ine PO ection, fhe part has an added strength ond ‘secondary operations are made easier, sequently 4, The extrusion dies are less expensive comparatively and 60, moderately short rung are practical 5 Barun process alles low cst in process Teele 5 enol tolerance of extrusitas AFe Ver) ed ene iby in des for adiacnt thin and Dear seriong as wel Taare mae or engin. Shap cones ot practicable in other processes can = be obeained by extrusion = 6. eis also possible to get shapes wit dies «ded shapes can often replace weldments and members previously machi td ly machined from 10, Extrusion isan ideal process for obtaining rods ‘The following are limitations of extrusion process 1. As compared to roll forming extruding speed is slow. 2 Though the accuracy is good and entirely adequate for most applications y close as & machine part would be. ™ a 4. The sie of die and presses that can be economically built is a Limiting factor. 4 Co fern at generally greater as compared to other techniques. n productivity, extrusion is much inferior to rolling, particularly to its continu 6. Process waste is higher in extrusion than in rolling Seen 7. High toting costs Applications: The main fields of application of extrusion processes are (Manda of par of ih neni! srry. Gi) Manufacture of sections and pipes of complex confi i Madu and sat batch production, — (io) Working of poorly plastic and non-ferr Aas us metals and alloys. 5.3. Classification of Extrusion P nrusion pees canbe claaifid as lls» 1. Hot extrusion : ee (9 Forward (or direc) direct) extras (@ Backward or indir) extucin, jons of Ex usion Proc, entails the following advantages by other methods shall entail fed, those if produced ratail More cogs i rreasing the forming pressure. 1h internal cavities in extrusion by the use of spidey idee from metal having poor ductility ' nnn PROCESSES a \ 4. cokd extrusion 5 i. porard tron 1 rpdromatic extrusion. cxward extrusion io Bo trusion Impact & © al extrusion forging ot Extrusion Processes Forward or direct extrusion process A Fi 9.2 In the proces ill pe do tal sar) of be mata a odo pae cnies Aken endt es a ee a he te end thes ped tow though he by bya Dee tach ao shock work mst be supplied to rece the id tional forces between the bi ame ofthe cntae and to produce the re vee rte of efrmation pe ooblr of iin io patulary severe in ae of tel ene Toe rr eemporetures, To rede thi tion lubricants ae tobe ee —_ iywer temperatures, a mintre of oil and graphite i eneraly wed generally used for extruding steels enerally used. Maton glare i _Renejce the damage to equipment, extrusion is finished quickly and reed before further extrusion auichly and the cylinder ie 3.5.42. Backward or indirect extrusion Refer to Fig, 3.25. In this process the metal is ily by the cylinder. The ram which houses cpa is the hollow plunger or ram. It is termed back: sre nd or indirect or inverted because of the opposite ren of the flow of metal to that of ram movement ‘This, the billet in the iner remains stationary fand hence no friction, Also the extrusion pressure is ot affected by the length ofthe billet in the extrusion press since friction is not involved 3.5.4. Hi 3541+ Fig. 3.24. Porwardor direct extrusion, ee SSS N Ay a j confined ful ESS WRN Cen Moving ‘The surface quality achieved in generally good Weatedrmeta since there is no heat eracking due to the fretion be- vile 1 interface, Fig. 3.25. Backwardor indirect tween the billet and the extrusion cylinder ‘The disadvantage of backward extrusion is that extrusion the surface defects ofthe billet would end up inthe final product unlike direct or forward extrusion where these are discarded in the extrusion container oh use of backward extrusion is restriced due tothe fe! that the extrusion product must be passed back throu dlirect extrusion is generally mechanically more eonvenient. fhat the ram must be hollow Jh the ram, The process of170 4" A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING They ‘OLoay Comparison between Forward and Backward Extrusion Forward or Direct extrusion {Ws the simplest, but limited bythe fast that {stheram moves the billet must lide or shear at the interface between billet and container High friction forces invalved Bachnordorindireet or inverted ima “The hilt proper does HOE MOVE Fate tang Instead the die moves Fi Low friction forces : the tomven the di and the co cent billet length. Extruding force i225 t0 30% los than in fo tnruston However ong hollow ramn arog oo {hi its the bonds which can be applied De sndcomplex design oftols, this typeof extrusion fs Limited application in| Scrap or process waste is only 5 to 6% fretion involved ia only ner and thine High exrrding forces required however. me ‘hanially mare convenient Scrap or procmes waste is about 18 10 20% of ae ble wet oF billet weighy Advantages of hot extrusion (A very rapid process, (Involves low tool costs (Gi) Owing to high pressures used and compressive nature ofthe process a very dense: of metal is obtained. structure (4) in several cass it proves cheaper than pressure die casting with comparable finish ang tolerances (©) It ts an ideal proves for producing parts of uniform cross-section in large quantities, 35.5. Cold Extrusion Processes 35.5.1. Hooker extrusion In the Hooker or extrusion down method, a cup is first formed by a suitable wor) king opera. ton : extrusion then consists of elongating and thinning the walls of cup, using a shouldered punch and die as shown in Fig. 3.26, I exces pat Fig. 526. Hooker extrusion © This cold working process comely apd mainly 2 Y fr the produsin of a wale copper and cluminium seams tubes and carrdge een mal oro PROCESSES o 2. Hydrostatic extrusion a atic extrusion Fig. 2.27 inan extrusion Hitech the required pressure ix applied athe eisid medium surrounding the billet sr i prenence of fd inside the extrusion us nates the container wall friction, the aber fade limited industrial application because eet i ecialsed equipment and tooling and low ofan rate high set-up time), Its usually earried om temperature Fie 321, Hydrostatic extrusion. ni The pressure transmitting fluids commonly used fo by ine, Bthsleol, SAF 30 mineral lubricating ot estor atc at ‘Tae hydrostatic pressure ranges from TI00 to tare Because the hydrostatic pressure increases the detity othe wa als can be extruded successively by thie method. % the ™aterial, brittle mater: ste main commercial applications of this provers aze mM cladding of metals ; — Making wires of less ductile materials ~ Extrusion of nuclear reactor fuel rods 3.5.5.8. Impact extrusion This process is quite similar to Hooker