Airport and Railway Engin

Airport and Railway Engineering
Aerodrome:
Any defined area on land or water intended to be used for the arrival and departure of a n aircraft is called
aerodrome.
Airport:
It is an aerodrome which is intended for the use of commercial services. It is provided with custom
facilities. If it serves any international traffic, it is designated as international airport. But if it serves only
domestic traffic then it is called as domestic Airport.
Airfield:
It is an area which is used for landing and takes off aircraft. It may/may not provided with facilities for
convenience of passengers and for shelter, repair and servicing for air craft.
Airport components:
 Landing Area
 Terminal Area
Landing Area:
It is used for landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways and Taxiways are located in this area.
Figure:
Runway:
It is paved long and narrow rectangular stripe which is actually used for landing and takeoff airplanes.
The width of run strip way including width of two shoulders is called the width of landing strip. Length
of runway is slightly lesser than length of landing strip.
Runway length depends upon the elevation of airport and surrounding temperature.
Whereas widthe of runway depends upon with of air craft.
Taxiway:
It is paved area over which an airplane may tax while going to and from runway and loading apron
.Taxiways connect two neighboring runways or runway with a service and maintenance hangers.
PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

COMPOSED BY: S. ALI MEHDI Page 1
Figure:
The speed of aircraft on Taxiway is much less than that on runway at the time of landing and takeoff.
Taxiways should be so laid that the aircraft which is just landed and taxing towards runways for takeoff.
Figure:
Longitudinal gradient for taxiway not exceed 3% transverse gradient
Terminal Area:
The transition of passengers from ground to air occurs in terminal Area.
It provides space for the airlines operations, office for airport management and for providing facilities like
rest room, restaurant for passenger. In short it consists of loading apron, terminal Building, repair and
shelter hangs fuel storage, automobile parking places, access roads.
 Loading apron & Holding apron

 Terminal Building
 Hangers (Service)
 Automobile Parking places
 Fuel storage
 Access roads
 Control tower and Telecommunication sites
Terminal Building:
The key feature of any terminal area is terminal building. The terminal building provide a smooth flow of
passengers from automobile parking place to the aircraft. The passenger should be able to park his taxi in
the parking place which is usually at point very near to ticket-counter. His baggage is checked at this
point. The he proceed to this aircraft stand on the apron via terminal building in which waiting room,
telephone, restaurant, restrooms and other necessary facilities like post office, bank will be available. In

case of International Airports, there will be custom office also. The terminal building may be of one level
or two levels depending upon arriving and departing passengers.
Hangers:
The function of hanger is to provide an enclosure for Housing and repairing of air-crafts . They are
constructed of steel framework covered with galvanized iron sheets.
The service hangers are provided with machine shops and stores for spare parts of aircraft. The size of
hanger depends on size of aircraft and its turning radius.
 There are two types of storage and service hangers

 T-hangers for small size Aircraft
 Nose Hangers for large size Aircraft
The number of service and storage hangars depends on the intensity of aircraft at the airport. The hangars
hold be as near the loading apron as practicable.
Apron (loading)/Parking Inserting apron:
Apron is a paved area in front of the terminal building; it is used for loading and unloading of aero planes,
also for fueling and minor servicing and check up of aero planes.
Since the aero planes are berthed on this area before loading and unloading, therefore it is of the apron
depends upon the size of aircraft and the parking system to be adopted.
The types of parking systems to be adopted on the apron area are as follows
 Frontal system
 Open apron system
 Finger system
Aerodrome:

Any defined area on land or water intended to be used for the arrival and departure of a n aircraft is called
aerodrome.
Airport:
It is an aerodrome which is intended for the use of commercial services. It is provided with custom
facilities. If it serves any international traffic, it is designated as international airport. But if it serves only
domestic traffic then it is called as domestic Airport.
Airfield:
It is an area which is used for landing and takeoff aircraft. It may/may not provided with facilities for
convenience of passengers and for shelter, repair and servicing for air craft.
Airport components:
 Landing Area
 Terminal Area
Landing Area:
It is used for landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways and Taxiways are located in this area.
Figure:
Runway:
It is paved long and narrow rectangular stripe which is actually used for landing and takeoff airplanes.
The width of run strip way including width of two shoulders is called the width of landing strip. Length
of runway is slightly lesser than length of landing strip.
Runway length depends upon the elevation of airport and surrounding temperature.
Whereas width of runway depends upon with of air craft
Taxiway:
It is paved area over which an airplane may tax while going to and from runway and loading aprox
.Taxiways connect two neighboring runways or runway with a service and maintenance hangers.
Figure:

