1.

Discuss various eastern philosophies with reference to their attributes or qualities and
educational implications (Vedic, Buddhist and Islam)

The English word 'Philosophy' is termed as 'Darsan' in Nepali. The meaning of this is to see the
universe Or To see the truth or reality in any subject is known philosophy.

Philosophy deals with matters of life and death. It seeks to ask and to answer questions that are
the stubborn, baffling and disturbing in the history of the human race. ' Philosophy' is in general
and how it affects and makes differences on western and eastern society. Generally, Philosophy
is universally defined as the study of the wisdom or knowledge about the general problems, facts
and situations connected philosophy. 'seeing the reality'

Philosophy was derived from the latin word 'Philos' and ' Sophia’ which means 'love of
knowledge' with human existence, values, reasons and general reality.

"Philosophy is the knowledge of truth, virtue is knowledge of those who are the lover of truth are
philosophers."-Socrates

“Philosophy is the science and criticism of cognition.”-Immanuel Kant

“Philosophy as a science which discovers the real nature of super natural things.”-Aristotle

“Philosophy is the metaphysics of reality.”-Hegel

So, philosophy is the theoretical aspect of all the sciences and it is the view of human towards
the universe and overall creation.

Eastern philosophy:
Eastern philosophy is mainly used in Asian countries. It takes mainly from Confucianism,
Mahayana, Buddhism and Taoism. It is related to collectivism. It takes more of a spiritual
approach. It focuses to look at an idea and similarities but it centers on virtues. It is developed
more to focus specifically on human nature and how we can achieve peace in our lives. In this
various eastern philosophy here can take explanation about Vedic philosophy, Buddhist
philosophy and Islam philosophy are as follows:

Vedic philosophy

Those philosophies which are depending on Veda, that are Vedic philosophy. This is the speech
of God towards the universe. It emphasis on the institutionalized of the speech of the God. Veda
is self-evidence (proof) and knowledge itself. It is the source of all the human knowledge. Vedic
philosophy provides answers to all unanswered questions like why there is pain and pleasure,
rich and poor, healthy and sick. It is related to the God -his qualities, nature and works.
Similarly, it is related to the Soul-its nature and qualities, soul. Reincarnation, how does it
happens, why one is born as he/she? What is the purpose of life? What we ought to do?
 Vedic knowledge comprises the four Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva) with their numerous
Samhita, 108 Upanishad,18 Purana, Mahabharat, several Tantra texts. The entire Vedic
Philosophy is divided into six systems:

1. Sankhya: Nontheistic dualism

2. Yoga: Self-discipline for self-realization
3. Nyaya: The philosophy of logic and reasoning
4. Vaisesika: Vedic atomic theory
5. Mimamsa: Elevation (height)through the performance of duty
6. Vedanta: The conclusion of the Vedic exposure

1. Sankhya philosophy: This philosophy was systematized by an ancient thinker kapila. The
essence of this universe is prakriti (the unconscious principle) and the purusa (the
conscious principle). Sankhya appears to be the oldest of the world. It constitutes two
fundamental principles prakriti (matter, energy and agency) and purusa (soul).
This philosophy is known as a dualistic philosophy because it gives cause and effect in
theory. It is related to 25 numbers of matters of the universe like.

2. Yoga philosophy: This philosophy was systematized by sage Patanjali the word yoga is
derived from the Sanskrit word ‘yuj’ which means to unite this system provides a
methodology for linking up individual consciousness with the supreme consciousness there
are various schools of yoga like bhakti yoga, gyana yoga, karma yoga, kundalini yoga,
mantra yoga, laya yoga. The school of yoga also known as astanga yoga (the yoga of eight
parts).

According to patanjali, yoga is the control of modifications of the subtle mental body
which leads a person to oppression to liberation, that most human problems are mental and
to solve them is mental discipline. The mental body link between consciousness and the
whole physical body. Yoga system supports to provide all possible means to control the
mental body’s modification. It also unfolds its great power for higher attainment.