precess, but [ the fow of metal is in opposite direction. in impact extrusion (Fig. 3.28) the punch descends lee sa eS assis ts hina (heey eam a ' — ard The thickness of the extruded tubular section is @ worrion of the clearance between the punch andthe die gay cavity. (sea) ‘e. This process is applied primarily to lend, alu minium, manganese, tin, zine, and their alloys. Fig 328 Impact extrusion ‘About 95 percent of die products of impact extrusion are collapsible paste tubes 35.54, Cold extrusion forging extrusion are. Glyer ‘alcohol and isopentane. tis similar to impact extrusion but with the main difference thatthe side walls are much thicker and their height is smaller. Fig. 3.29 shows the process schematicallym ? A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING Thy CUNO, Say ‘The punch slowly descends the sh wy descends over the slug kept on the die, thus forKing some mo the punch and the die and the ret being extruded through the clearance between the mreten side walls. The side walle thus generated are short and thick with anv profile in the eng ft impoct extension. ARerwards, the component iscected by means of the e}etor pin prog yk? the die me in provided te [Note : The backward cold extrusion processes are different from other extrusion py that cach stroke ofthe punch prepare a direty usable single component which may not necesaait pes uniform crne-action over ile entn length. Alo. hese are limited to smaller sizes and for non ferry aoe ont. "salon Advantages ond limitations of cold extrusion + Advantages (Cold extrusion has gained wide acceptance in industry because of the followis ‘over hot extrusion 6 odvantages (@ Improved surface finish, provided that lubrication is effective, (id High production rates and relatively low costs. (id) Lack of oxide layers () Good co-trol of dimensional tolerances, thus requiring a minimum of mach; operations an! (©) Improved mechanical properties resulting from strain hardening, provided that the hy ‘renerated by plastic deformation and friction does not reerystallise the extruded mont LimitationsiDrawbacks : ae (@ In cold extrusion the stresses on tooling are very high, especially with steel work ‘The design of tooling and selection of appropriate tool materials are therefore cruci) success in eald extrusion. eat — Punches are a critical component ; they must have sufficient sire and resistance to wear and fatipue oh toe (Lubrication aso is crucial, especially with stels, because of the generation of new sur faces and the possibility of seizure between the metal an em and the psy tal and the tooling, c ned by the (iy Tampere rise in ol extrusion isan important factor, expecially at high extrus ration The tamper ay be slient hgh wnat he complete eration ‘Process of the cold worked metal, thus reducing the advantages of cold working. _ 356, Extrusion Force — Tha opens f etre 3 fr determining the free requir To mye required wo produce an extrusion as shown in Fig. 8.30, Extrusion force. sg PROCESSES s is fe mgt 9% en. D p= Pressures me) nares Pr yield strength of the material, Die Billet diameter pp, = Bxtruded component diameter, and \ ‘orking length of the billetstock, = A typical relationship developed by PERA (Production aa england) for calculating the maximum pressure fr banka emeach Associa mn of carbon steels (0.1, 0.2 and 0.39% carbon) is given below oe divet extra. elo = f 451n ae 1 35a? = Extrusion pressure, Ga) where Phe upper yield point, kN/mm, (2 o.n9, 031, 0.36 KN? for 0.1%, 0.2% and 0.3% cavbon ne! ‘A, = Crosesectional aren ofthe extruded component, and 1s respectively), Wf, = Cross-sectional area of the billet ‘this expression is valid for extrusion ratios ranging from 1.65 to 4.25 using billets with 06 ength to diameter ratio In extrusion process the main process variables are : 1. Strength of billet material 2. Size of billet. 3, Extrusion rati 4. Die angle. 5, Coefficient of friction 6. Speed of extrusion, 7, Temperature 3.8.7. Extrusion Equipment ‘e ‘The presses for extrusion processes may be either hydraulic or mechanical, according to the pressure required, and either vertical or horizontal. _— ‘The hydraulic press is more usually vertical since it has great flexibility, and compact- ness, and less liable to injury resulting from improper use. _— The mechanical vertical extrusion press given a high output and each piece spends only fa second or two in actual contact with the dies. This shortness of contact means that Tittle heat is lost as a result of radiation and condition, so that, if required litte the extended part can be extruded and can be transferred straight to reducing mill e The dies employed are often of high speed sleet and are always of high quality special I alloys tool steels. fe The punches may also be of high quality stecl Lubrication is plentfully employed im | most instances, 3.5.8, Extrusion Defects Following are the three principal defects in extrusion : 1. Extrusion defect. 2, Surface cracking. \\ 3. Internal cracking.ae A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY. 1 Extrusion defect (© The most common defect in extrusion known as extrusion defect pipe, tailpipe, ang fiah failing arises from the backflow of material, pushing the end face of the bullet into the core of the product, Such a defect weakens the product since the surface layer ig normally contaminated by oxides ‘¢ This defect can be reduced/avoided i — By modifying the flow pattern to less inhomogencous one, such as by controling tric tion and minimising temperature gradients: ae _— By machining the surface ofthe billet prior to extrusion to elim impaid ties By using « dummy block that is smaller in diameter than the container, (hus leaving q thin shell slong the container wall as extrusion progresses 2 Surface cracking Sometimes 1 raise the temperature of the j . the heat generated due to extrusion may raise setts hc event of surface cracks. These cracks ao inergranvlsr and are Thualls the result of bot shortness ; they occur especially with aluminium, magnesium, ind inc alloys but are also observed wath other metals, such as molybdenum alloys, ‘The surface cracks can be avoided by using lower temperatures and speed. — The rurface cracking may also occur at low temperatures and has been attributed to penodic siching of the extruded product along the die land (stick-slip) during extra. 3 Internal cracking : (@- The centre of an extruded product can develop cracks variously known as centre burst, centre cracking. arrowhead fracture. These cracks are attributed to a state of hydro. static tensile tress at the centre line of the deformation zone in the die. (¢ The tendency for centre cracking increases with increasing die angles and level of impu. ities and decreases with increasing extrusion ratios. 