Finger system:
If there are not many aircrafts, they may be just parked on the apron in front of termnaly building. This
system is called frontal system.
If the number of aircrafts is somewhat more,, they may be parked into two/more similar rows. This
system is called open apron system. Instead of open apron system, the air craft’s may be parked on either
side of a finger projecting form terminal building on apron area.
Holding apron:
It may be sufficient area to accommodate three/four aircrafts of largest size.
It is a portion of paved area which is provided adjacent to the ends for runway in case of busy airports on
it, the taking off aircraft coming from the loading apron is held for sometime so that the aircraft
instrument and engine operation may be checked prior the takeoff the air craft.
Automobile Parking Places:
These will be necessary for the passengers, visitors and for employees and administrative staff working at
air port. They should be as near the terminal building as possible so that the walking distance to the ticket
counter may be short.
Fuel storage:
There will be air-craft fuel installation to supply fuel to the visiting aircrafts, as and when required by
them
Access Roads:
Good access roads should connect the terminal Area with the main highway leading to the city. These
should ensure quicker and easy ground Transport fromn the terminal Area towards the city.
Control Tower and Telecommunication Sites:
During bad weather conditions, when visibility is poor, certain in formation regarding alignment, height
and distance from runway threshold, to be supplied to the pilot through some telecommunication
instrument. This is achieved by instrument landing system, approach light system. So that landing of
aircraft may be safe in bad weather.

Site Selection of An Airport:
Factors are listed below:
 Regional Plan
 Airport Use
 Proximity to other airport\
 Ground accessibility
 Topography
 Obstructions
 Visibility
 Wind
 Noise nuisance
 Grading, Drainage, and soil characteristics
 Future development
 Availability of utilities from Town
 Economic consideration
Regional Plan:
The site selected should fit well into the regional plan thereby forming it an integral part of national
network of airport.
Airport Use:
Whether the airport is used for civilian/military operations however during the emergency civilian
airports are taken over by the defuse. Therefore airfields should be located in combat zone.
Proximity to other Airport:
The site should be selected at a considerable distance from existing airports so that, the aircraft landing in
one airport does not interfere will the movement of aircraft at other airport.. The required separation
between the airports depends upon the volume of air traffic.
Ground accessibility:
Site should be such that it is readily accessible to the users. The airline passenger is more concerned with
his door to door time rather than the actual time in air travel..
Topography:
A raised ground/Hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an Airport.
Obstructions:
Long clearance areas are provided on either side of runway known as approach areas over which the
aircraft can safely gain/loose altitude.

Visibility:
Poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of airport. Sit e selected should be free from fog, haze and
smoke
Wind:
Runway is so oriented that landing and takeoff is dome by heading into wind should be collected over a
minimum period of about five years.
Noise, Nuisance:
The extent of Noise nuisance depends upon the climb out path of aircraft, type of engine propulsion and
gross weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more active with jet engine aircrafts. Therefore site should
be so located that landing and takeoff paths of aircrafts pass over two lands which if fee from
residential/industrial developments.
Grading, drainage and site attics:
Sites with a high water table, which may require costly subsoil drainage, should be avoided.
Future development:
Considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in future more number of runways may
have to be provided for and increased traffic.
Orientation of Runways:
The runway should be so oriented that minimum wind coverable is about 95%
The runways are oriented in the direction of prevailing winds. The data on the direction and duration aore
essential to determine the orientation or runways.
High intensity winds perpendicular to the direction of runway cause wobbling effect and cause problems
during landing and takeoff of aircrafts. And aircrafts cannot
Smaller air craft’s are particularly affected by these cross-winds.
Analysis of wind:
Figure

Cross wind component:
The component of wind intensity perpendicular to the centre line of runway is termed as cross wind
component.
Allowable cross-wind component:
This is the maximum cross-wind component that is safe for aircraft operations. This depends on the size
of aircraft, wing configuration and the condition of pavement suface.
ICAO Guidelinges on corss-sind component:
Runway length cm) ACW component (km/hr)
>1500m 37 Km/hr
1200-1500m 24 km/hr
<1200m 18.5Km/hr
WINDROSE;
The average data for airport i.e. the direction, duration and intensity of wind are graphically represented
by a diagram, known as wind rose. Wind rose helps in deciding the most suitable orientation of the
runway.
 X-tics of wind Rose:

 In this diagram, wind covers angle 22.5 degree
 Assume wind coming from any point within 22.5 degree.
 Data should be collected of 5-10 years
Methods to be used for plotting wind Rose Diagram:
Method 1
Method 2
Method 1:
This method is not so accurate and it does not account for cross- wind component.
 Radial lines represent wind direction

 Frequency of wind is marked in radial lines
 All the plotted points are joined by straight lines

 Longest line of wind rose diagram represents the best runway orientation.
Figure:
Method 2:
 Those method Accounts for direction, duration and intensity of wind.