3. Nyaya philosophy: The Nyaya system of philosophy was established by the sage
Gautama. Nyaya philosophy is primarily concerned with the conditions of correct
knowledge and means of receiving knowledge. It is the science of logic and reasoning. It is
also known as ‘anviksiki’ which means the science of critical study. It emphasis to
discriminated valid knowledge by using systematic reasoning. Nyaya school’s chief
concern is the epistemology. What is correct thinking and how can we know the answers to
these questions, we can achieve liberation. According to Nyaya, there are four valid
(prama) sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison and testimony. There are
three sources of invalid (aparma) knowledge: memory or logic, doubt and error or
biparyaya.
 According to Nyaya philosophy, the world is made of eternal (endless) atoms of earth,
water, fire and the air. The self is the living body and consciousness but the body by itself
is unconsciousness. Nyaya said the self is a unique thing with its own thoughts, feelings,
desires and volition (choice or decision). Each body has its own self for each body has its
own thoughts, feelings, desires and volition. So, each self is the eternal.

4. Vaisesika philosophy: The founder of Vaisesika philosophy is the sage Kanada known as
Kashyap. This philosophy is related to the quality of an object. The significant feature of
this philosophy is the introduction of a special category of reality called uniqueness(visese)
so, this philosophy is known as vaisesika this system accepts the liberation of the individual
self as the end goal. It also accepts perception and inference it emphasis on seven
categories of reality. It is agreed with nyaya about epistemology. It recognized only to
source of knowledge because it reduced comparison and testimony into perception and
inference.
Vaisheshika said substance is the thing in which a quality or action can exist. Nameable
objects are padartha and they are existence, knowledge and nameable. It focused its study
on seven categories or padartha of knowledge. There are nine primary substances (nine
dravyas)
 Earth
 Water
 Light
 Air
 Direction
 Space
 Time
 Soul
 Mind
5. Mimamsa Philosophy: This philosophy was developed by sage jaimini the word karma
(mimamsa) refers to any action that results in a reaction that results in a reaction whether it
be good or bad the word mimamsa means to analyze and understand systematically
mimamsa can be understood as a stepping stone to Vedanta it examines the teachings of the
Veda in the light of karma-kanda or rituals. It is called purva-mimamsa which means the
earlier study of the Veda. The mean goal of mimamsa is to provide a practical methodology
of the utilization of the vedic religion.
6. Vedanta philosophy: Vedanta means the conclusion of Vedic revelation. Upanisads are
known as Vedanta. They are the subjects of the fourth and final degree of Vedic school.
Upanisads are the essence of Veda. The word upanisad means that which is learned by
sitting close to the teacher. They are extremely difficult to learned so they are to be
understood only under the close guidance of a spiritual master (guru) Upanishads are the
 essence of Vedanta which are known as Brahmashutra. It is divided into four chapters
Samanvaya, Avirodha, Sadhana, Phala.
The essential conclusion of Vedanta is about the relationship between God and the soul, the
soul and matter, matter and God. All the school are support the reality of these relationship
from various points of view. According to this philosophy, worshipping the God and its
assess in nirvana. So, Bhrama is the true one but others are the false.

Educational implication of Vedic philosophy

 Use of knowledge and value based education system

 Use education as a means of liberation
 Education for humanism: the worldwide peace
 Emphasis on cooperation, co-work and co-existence
 Use of contextual teaching methods in instruction
 Emphasis on theoretical knowledge to its practically
 Preservation of human value
 A comprehensive view of knowledge
 Co –ordination with various religion and the philosophies
 Provide foundation to modern education system and the science
So educational implication of Vedic philosophy is known as process of
curriculum, method of instruction, duration of education, role of teacher, role of
student, teaching and aims of school etc.

Buddhist philosophy:

Buddhism is a religion to about 300 million people around the world. The world Buddhism
comes from ‘Budhi’ which means ‘to awaken’. It has its origin about 2,500 years ago when
Siddhartha Gautam, known as the Buddha, was himself awakened (enlightened) at the age of 35.
Buddhism explains a purpose to life, it explains clear injustice and inequality around the world
and it provides a code of practice or way of life that leads to true happiness.

Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu philosophical concepts. It has
many philosophical views with Hinduism, such as belief in Karma, a cause and effect
relationship between all that has been done all that will be done.

Buddhism was started by a man named Siddhartha Gautam (563-483 B.C.) in Nepal. He was a
Hindu and social reformer. Buddhism is a largest religion. Later, it was developed as a
philosophy. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu philosophical
concepts.