3.8, WIRE DRAWING Wire drawing is the process of reducing diameter of metal rods by drawing them through conical openings in die blocks. — Wire drawing is fundamentally a simple process, Steel, iron or non-ferrous rod is con: verted into wire by drawing it through 2 conical hole having an included angle of 8-24 degrees. In continuous wirecdrawing the wire passes through a succession of holes of decreasing size in dies made of steel, tungsten carbide, ruby or diamond, the reduction ‘in cross-sectional area usually being about 30 per cent — The rods used for wire-drawing are first pickled in acid to remove any scale and then cletrically butt welded. The end of the rod is tapered sufficiently to fit the first dies by passing it through a pointing machine, which generally takes the form of two motor. daven millers having a numberof rome of decreasing ste between which the rod i rl rod may be coated with iron hydroxide, copper or tin, applied during or after Pickling The rods then fed into the wire drawing machine whch may be ted with ‘8 oF more dies, through which the wire is drawn by means of number of power-driven Pulley or rotating drums. Athogh the prinaple ie sma each cue, ee ‘filer design, and or practical purposes are broadly divided into “non slip” al “lip Fig. 3.31 shows some important features of wire-drawing, us dso hold re Power reet lores ow ane cae ck Fig 3.1, Wire drawing Due tothe great heat generated by the fiction ofthe wie inthe de, bth the die and drums are continuously ecoled by circulating water through them. Lubricate ensured by passing the rod through dry soap on its way tothe de, On ame seat however brit fd rene in yee hc os hownuously lubricated over the whole of its surface Spans ent is Stovided forthe lubricant. ing eauipment _ fh different method of overcoming the cooling and lub ‘vet drawing machine operating on the slip principle _ Modern alloy-steel dies have a long life, but maximum efficiency tungsten-carbide dies are replacing steel. _- Ruby or diamond dies are also employed but their use generally being confined to the drawing of fine wires of less than 3 mm in diameter. The jewels are first trimmed and then drilled with small drills which are fed with diamond powder and oscillated for soveral hours. When the hole has been pierced it is finished and polished to within 0.00025 mm. The die is then mounted in a metal holder. _— When very fine wires are to be produced, a composite wire is employed for drawing. A platinum wire only 1/90,000 inch in diameter, for instance, many thousand times finer than a human hair, has been drawn by encasing the platinum wire in silver, thus increasing the overall diameter to a practicable figure. After drawing, the silver was dissolved by nitric acid, leaving « platinum wire which was visible only under « micro scope. rication problem is to employ a Mechanics of wire and rod drawi ‘The major variables in the drawing process are: () Reduction in cross-sectional area (i) Die angle, and (ii) Friction ; these are illustrated in Fig. 3.32. ’ Vi) al LLL | Fig. 8.32, Variables in drawing round rod or wireeee 1n6 A TEYTHOOK OF MANLTACTURING 1 CHO 0gy ‘The following expressions can be obtained for the drawing stress 0, 0 0,= 0,10 \* } Ideal deformation —_ ¢y ¥ 3.8) {eal deformation and friction .. (46) a= Dre ancle 11= Cosfficent of fncion A, = Onganal crot-sectional aren ofthe wire or rd, and "A;= Pinal crow sechonal area after the drawing operation @- Wire draing improves the mechanical properties because of the colds working. ‘hy eeeerioe te dovulity during the wie drawing process and when itis to be repeat. SE at ste te Bial mae intermediate annealing 18 required o restore the ductility steel Thc drawing machines can be arranged in tandem so that wire coming from one eile! ces 6 eofinent length befre 1 re-entered into the subsequent die and soon Thiscan Titer ware hee for any dncepency in the speed of ware drawing in any dit. Since there ig ci chonge in tolume successive drauings have tbe done ot higher speed. i Defects in draseing : “e Deteces n drawing ar similar to thowe observed in extrusion, especially cente center erackis Peden for fnckng inreaec with mereasng die ange, with decreasing reduction per pass with frcuon. and with the presence of inclusions in the material Avuther tspe of dee is the formation of seams, which are longitudinal scratches op {aids i the maveral Such defect can open up during subsequent forming operations by upeeting beading. thread roling. or bending of the rod or wire Vanous can a surface defects can also result from improper selection of process parameters and 3.7. TUBE DRAWING Tube drawing is sxomplhed in net cates with the we of cases wit ie use of a draw bench. Following are the different methods used for drawing tubes - Refer to Fig. 3.33. meatal Tigo berg 7B - Piaedby Long rod one Sree } > es > + Maree arave: Featng masore © © oT ) Fig. 2.53. Tube drawing (@ Method (a) is most commonly used, (© Method (6) uses » Aoating mandrel whic - us Sing manda which adjusts elo the caret ption Ines of no noc SES ae yen 8 usual sed smalaed ting in . ‘uses no mandrel of Method (2 use rod and has little or Med cold drawing and annealing, whe ‘0 control over By a nea hypodermic nee, Then ny is ele x; which has an outside fine 150 ant MSAAKING (By Rotary Piercing) of bout 02 ma Mae material wed it 8 ot te bile . is gripped Between two rolls which spin st high speed re wo open a hole or cavity in the axis ofthe Fie. 334) The epiing x fe re and snd tle ely protr. es lug mandrel bar is pernd ye ree blank beng finished by pug roling over a Piercing is an important method, i sandra o root Ein tubes of large diameters the blanks are inital 1 between a pair of grave oT ‘piercing before being finaly rolled ' rough peteed and then given a G 9. MBTAL STAMPING AND FORMING 39.1-Introduction Stamping is a general term for a number of operations such as punching, blanking paring, bending and forming tat are performed ona pene with he we of ds ve amping, dies consist of punches, usualy beld in the upper half the die, and matching dice, which are normally located inthe lower hal. press working. may be defined ata ciples manufacturing procs by which varius sumponenta ore mae frm thet metal This roses eta the flowing advniees {The weight of fabricated parts is small Gi Tem of diversified shapes, ah simple and comple, uch as washers, using rans of ball bearings, ete. can be made easily ip The parts made by cold sheet metal workitg have marron eran with a high surface Teh tn several case, they require no subsequent machining an ae delivered tothe assembly shop directly). (jo) The productivity of labour is quite high the initial material is : Low loys, as well as ther eels, ductile alloy steels, copPe? Tn cold press working, carbon st srt and its alloys, aluminium and its al “ductile materials from tenth of about 6 mm or 8 mm thick ina die Die sets. The punches are set in a punch eldey and the dns in di shoe he ‘The die set has guide 335. The two together are called a die 4 ‘ tpper and lower half in alignment, which facilitates die changing when chan to another.' ang prockSseS ; ® ‘ = Ko! Ree (3.7) _ pending force, N, : po Fh 99 for die opening of 8 ; 1.20 for die opening of 16¢ ; 0.67 for U bending ; 0.33 for a K* viper die. = Length, of bent part, mm = Ultimate tensile strength, MPa, ‘= Blank thickness, mm, and p= Width between contact points, mm. spring back = : fo Atthe end of the bending operation, when the pressure on the metal is released, there is an elastic recovery by the material. This causes a decrease in the bend angle and this phenomenon is termed as “spring back”. It is the extent to which the metals tends to return to its original shape or position after undergoing bending or forming operation. The methods used to overcome or prevent spring back are : () Stretch forming (a Overbending (ui) Bottoming (ix) Trot sasDep Drawing In sheet metal, drawing is a process of forming flat sheet metal into hollow shapes by means és punch that causes the metal to flow into the die cavity. If the depth is one or more times the dander, the process is called deep drawing (See Fig. 3.38). The forming of shallow shapes is soneimes referred to as stamping, but the distribution is not clear since stamping is also used to teserbe cutting flat figures or patterns. In deep-drawing, also called “cup or radial raving”, a parallel-walled cup is created from a flat blank (Fig. 3.38). The blank may be circular, rectangular, or of more complex outline. The blank is drawn into ‘te die cavity by action of the punch. Deformation is "stricted to the flange and draw radius. No deformation eurs under the bottom of the punch. As punch forms ‘be cup, the amount of material in flange decreases. ~ There should be no appreciable change in the thickness of the material between the blank Fig. 3.38. Deep drawing. and finished part. When it is desired to reduce the metal thickness, it may be done in secondary operations as in troning, — Important variables of the drawing operation are friction, squeezing jorce, and formability of the metal. ~ The following materials are being used for deep drawing operations : Soft steel, copper, brass, aluminium and their alloys, magnesium and their alloys, zine and a variety of other non-ferrous alloys. common products of deep drawing are : ® Automobile bodies ; © Lamp reflectors ; ® Cylinders and various small components required in the automobile industry, a 4, Finalnd [A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY — Metals and alloys suitable for deep drawing should be of special deep drawi ne quality fend sho foo that the required properties conform to the specifications spect td shoul be tented, that te required prpertie conform t0 he specifications spac, Variation in grain size and the presence of harmful impurities will impart bad finish to finished article. In case of materials which workharden, stress relieving anneal may Sing during one or mony intermediate stages 3.9.4,StFetch Forming ~ method of producing contours in sheet metal. Thinning and strain hardening are inherent in the process. "Refer to Fig. 3.89(a). The grips are stationary and the form block moves upwards to provide the necessary tension and motion. ne The jaws and form blocks are hydraulically actuated to provide control of pressure fadjustment to meet the varying conditions characteristic of the material to be formed, Refer to Fig. 3.39(6). Stretch wrapping consists of first stretching the metal beyond its ‘yield point while itis straight and then wrapping it around a form block. It is particularly suited ior long sweep bends on tubes and extruded shapes. The main advantage of this type of forming is that only one dic is needed : the die may be made out of inexpensive material, = “eT tL ae 7 val (2) Suetch ormeg (©) Streteh-wrap forming Fig 3.39. Methods of stretch forming a metal — The thickness reduction should not exceed 5 percent of the original thickness In stretch forming process the spring back is completely eliminated because the forming ‘done by introducing uniform tensile stresses in the fine increments of sufficient mag: nitude to exzeed the elastic limite of the metal, thus causing the material to take a permanent set ‘© The process is applicable to a wider range of materials, because the ductility is the least important factor in stretch forming. The desirable qualities in the metal for maximum Stretchability are toughness, fine grain structure and a large spread between the ten- tile yield and ultimate strength — It has been found that an annealed material which has high strain hardening rate is, best suited to stretch forming, 3.96 Metal Spinning Spinning means shaping a metal blank os it revolves at a high speed in a lathe. — It is one ofthe oldest methods of producing « wide range of goods which have an axis of rotation, For small-batch production, spinning, because of the simplicity of the equip: trent needed and the ease with which achuck ean be prepared, alten gives ower overall production costs than any alternative method. " yy er roRMING PROCESSES _ Skill in the use of the tools and experience in han- ste process Tends itself to the production Mpeful adjunct to the press and drop ee teed direct from a, tks tat could not edly be ha the Inter erifen used along with the press or son 4s Ge down oF opin a raisin stamp to trim, bead, bees NE lathe nos dow oF si 8 Spe ot oa : Tn practice metal spinning may be roughly grouped ander ey \ 1. Hand spinning sped under two headings 2. Machine spinning 4, Hand spinning = 2 Ijefer to Fig. 3.40. With hand spinning the blank, aeit revolves at a high speed, is subjected by a sted tool to pressure exerted by the operator, who has he tool handle tucked under his right arm, The ool is levered off a tree rest and is prevented from slipping by means of a peg, The leverage obtained is Adjusted to suit the class of work being hundled ‘Bling the varying classes of material is essential. If tthe metal is worked only in one place, it becomes (ork-hardened, and the result may be cracking, Duckling oF even tearing of the metal. The art in metal spinning lies in working the tool over the whole surface and coaxing the metal towards the Yosired cross-section. As the work proceeds and the surface becomes work-hardened, it it necessary to resort to interstage annealing. Fig 3.40, Hand metal pining. 