Thus Buddha’s enlightenment which he tried to share with all fellow beings has come to be
known as the four Nobel Truths. Four novel truth of Buddhism are:
1. There is suffering.
2. There is cause of suffering.
3. There is cessation (end) of suffering.
4. There is a way to cessation of suffering.
The eight-fold noble path of Buddhism

1. Right view
2. Right aspiration
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
6. Right effort
7. Right mindfulness
8. Right concertation
Over the centuries, there are different types of Buddhism but 3 branches of Buddhism have
emerged, in which two are classified as the main branches. They are

1. Hinayana Buddhism (Small vehicle)

2. Mahayana Buddhism (Great vehicle)
3. Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana)
4. Therevada Buddhism

Educational implications of Buddhist philosophy:

 The four Arya Satya (four novel truths)
 The Ashtangik Marg (eight fold paths)
 The pratiyasamutpad (it refers to the group of worldly miseries (dukh samuday).
It is related to the relationship between cause and effect. This is the middle course advocated
by Buddha. The middle course aims at co-ordination two extremes which are atheism and
theism
 The theory of Karma (Buddha has given the message to the mankind that one gets
sadness due to his own actions, therefore he is quite capable of removing them)
 The concept of Bodhisatva (the position may be accepted as the highest ideal for
any person, a person enriches with this position is surrounded with spiritual excellences)
 Madhyamik Shunyavad (shunya means the indescribable) shunya is that which is
beyond description or which cannot be expressed in words.
 Moral life (suvasita) (the aim of education is development of morality and
temperaments)
 Personality (attasama panidhi) (cultivation of personality)

Conclusion:

It is the religion of self-control and universal brotherhood, to love everybody, to hold the
universe together. It is also the philosophy founded on a pessimistic view of life, but it does not
end there. It is the most optimistic conclusion of Buddhism that suffering is not the end.
However, Buddhism is a 100% democratic religion with the freedom of speech, act and think.
There is no religious commandment or law in Buddhism to control the people.

Islam philosophy
Islam is derived from an Arabian word SLM which means peace, purity, submission or
obedience. Religious meaning of this word is to follow the low of the God and submission
under the God. A truly follower of the God is Muslim. According to Islam, there is one God –
the Allah. Quran is the speech of the God Allah and it is the religious book. Hazarat
Muhammad was the prophet of Islamism. Haidth is the speech and behavior of Muhammad.
These days 18%of the people are Muslims all over the world.
Five pillers of Islam:
1. Declaration of faith or the safaya: muslim must state that there is not God but Allah and
Muhammad is his prophet.
2. Daily prayer (Salat or Namaj): Muslim must pray five times a day facing the Kaaba in
Macca. (Pre Dawn, Noon, Afternoon, Sunset and Evening )
3. Charity (Jakat): Muslim are supposed to help others and donate part of their income to
charity.
4. Fasting-Ramadan (Roja): Muslims must fast from sunrise to sunset during the holy
month of Ramadan which celebrates the recording of the Quran.
5. Pilgrimages (Hajj): Hajj is the fifth pillar of Isalam. The people of muslim thought that
once in a life time if they are physically and financially able, muslim are to journey to Mecca
in Saudi Arabia and perform the rituals of the Hajj.

Educational implications of Islamism:

1. Believes in monotheism (Allah).

2. Quran is the guideline principle of life.
3. Rigid belief to the religion and God.
4. Emphasis on the original language e.g. Arabi and Urdu
5. Curriculum is divided into two groups. E.g. personal duty and social duty.
6. Emphasis in the charity along with religion.
7. Avoidance of caste discrimination and supports only one caste-Muslim.
8. Follow the hard discipline.
9. Continuity of child admission in the age six to get education from and educational
institution.
2. Discuss various western educational philosophies with references to their
philosophical premises, objectives, curriculum and pedagogy and
educational implication.