2. Machine spinning + * "Machine spinning is very similar to manual spinning, but is always used in conjunction Machine piyenarm rome operation tho cannot be ready done om th ae Os of wi Pree chy ix machine spining use to draught lank raght down, The metbo mache Mee aa different tn pace of the te rest and and pinning tna como) oer conjunction with roles mounted na fr By constantly inte | ides Woe aides the rollers made to ive the desired contour _ Paitin tt cocks are mae em exer itn or altaya as re a een ene prec slide ie ano ited to the machin end sve 4 TO "pound ‘and beading to be done at ror acrred reat This pents such operations a imi compovetting a, say, apinning oF burishing Hot spinning : ae rane ing of metals i used commensal tosh oF shape over a resolving form block. rico press and large versa si ation of . a combination rie Foer atid ae form thick cincular plates to me \\ A hot spinning machine is ming Tat which oats the forming, as the partis rola a se Meta apt 160 nm thick 18 rouineld BO SES ET i spate Sou sping i azo used 10 sB4PS titanium, sure vessels and tank res Paar to Form metals keA omer sincng, ing They IN ba damped in poston with hollow head seroyy, NOt) ga FORME means of S00 1s af rong dowel nd a gure, In order to guide the mF ving re engraved with the neceatary details required on bu lead Mjorls or the FETE ET? or the Blank bed. The Buide plays idl any ie high hd cmpremed by i as shen n Fig iden of the al cj. fated with @ stop is attached of the punch. It aids in getting & good blank, aie 0 PH, tan Wy large preseures are exerted (1200 to 3000 MP) to cause the te Fd eth ep win of pl he ecap clear by han Fagg Vert The tl weaned tos oo are er bur, cane 8k NARI erations is ften combined with othe, th gaat 1% te die aufacen Aircon perpendicular wera ecm ress te Han ie pes blanking sete Mh, fe a nt ote ifclty of forcing the metal of fom, the depth of nae Saviog ~ Prete rarely exceeding 0 mm leoth of impression is never very hard currency is the best (6 Piercing ‘and blanking is that the metal por fe Probably, th ney Se The main diferenebtveen PE ous shapes ate pierced: When’ Ht! are plications of coining are the manufacture of insignia, medal badges ew 22 cut nthe former Br ein aie. theit length should fer sight ™® & mat fousehold hardware = fee pe eb ld be atleast = Sera Bal head be 1 ae andes whch are tobe pered should beat leat tuice the fer wo Fig. 348. eee ~ Teed ape punch breaage Pieced hols shoul not be Toate chy ted sock ino desired contours without altering the crosectanal aren nee SP f teadncnt coil eles a 7 te used for smaller holes and for holes which must be quite clog ee beast 38, and Coining in oth path eotowsng and cing ae cold press working operations in which Woriece nara inte frm a bask of ebeet metal The aim of both the operations ie ta eng ‘Shrine the sree or utes ofthe metal. However, whereas “embossing” isa rn ee toe “cong” presing operon ne ope : Embousing. Refer to Fig. 44. It isthe operation used in making raised Botan omg wth creping reo he cer side. The die st consists of adie and are they desired contours, so that when the punch and die meet the clearance between them with the mm te set ck, The mt ow ini the detion ofthe applied force. The forces ht ‘much less than in the coining process. me ore (© Embossing operation is generally used for providing dimples on sh eets to Sip maa mt a na cae — The process utilizes a series of rolls to gradually change the shape of metal as it passes ty Between then |GEG | — Most ductile sheets or strips (0.1 to 20 mm) are used for rll forming ‘The main advantage of this process over other production methods is speed. — This process can handle prepainted or electroplated surfaces without damage ‘This process is particularly suitable for producing large quantities of long strips of desired shape, with minimum handling operations. 3.9.11, Rubber Press Forming Fig. 9.47 shows a schematic view of rubber-press forming operation. Rubber is restrained from sideward il akbar Pama motion and acts asa deformable female die to exert essen- tially hydrostatic pressure on the workpiece — Advantage Formbloc (Tool setting time is amply reduce. (ormae da) (i Greater depth of draw in one stroke. = ten oiiing i eset cold forging Fig. 3.45, Coining. Gi) Thinning of work material is almost nil. 4 the op layers an 8 Operation o iv) Tools have fewer co mai So tne eS the fet thatthe ow of mea TO a LF 3A Raterremtenon W coining die consists of the punch and ste e : eerdening i vomegae> ~ — hate removed the mere no |Equredbyd woking Eire | a rapid rate hang |Stica and dct newoe| petal china ea | rept Ue aneded vale | Improvement ang rey lect er ind ductility during thin stent tage Got [site gets refined, [ng mw [Te tna wu eh velaemaa ary © Verma” ie tay chang mi nrcture eee ray | | structure of the cold worked metal. | grains. tre 5 | Change an grain | No change uae ‘Slight increase. 34 What limits the maximum deformation in metal forming ? Ans, In metal forming process the material plastically flows whi ile the total Son inthe crystal ate. In case of hot working the temperature at which rerytallation, Whi incase of old wor deformation takes place is h ane it occurs ata temperature below the recy, at Limit of metal forming is recrystallisation ter ae mperature of 25. What do you mean by the followi ring terms ? (9 Coining; (i) High-energy rate Ans. (i) Coit ining. The operation of ‘estrct te flow ina lateral direction, forming; (ii) Progressive piercing ‘ning performed indies that confine the metal and ipeet forging ma. ial engine cylinder forgings, ounted on a ram etively, Ina simpler hydrauhcalh moves ina s placed between two ald ically operated press Provided rte dies ann ide move rat A! Bi the mal shee ‘The de above its ela slides. The proc ge fore atic Limit while conf, 08s tetching #8 of 0.5 to 1.3 MN are the sheet, and irming to the die ie and causes the sheet to be stressed ‘hs auch hat theese companied yg slight thinning little spring back to the metal ‘Onee it is formed. i =: ‘The paces can be ued wth many hare g *gorking andthe proble of unequal mee Su the ie ‘Scrap losis fairly high because materia, and there is «Limitation tothe shapes hat en ef MD ie for inning 4.38. What is electrobydraulic forming? ‘Ans. Blectrohydrauic forming, also known og arial energy is directly converted into work ee pris process is safe to operate and, sects controlled. Q.3.9. What is magnetic forming? Ans. Magnetic forming is another example of the drt cmv 1 work, At first it served primarily for awagingtype pera te ends of tubes and crimping terminal ends of eablee Meee irralang, focusing and drawing, all using the same pence cals sletospark forming. is «proce whereby ‘has low die and equipment cot. The, energy rates can olay sion of electrical enegy into ‘uch as fastening fitings on ent applications are embossing. ‘source but differently designed werk ‘The process has the limitations : Complex shapes may be imy possible to form, pressure can. rot be varied over the workpiece and present units are limited a (00 MPa pressure. Q,3:10..Expfain briefly the following terms for rolled produce Bloom, Billet, Slab, Plate, Sheet, Strip, Pol, Bar and Wire. Ans. (?) Bloom : ‘Ibis the product of the first breakdown of ingot. © Tthas square or slight rectangular section, ranging in ste from 150 mm «150 mm to 250 mm x 800 mm. ‘© A-bloom is used to make structural shapes e.g, T beams, channels, et. by hot roling. (i Bitlet: ‘© A reduction of bloom by hot rolling results ina Bilt Its size ranges from 50 mm x 50 mm to 125 mm 125 mm © Itis rolled to make rounds, wires and bars. ee 1 ingot of from leom eis a product baie by Ht lig er fm in gy thas a rectangular cross-section, with thi mee wires and shel Shae are further rel o spl, sts tri wi ond el (iv) Plate = sninimom thicknes of 6.35 mm. oe ih mf end bh i te min hich canbe nde rte () Sheet : © [tis a thin partner of plate Presb st antase mami 6.35 mm. © Asitis norm by the manufacturing wth e maximum thickness of 6.36 mm. {600 mm with maximum thickness of siderable and is imited nly 4 col forms enh can be consi ally handled in oi and handling faites(oi Foil = (© ee thin strap with ‘© eis available in coil form. (it) Bar © It ina long, straight, evmmetrical piece ‘or of another configuration (© Acarcular bar is called » rod ix) Wire = oi ‘mm crose-vecton. @.3.11. Explain briefly the following rolling operations (@ Ring rolling ; “ Ans. () Ring rolling = 4¢- In his type of rolling, « small-diameter, thick ring is expanded into a large-diam: ter, thinner ring. The ring is placed be- ‘ween two rolls, ane of which is driven (Fig. 5.54), The thickness is reduced by bring tng the rolls closer us they rotate. The re duction i thickness is compensated for by ‘an increase in the diameter of the ring. A ‘erest variety of cross-sections can be ring rolled with shaped roll. (¢- This process can be carried out at room or clevated temperatures, depending on the se and the strength of the product. Advantages (Short production runs (i Material savings ; (ii) Close dimensional tolerances ; (io) Favourable grain-Dow directions. Applications, Typical applications are : — Gearwhee! rims ; — Large rings for rocket and turbines ; — Ball- and roller-bearing races ; >_> A TEXTBOOK OF MANUFACTURING THEHNOL 9G Y saximum width of 300 mm and maximum thickness of 1.5 yyy of uniform cross-section. It may be round, square 's thin variety of bar, available in coil form and not normally ao identified over 9 75 ‘Thread and gear rolling Main ot (seven) Rounding rot Ie ro Edging ro Fig. 3.4. Ring-rolling operation ~ Flanges and reinforcing rings for pipes and pressure vessels (Gi) Thread and gear rolling : read rolling. The threads are formed or between reciprocating or rotating screws, bolts, and similar oe 3.55). Typical products made by this process include n round rods or workpieces by passing them FORMING FROCESSES ers 21 (0) Twovotr es Fig. 355. Thread rolling procenses : ‘The thread rolling process generates threads without any loss of metal and with greater \ \ strength, because ofthe cold working involve ee peo te Seas ae hea ee en Gear rolling. Spur and helical gears are also produced by cold rolling processes similar to thread rolling. The process may be carried out on cylindrical blanks or on precut gears. Helical fears can also be made by a ditet extrusion process, using epedaly shaped die © Cold rolling of gears has many applications in automatic transmission and power tals Q. 3:42: Explain briefly the following extrusion processes (i) Side or lateral extrusion ; (ii) Helical extrusion lp (ii) Continuous extrusion. ¥ Ans. (i) Side or lateral extrusion : >t V ‘e In this process, the material flows at right angle to the direction of motion of the ram. Side extrusion may be solid or hollow. The tooling opening is determined ‘hy Yhe split N and the mandrel. < ‘© Since very high extrusion force is required, this process is mainly employdafor nom) ferrous metals and highly plastic materials like lead. \ (i) Helical extrusion : SS end af a copper billet, to form. 8 In this process a conical punch is driven slowly into the short tube with an annular face, This is then steadily deformed by a tool that rotat ‘bout the axes of the billet and slowly advances in a helical path, The swart so produced is not worked but is trapped in a small chamber, where i is forced to escape through an. orifice, as a wire ~ ‘This process has the following advantages y) {o Very large reductions in cross-section are possible, and (i) Extrusion forces are low @ It isa novel technique for the production of wire or tube (iii) Continuous extrusion + © In this process, continuous feed stock (not @ tinuous product. 4 billet of finite length) is converted into con-Paeecteeeaeeeeceeecee vr A TexT900K OF MANUIACTORING TECHNOL ogy ons PROCESSES : x i mm Precision forging : cchnigue of continuous extrusion ¢ Ans. + (the most successful t 7: ve mn forging or flashless forging, and 48 In the “conform proves” rennet betwen the eronved extrusion hy Precise ie + and similar operations where the ie cen fl kh om eae of the wheel the he cil rnd clone to te final ‘Any etess sited component are lao know ee eee fend the mating die shoo. Wit “ruinat stationary block, known as abutment shape production, ss material is subsequently removed by we net: vey ttn ad al prowedser Brough preeaure it built UP to foree ate ect cos epi & various machining 11 gets upset to conform to U is In precision forging, special dies are made and rmatenal to extrude through « die opening. Oa enue Grae machined to greater accuracy than in pray The choice between combinational forging, and ‘ ee Man Pon etn go a ne Wed, because the partis closer im (Try einen Pon ae atntly land ad extredad wed ere the tothe deed nal shore Ah Raw wok tear ees powder of machin gwar cam be ated ig PcG vans wade Wil ais ar . Gi) Raw