1. Perennialism
2. Essentialism
3. Progressivism
4. Existentialism
5. Re-contructionism
6. Modernism
7. Postmodernism
1. Perennialism
Perennalism is used the term philosophia perennis in 17th century by G.W.Leibniz. The term
perennialism derived from perennis and perennial. Perennialist principles were formulated by
Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, R.M. Hutchins, Adler, Doren who were the great thinkers and
philosophers of the past. It emphasis is in the permanency of the truth. The ideal education is
that education which emphasis in the development of human mind or intellect. Robert M.
Hutchins was a perennalist educator who strongly believed in having basic traditional liberal
arts in all schools. His thought was all extracurricular activities are irrelevant to the learning
process.
Perennalism in educational is the belief that schools should teach ideas that are everlasting.
Evergreen ideas, which have lasted through many generations, are a major focus of a
perennialist curriculum. It emphasis in the importance of truth and reasoning as well as
personal development which is important to people everywhere. It believed to be taught
through rigorous intellectual discipline and strong behavior control. Student should be taught
through structured study. They learn from reading and analyzing pieces of history by well-
known writers and philosophers.
Philosophical premises:
 Education should be everywhere the same
 Rationality must be used to complete the aims.
 The functions of education are transformation of knowledge related to eternal truth
 Knowledge is truth, truth is everywhere the same, hence education should be everywhere the
same
 Education is not an imitation of life but preparation for life
 The world has pre-established permanencies in which man should adjust

Objectives of education

 Cultivation of intellect of an individual

 The objectives of education are same for all
  Education objectives are related with moral and intellectual development of human beings
 The objectives of education are to adjust men to the eternal truth
 Education should development good discipline in an individual
 The objective of education should emphasis on seven liberal arts along with philosophy,
history, geography, sociology, theology, languages, physical science, political science and
fine arts
Trivium -Grammar, Rhetoric,Logic
Quadrivium-Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, Music

Pedagogy

1. Emphasis on teacher centered methods

2. Teacher is the supreme person
3. Teacher as a guidance person
4. Teaching method should help to the students’ intellectuality
5. Emphasis on discussion, question answer and interaction method
6. Recalling traditional knowledge
7. Emphasis on abstract thinking

Curriculum
1. Emphasis on teacher centered curriculum
2. Emphasis on seven liberal arts
3. Emphasis on perennial subject matter
4. Emphasis on universal truth
5. Emphasis on traditional knowledge and curriculum
Educational implication

2. Essentialism
Essentialism is a movement opposing to the perennialism in the USA at 1903s. It is related to
idealism and realism. It emphasis on the essential subject and knowledge within the context.
Human should understand those subject matter which are essential I the changing context. It
formulated by W.C. Bagley, Thomas Briggs, Frederick Breed, I. S. Kandel. It was
established an essentialist community for the development of it at 1938 an work and
discipline.

objectives of education
 Development of intellectual efficiency
 Preservation of cultural heritage
 Transformation of culture from one generation to the next generation
 Adjustment of an individual to social culture
  Emphasis on mental discipline
 Emphasis on changeable truth
 Emphasis on the development of various aspects of an individual e.g. physical,
emotional, mental, social etc.
Philosophical Premises:
 Emphasis on hard work and its application
 Emphasis on teacher centered educational plan
 Emphasis on adjustment of students towards the prescribed subject matter
 Emphasis on traditional methods of mental discipline
 Emphasis on preservation and transformation of culture
 Beliefs on changeable truth
 Emphasis on essential subject matter
 Emphasis on mother-tongue and foreign language
 Emphasis on racing experiences as social heritage
 Emphasis on the training for mental activeness
Curriculum and Pedagogy:
 Emphasis on reading writing and reasoning (3Rs) in basic level
 Emphasis on mother tongue, mathematics, science, history and foreign language in
secondary level
 Emphasis on teacher centered methods
 Emphasis of essential subjects
 Teacher as a guide and counselor
 Emphasis on flexible curriculum according to the context
Essentialist Perspectives and Education:
 Perceptions of Students
 Student motivation frequently comes from teacher
 Students need to be disciplined and work hard to learn
 Beliefs About Teaching and Learning
 Teacher is responsible for motivating students
 Teacher dispenses knowledge of traditional subjects, students absorb
 Understanding of Knowledge
 Knowledge comes from memorizing content and internalizing skills of traditional
subjects
 Knowledge comes from hard work
 What is Worth Knowing
 Traditional academic subjects, plus technology, seen as valuable
 Vocational education not encouraged

3. Progressivism
The word progressivism was derived from the Greek word ‘Pragma’ which means
practice/practical .William james is known as the father of the progressivism and the great
philosophers like John Dewey, William H. Kilpatric, B.H Bode are the contributors of
philosophy. This philosophy believes in actions but not thought. This philosophy believes that
the thoughts are the instruments for the actions. This philosophy is mostly known as the
instrumentalism.