stock in the form of ed (Parts cai im draft, O to 1, permitting weight reduction, itotion. The use ofthe process is limited tothe extrusion of non-ferrous metals, mainty (i High strength-to-weight ratio, copper alleys an laminas ii) Surface finish is smooth. (jv) Lateral protrusions and undereuts can be Q. 3.13. What is “forgeability” ? Expl Broduced without machining ‘Ana. Forgeability may be defined as the tolerance of @ metal or alloy for deformation (cy Small edge radii (0.90 mm) can be produced in the as forged parte without failure, regardless of forging pressure requirements. (vi) The control of parting line placement provides the most desirable grain low and metal: Foregeability of metal or alloy is influenced by the following mechanical factors turgical properties. Some “seamless” forgings are produced (9 Strain rate Limitations (i Strain distribution. (The dies must be considerably sturdier Metals exhibiting low ductility at cold working temperatures show reduced forgeability at (i) The process is slower, requiring more press time, increasing strain raves and meals exhibiting high ductility at cold working temperatures are nor (i) Isothermal forging : petcnaly allied by incransing strain raise In the isothermal forging process, also known ing, the Ferpiy of metal rally eSece by he lowing metallurgical vrihley * the sme temperature asthe bet lank Te tha eo ae gn ted to (0) Composition and purty. nated, the low flow stress of the material is maintained, and material flow within the (i) Number of phases present die cavities is improved (ui) Grain ze # The dies are generally made of nickel alloys, and complex parts with good dimensional ~ Alloy containing elements that form insoluble compounds exhibit poor forgeability accuracy can be forged is one stroke in hydraulic presses ~ Alloys containing two phases are generally less forgeable than those containing one © Isothermal forging generally is expensive ; however, it can be economical for intricate Phase forgings of expensive materials, provided thet the quantity required is large enotigh to — The forgeabilty of an alloy improves with decreasing grain size, justify die costs Forgeability may be evaluated on the basis ofthe following tests : i) Hot-twist text Q, 3.15, Explain briefly various “Cold forging techniques” ¢ In this test, metal bar is twisted at elevated temperats 7 c elevated temperatures and number of twists to Ans. ‘The various cold forging techniques are 7 (@ Sizing ; Gi) Coining (ii) Cold heading, ete. fo ee tum of wit bare tlre inde bter forget, © Sizing. The primary object of sizing operation is to abtain closer dimensional tolerances tyes ae ‘on portions of a forging. — In “plane sizing’, the forging is pressed between two lat dies. The operation straightens the forging, enables accurate dimensions tobe obtained and improves the surface finish. sed at a measure of forgeablity — Three dimensional sizing imparts the final size to the whole operation in impression @ 3.14 Explain briefly the dies with the formation of flash which is subsequently trimmed. (0 Preciin forging. NeMiM€ forKing proce {i Coining. When the sizing operation is such that the metal flow is restricted in a space (0) Isothermal forging. confined by the die impression (that is no flash is formed ), the sizing operation is called. “coining” ~ Sizing and coining operations are commonly done on knuckle joint presses. eaeer ees... 204 A TEXTHOOK OF MANUPACTORIN TEctNoLog pers FORMING PROCESSES (id) Cold beading. Fig. 3.56 shows the principe of | (The bead forging stock i ftp ; ‘operation of cold head machine hammer blows. ced in fllering impression ‘here ita reduced by oar ea uh de tp. aarrererer | Memseamicc thee ta Sera — Se pac hecang re tne ere Bucetecee rome stale aire Seen es fon Tis 8 howe tnd rane rib pended in laige qunctidee fom the beading healt lo opens borioentaly to emove the gn ‘continuous wire stock, : — The pressure to induce metal ow is applied by the up Se ‘ae ei nny. ater ne hm rn a : Geiline ntact teins | — Flanged components, ete 4 \ Ge rae 2 you understand by efor a = re eee co Totctnane tv carcino ae tre bo th ie ao sat Roane cones tet ing rl (6350 inves te Mowing spe foamed so oo —=3 i Int forging stock 9 Edging impression "2 redstebutes the me (i) Before being forged in finishing impression hy tind the semifin erosion, the snk is proceed in the bendery | (iu) Flunh gutter ‘0 provided around the fishing impremion 9 | Q. 8.18. Explain briefly a ‘Cored forging’ (locker) impression and why is it provided 7 ig. 858, Coed forging ug mae 3:19, Explain briefly the various tes of “forging ea 818 Ee pps f frp equipment re enumeraad and sued —— 2 ounteblow hamners 3. Mochanicl presses | &. Hydraulic presses, ae ‘of the ram, which sat re ammmore derive their energy from the poten st a rive thei gre energy Timid The speeds ot rr oy compler shape, sequer oe emced rs ing of the hot forging, allowing (osama, oe -— the low forming cet ae vacularty with thin on Fig. 357, Multiimpression die—forging sequence of a connecting ro. particularly riety below deep recesses —rae op stING PROCESSES wernt 10 206 A-TEXTHOOK OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOL ay This pron it uted almont exclusively in eropac ing ” In power hammers, the ram is accelerated in the down stroke by steam or nir. in addition Thin and shallow contour componente industry of large compara aty a: {i Hot Tsostatie Pressing GHP) ial ely — In power hammers the highest energy available is about 1200 1d. ‘This process invalves the following steps 2 Counterblow hammers : “The metal powder i seated in « metal or ceramic desired part fomtainer that has the shape of the — These hammers have two rams that simultaneously approach each other to forge th, e ‘The container is placed in a special pres BU vessel that | part They are generally of mechanical peutic oF mechanical-hydraulie type ° ner is pln hap — These machines transmit lees vibrations to the foundation than other hammers, gusty eating the container nd ruben ayaa ety oman — The capacity ofthe largest counterblow ammer is arvund 1250 Ki. The ptr cme, dena nd See ney a \ miperguap tos “in method i being tied to forge exte mates or anemia — These are stroke limited presses Tone cea for avert industry, — These are of ether the crank or the eccentic type, with speed varying from 8 maximum Q. 321. Explain briefly the following. \| at the contre of the stroke to zero at the bottom. The force available depends om the (G) Precision blanking : \ Git) Perforating 5 (iv) Buldging. me 22 Se eon ea | os cee ee Saber epie ering Eee vottagrenting 4 