Progressivism is one of the pedagogical movement which was began in the late 19 th century.
The term progressive was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional Euro-
American education of the 19th century. It always relates with teaching –learning process.

“Education is a social process. Education is growth. Education is not a preparation for life;
education is life itself”- John Dewey (1859 – 1952)

John Dewey is known as the propounded of progressivism. His educational philosophy helped
forward the progressive education movement in the USA. Progressivism was originated by
Greek word – ‘pragma’ and its meaning is work, behavior or practice. It believes in knowledge
as an instrument of work. It is based on social liberalism. It emphasis on learning by doing
process.

This philosophy believes that the education should be provided according to the child centered
method. It believes, if we use/ apply the way of child centered development then it would be
very effective. We should give chance of freedom to develop naturally for the children. Teacher
is just the guide to show to show the way to students. Teacher is not referred as all in all.
Teacher should create the environment for learning to learn in their own place. We’ve to known
the causes of each and every problems of students and diagnose them. The need and the interest
of the students should be cared.

Philosophical Premises:

 Truth is always changeable

 Truth is man made
 Ideas are instruments in the solution of human problems
 Individuality and sociality are interdependent and interrelated
 Cultural pluralism is the condition of healthy society
 Improvement of human condition through liberal mind and human intelligence
 Emphasis on social and democratic attitudes
 Spiritual things are imagination
Objectives of Education:

 Education is life itself

 To teach the children learn how to live
 Education is the process of development
 Education as opposition of pre-determined aims
  Education should be related with the interest of the child
 Education as the improvement of social order
 Education should be able to reconstruct human experience
Curriculum:

 Activity based curriculum

 Biological process and knowledge based curriculum
 Problem based curriculum
 Curriculum based on invention and discovery
 Utility and radical curriculum
 Curriculum based on vocation and experiences
 Core curriculum
 Curriculum based on learning by doing process
Pedagogy:

 Activity based curriculum

 Biological process and knowledge based curriculum
 Problem based curriculum
 Curriculum based on invention and discovery
 Utility and radical curriculum
 Curriculum based on vocation and experiences
 Core curriculum
 Curriculum based on learning by doing process
Educational Implications:

 Belief on dynamic learning process

 Change is the essence of reality
 Cultivating problem solving skills
 Cooperation, sharing and adjustment are the basic themes of educational system
 Teacher as a facilitator
 Emphasis on child centered pedagogy
 Emphasis on scientific and experimental knowledge
 Provision of active curriculum through active occupation
 Practice of freedom and democracy in the school

4. Existentialism

The word existentialism is derived from two Greek words ‘ex’ and ‘sistence’ which means ‘stand
out’ that which emerges i.e. out of problems of life. Existentialism concerned with the existential
who am i? what does my life mean? Why do I feel inferiority/ why am I afraid? What am I to
do? What can I do? It is not a specific school of philosophy but any philosophy that says that
meaning and choice as they affect individuals is what is most important. It concerns the meaning
of the individual, freedom, living and authentic life, alienation and morality. This philosophy is
most fashionable in Europe which is immediately following in WW II . This philosophy is
contributed by Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Jean Paul Sartre.

Existentialism does not mean living a life alone. It means to maintain perfect, self-conscious,
responsible and intelligent life. Man should get opportunity for subjective consciousness. As
modern mechanical and industrial life has taken away individual freedom from man.
Existentialism lays emphasis on freedom and individual responsibility. It has an eye view on
human weaknesses and insecurity as man is leading a lonely life. Human beings surrounded by
anxieties, frustrations, fear and feelings of guilt.

Existentialism is a philosophical movement or tendency which emphasizing individual existence,

freedom and choice that influenced many diverse writers in the 19th and 20th centuries.

According to Jean Paul Sartre, ‘’ A human being is absolutely free and absolutely responsible.
Anguish is the result’’.

Philosophical premises:

 The center of existence is man

 The previous definitions of man have been completely unsatisfactory
 Man is not alone in the world
 Existence precedes essence
 Complete freedom of man
 The universe has no meaning without man
 Man is free to choose
 Death is real and definite
Objectives of education:

 Help to becoming a human person

 The school should provide an atmosphere where the individual develop healthy way
 The school should provide democratic ideas
 The teacher is in the center of attention
 Mechanization and impersonality should be avoided from the school
 There should be good relation between individual and others
 Education should be a means for the cultivation of the self
 Emphasis on individual and individual’s value

Method of curriculum and pedagogy:

  Curriculum should be based on interest and need of learners
 Rejection of predetermined curriculum and teaching method
 Student is the centre point of curriculum and teaching method
 Emphasis on independent environment
 Curriculum should be based on liberal education
 Emphasis on subjectivity rather than objectivity
 Emphasis on extra-curricular activity
 Emphasis on contextual curriculum and teaching method
Educational implication:

 Search for identity

 Search for SELF
 Emphasis on the development of innate powers of an individual
 Development of democratic ideas
 Better relationship between individual and others
 Emphasis on individual and individual’s value
 Human existence is greater rather than essence
 Emphasis on subjectivity
 Rejection of idealism and traditional values
 Human existence is in the crisis so; human should be aware to save his/her existence
 Education is the means of searching for existence of human being
5. Modernism

Modernism is an artistic and cultural movement that flourished in the first decades of the 20 th
century about the time of WWI. Modernism is a cultural trend and it is the movement in visual
arts, music, literature and drama which rejected the old Victorian standards. It was developed in
Europe, especially in Great Britain. Modernism was very important in Europe because it founded
postmodernist movement which developed in the second half of these 20 th century. It was
developed in Europe, especially in Great Britain.

Modernism was very important in Europe because it founded postmodernist movement which
developed in the second half of the 20th century.Related movement was started from 16th century
was completed at 18th . At that it was based on renaissance period which is contributed by Martin
Luther King, Rene, Descartes, Francis Bacon , Voltaire, Montain, John Locke and Newton. It
was influence by religious autocracy and takes a place to modernism.

Modernism is known as the new trend of 20 th century. It emphasis on self –consciousness. When
the capitalism came into its stage, th sharpened contradictions between socialized production and
the private ownership caused frequent economic depression and mass unemployment. The gap
between the rich and the poor was further depended. It was built on the sense of lost community
and civilization which included contradictions and paradoxes. So, first world war bring great
disaster like symbolism, expressionism, imagism, futurism etc.
Philosophical premises:

 Belief in centralization
 Emphasis on objective reality
 Universal truth/belief
 Emphasis on rationalism
 Materialistic supremacy
 Enlightenment from renaissance
 Classification of the world
 Capitalism and communism
 Mass culture, mass consumption and mass marketing
 Freedom for search for identity

Objectives of education:

 To develop rational thinking

 To moulid society
 To search for universal reality
 Education should give emphasis on individual freedom
 To develop scientific and technical knowledge
Pedagogy:

 Teacher centered method

 Sources of knowledge are books and library
 Emphasis on educational planning and their implementation
 Emphasis on discovery method
 Emphasis on project method
 Emphasis on universality
 Emphasis on new technology
Curriculum:

 Emphasis on structured curriculum

 Emphasis on science and technology
 Emphasis on commerce, physics, chemistry, computer science, history, literature and
politics
 Emphasis on useful curriculum over the nation
Educational implications:

 Objective knowledge
 Universal truth
 Materialistic world
  Globalization
 Use of higher technology
 Development of self-consciousness
 Freedom
 System development e. g.
 Class teaching
 Liberal promotion policy
 Evaluation system
 Result publication
 School conduction
 Determination of students’ level
 Continuous assessment system
 Grading system in evaluation

6. Reconstructionism

Reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasis the addressing of social questions and a quest to
create a better society and worldwide democracy. It focuses on a curriculum that highlights
social reform. It believes that systems must be changed to overcome oppression and improve
human conditions. So this philosophy is known as social reconstructionism.

Reconstructionism was founded by Theodore Brameld(1904-1987) in reaction to WWII. He has

recognized the potential for human suppression through technology. Human capacity can be used
to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. Learning should take
place both in an out of the classroom. Here are some views according to different philosophers.
They are:

‘’Wheel curriculum should be the central core of the school programme’’-Brameld

‘’Education is the means of preparing people for creating this new social order’’-George Counts

According to Brazilian philosopher Paulo Freire(1921-1997) a Brazilian philosopher whose

experiences living in a poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for
social change.