Serew presses: ‘In this method, a shaped punch is forced into the top of a projection of one of the \ peiomerl me tah ci nn tte tin ne fe as The forging loud is traneetted thcuph 8 verted screw — Go Precision blanking — Thee an exergy limited: and are This process produces high dimensional accuracy of ee ofthe part slog the entre particularly suitable for producing small Connecting rod punched surface, ae = - ‘quantities, for parts requiring precision such ‘e Fine blanking presses require completely ground dies with zero clearances between punch ‘as turbine blades, a. and die, and triple action presses offer following actions : (?) Holding of metal firmly 8 Hydraulic presees : = ouinnt the face af de plat by embedingu Very tne) sie eas at esiopee — These presses have a constant low speed and ts or pressure plate. This also prevents lateral movement and prevents metal from flowing tiv load limited. Ram speed cane vased és Siuay from punch as st enteres Gi) Blanking prema which muna cota OUD during the stroke. ‘out the shearing stroke ; (tit) Counter punch working against blanking punch is used for — These are used for both open-die and closed. tm ficktening, esining or bonding ax mayo the care dhe forging operations, SX Press bed tip Perforating : = The capacity of the largest hydraulic is ahe operation of punching patter of holes in similar or continuous rows. Ps copeciey lithe larwew: MOMraURE Deven ny a raid ental Peging Fee peanuts * © Generally “presses” are prefered for aluminium, magnesium, beryllium bronze, and elfen ic a metal forming proces to expand a tubular or einrial por. brane hammers" are preferred for copper, souls, uanium. and rebaciory allan Sense cposmetrial shapes ea be povided by mechanical mane, wing Sa @. 3.20. Explain briefly the following processes = mented bulging die an which various regments Hl ogther y SDH fs Pte ‘oS (i) Creep forming (ii) Hot Tsostatic Pressing (HIP), parte punch nner pnd apron Oe mee Ans @ Swaging : ‘eid he br © It is a metal working process in which the cross-sectional area of bars, rods, or tubes in enna oe ee n cesses. ee desired area is reduced by repeated blows or radially actuated shaped hammers. Q. 3.22. Explain various defects relating to forming prov # Itis a batch process and ot eaily adaptable to. continuous ‘Ans, 1. Defects in rolling : continvous process a1. Defeets in F SS (i Creep formin i aie ens warping fan whch remain ie Me This operation is the deformation of metal at a stress level below its yield point and the i) Non-metallic inclusions, These defects are Pan halves satiate ri hast ta the metal for time sufficient to permit metallurgical creep to enuse ‘a thick slab, crocodile cracks, separate ce Jjongation of the blow holes and Une nl ‘he induced elastic stresses to such a level that plastic deformation to the Mpc crok, results ian desired shape is achieved. lege nat Platte dckormaatio: (ot iti) Internal blow holes ae Fret becomes weaker. eyws —S A TEXTROOK OF MANUFACTURING THHNO, {onDNG PROCESSES — Se ee Se ' Ss rs SU a eat ane, oar St making ™ the roll pass properly terien 1h Laying out; % ‘ ooo wee ‘topos ee: @ Scale pits. These are shallow depressions caused by hot removing scale from the ee i . 14. Drawing ‘The scale is subsequently worked into the surface of the forging Aig 15, Hand forming + 15. Soldering (i) Mismatch A mismatch occurs in drop forging when the di orrectly aligne 6 Machine shearing ; 16. Sinking , results in Interal displacement between portions of the forging. 7 Nibbling + un : tia td snes An we ees vanler vo tue tate end ears eee 1 Raa metal does not completes fill the die cavity. It is usually caused by using tnauinene” ¢. Piercing and blanking ahr metal or insufficient heating of metal mt ee eae Hollowing blocking. (Go) Defects resulting from improper forging such as seams, cracks, laps etc. 10. Edge = —— Cnet aee ape eet Seay ore oeseee ee ee (od Batons rant om imprap Meg od wing of te fig seco tnt me ee ae o Sea ce oe pe a | oe eee See NOSE neque va sae SPM) le tr tn ee Pere ee repre repre relay a eee tee cs th po ese ay cnt See as ama fh ei mal ps mad ve ‘ Square ote; and a scrber. The sheets tay have to be ated ar ee ee wat ans agee oon be abe ne eae nes See mac lan gue yh he shed es we Sey ah Fr $a eee ee neo a Jac ta perenne a Pee ‘The other kinds of defects include formation of a buldge, ahead of the die, with low reduction and high die angle, and the development of a centre burst with too large a deformation gradient along the cross-section. 5. Deep drawing defects : @ An insufficient blank holder pressure causes to develop wrinkles on the flange, which may also extend to the wall of cup. Too much of a blank holder pressure and friction may cause a thinning of the walle and a fracture at the flange, bottom and corners (if any) © Due to the misplacement of the stock, unsymmetrical flanges may result ; this defect is ‘commonly known as miss strike. ‘The effect of a large grain size is to produce a dull surface (orange feel effect) ; this defect is also common in bending operations, While drawing a rolled stock, ear lobes tend to occur because of the anisotropy induced by rolling operation. Q. 8.28. Explain briefly various “Sheet metal operations”. Ans. Several operations need to be carried out in sheet metal work. Some are done by hand, some by using machines and some can be performed either manually or by using machines. The ‘main operations are enumerated and described as follows Invariably the blank surfaces require proper cleaning before being processed. This require st i: mare predominant in case of non-ferrous metal sheets, ike those of copper, brass and ment ‘ie surfaces are cleaned by a pickling process which i described below fe A pickle bath, consisting of 1 part dilute sulphuric acid and 20 parts water, is heated ©. ‘The blanks are then immersed in the hot bath. = © “After allowing adequate time for pickling the blanks are thoroughly washed of water and then allowed tod ‘e Sometimes cold pickling is used in such cases where c very frequently. In such cases either pickling period i to To water ratio of the pickle has to be used to ensure a 3. Laying ou =e he dewlopment no 2 ant a king te dope tie ete ara sheet blank, together oe an dd and jie wil ve the eed Sa chet Hank ie an Tiemown ae lasing out ; fe Suche layout when made on the sh ee eos ‘are amall in size and in are mum hon he mA 07 ye ja be mae ae al Sen template fr repetive ma relent Sorta, The es Robe increased or smaller acid fective leaning of Ue surface cf the component onthe sheet \ sm and the process a8 patert otis called a pattern and ee