Reconstructionism is based on progressivism. It is contributed by George S. Counts, Paulo Freire

and John Dewey. It believes that education should be social. and school as a change agent of the
society. So, this philosophy is called crisis solving philosophy.

Philosophical premises:

 Education should bring change in the society

 The change process of the society should be based on democracy
  Education should help an individual for social self-realization
 Education should emphasis on the world’s major issues
 Education should develop awareness in the individual
 Education should be a means of problem solving
 Education should emphasis on dynamic change
Objectives of education:

 Emphasis on change and social action

 To make individual and society better
 To bring unity rather than fragmentation in the society
 Preparing students for changing structure
 To foster the brotherhood and democratic value
 To focus on individual needs and contemporary relevance
 Increase in personal responsibility
 Emphasis on social problem solving system
 Prepare students to become agents for change
Curriculum:

 Child centered curriculum

 Emphasis on collective study
 Emphasis on social science
 Emphasis on economic and political issues and subject matter
 Priority to the future challenges
 Emphasis on equal opportunity to all
 Emphasis on need based and the dynamic curriculum
 Curriculum should incorporate world’s issues
Educational implication:

 Responsibility of teacher and students

 Awareness to the society
 Accountability towards the society
 Utilization of resources and materials
 Reconstruction of society
 Prioritization of the problems
 Motivation and curiosity to the learners
 Self-realization and development of innate powers
 Use of education as a means of problem solving
 Dynamic change in the society through education
 Imagine better society and works for its possibility
 Emphasis on the world’s major issues and challenges
7. Postmodernism
The post-modernism era came after the end of the modern era but it’s impossible to say exactly
when it was originated. The modern era was the time of recovery from world war II which
started globalization. The era where modern art is accepted by the public which is something
with no absolute truth. All truth is limited, approximate and is consistently evolving. No theory
can ever be proved true and explain all things consistently.

Postmodernism is a term that encompasses a wide-range of development in philosophy,

architecture, art, literature and culture. Originally a reaction to modernism, referring to the lack
of artistic, intellectual or cultural thought or organized principle. The current postmodernism
belief is that a correct description of reality is impossible. There is not a clear and clear and
defined definition of post modernism because of the little agreement of the concepts and
characteristics and ideas within postmodernism.

Post modernism is an aesthetic, literacy, political or social philosophy, which was the basis of the
attempt to describe a condition or a state of being, or something concerned with changes to
institutions and conditions as Postmodernism. In other words, postmodernism is the cultural and
intellectual phenomenon, especially since the 1920s new movements in the arts while
postmodernity focuses on social and political outworking and innovations, globally, especially
since the 1906s in the west.

Post-modernism as ‘’a style and concept in the arts characterized by distrust of theories and
ideologies and by the drawing of attention to conventions’’. -Oxford English Dictionary

Philosophical premises:

 Emphasis on relative reality

 Unstructured or against structuralism
 Advocacy of subjectivity and against in objectivity
 Emphasis on decentralization
 Emphasis on globalization and localization of education
 Nothing is good or bad in this world
 Emphasis on present reality and style but not in content
 Emphasis on creative knowledge
 Accept all and respect to all
 Emphasis on the uses of new technology
Objectives of education:

 Emancipation from oppression

 Foster to pluralism
 Foster to social harmony
 Search for novelty
 Creative knowledge
 Use of techno-culture
Curriculum:

 Contextual curriculum
 Emphasis on local curriculum
 Emphasis on contextual subject-matter
 Student centered curriculum
 Curriculum based on social diversity
 Emphasis on interdisciplinary curriculum
 Curriculum based on relative value
 Emphasis on individual empowerment
Pedagogy:

 Critical teaching method

 Problem based teaching method
 Student centered method
 Creative method
 Group discussion method
 Field trip method
 Experimental method
 Technology based teaching method
 Group discussion method
 Question answer method

Educational implication:

 Decentralization in education
 Emphasis on openness, freedom and individual trend
 Emphasis on the effects of modernism and work through its reaction
 Emphasis on localization
 Development of co-education
 Emphasis on pluralism
 Emphasis on democratic system
 Emphasis on creativity
 Emphasis on integrated curriculum
 Collaboration between teacher and student