 Circles on Diagram represents’ wind velocity

 Radial links represents wind Direction
 % frequency represented by appropriate segment
 If V< 6.4kmplh represents calm period.
Figure:
Classification of Airports According ICAO

The international Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) sets standards for the design, construction and
development of Airports on international basis. The ICAO has established a code to identify the
capability of the Airport.
Runway length is coded by the letters A, B, C, D, E , F and G. These strength of runway pavement is
coded by numbers. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8. These two classification are shown in tabular form.
Code Letter Runway length in Meters
A 2500 AND ABOVE
B 2150 - 2500
C 1800-2150
D 1500-1800
E 1280-1500
F 1080-1280
G 980-1080
Table showing ICAO classification of Airports by runway length:
Table showing ICAO classification of Airports by pavement strength:
Code Single isolated Tire pressure in

Numbe wheel load in leg kg/cm3
r
1 45000 8.5
2 34000 7.0
3 27000 7.0
4 20000 7.0
5 13000 6.0
6 7000 5.0
7 2000 2.5
Thus an Airport classified as A-2 will have a runway length of 2500 meters and the pavement of runway
will be capable of handling single isolated wheel load of 3400 kg with a tire pressure of 7kg/cm 2
Classification of Airports by department of civil Aviation of government of Pakistan:
Aerodromes in Pakistan are classified as follows
 Central Government Aerodromes for civil use

 State Government Aerodromes for civil use

 Air force Aerodromes (Available for Limited civil use)

 Central Government Aerodromes are further classified as follows
 International aerodromes
 Domestic Aerodromes
Types of Airports:
 Commercial Served Airports

 Non-commercial service Airports
 Primary commercial service Airports
 Cargo Service Airport
 Reliever Airport
 General Aviation Airport
Commercial Service Airport:
These are publically owned Airports that have at least 2500 passengers boarding each calendar year and
receive scheduled passengers service.
Non-Primary commercial Service Airports:
These are commercial service airports that have at leaset 2500 and not more than 10000 passeneger
boarding each year.
Primary commercial Service Airport:
These are the airports that have more than 10000 passengers boarding each year.
Cargo Service Airports:
These are the airports that are served by aircraft providing air transportation of only cargo with a total
annual landed weight of more than 100 million pounds.
Reliever Airport:
The air ports used to relieve congest at commercial service Airports and to provide improved general
aviation access tot overall community. These may be publically/privately owned.
General Aviation Airports:
The remaining airports are commonly described as general Aviation Airports. These may be
publically/privately owned Airports’ that explains 2500/more passengers annually and receive scheduled
Airline Service.

TYPES OF AIRPORT:
Air lines:
An organization that provides schedules flight for passengers/cargo
ICAO International Civil Aviation organization):
The international Civil Aviation organization (ICAO), an agency of united nations, codifies the principles
and techniques of international Air navigation and foster the planning and development of international
Air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth.
Types of Airports:
 International Airports
 Domestic Airports
 Regional Airports
International Airports:
These airports are usually larger, having longer Runways and facilities to accommodate large aircraft.
These are equipped with customs and immigration facilities to handle international flights to and from
other countries.
An internal Airport has direct service to many other Airports. These serve as “HUBS” where non-direct
flights may land and passengers switch planes.
Domestic Airport:
These are the airports which handles only domestic flights/flights within the same country. Domestic
Airports do not have custom and immigration facilities and are therefore incapable of handling flights to
or from a foreign Airport. These airports have short runways which are sufficient tho handslde
short/Medium have Aircraft.
Regional Airports:
A regional Airport is serving Traffic within a small/lightly populated geographical area. A regional
airport does not have customs and immigration facilities to process traffic between countries. The air craft
using these airports tend to be smaller business jets or private aircrafts.
Runway Patterns/Airport configuration:
Air configuration is defined as the number and orientation of runway and the location of terminal Area
relative to runways.
 Number of Runways depends upon Air traffic volume

 Orientation of runway depends upon direction of wind, size and shape of Area and land use.
 T. Building should be located so as to provide easy and timely access to runway.

 The pattern of runway which is adopted dupneds upon the volume of Air traffic, and on the
directin, intensity and duration of the prevailing winds.
Following are the patterns of runways.
 Single Runway
 Parallel Runway
 Intersecting runways
 Divergent Runways
Single Runway:
Single runway is usually adopted when the prevailing winds blows in one directin for most time of the
year and the air-traffic is not much. Under the condition of visulal flight ruele (VFR) Single runway can
handle about 45 to 60 operation/movements per hour. A single runway system with high permissible
cross-wind component will serve the purpose for most classes of airports.
Figure:
Parallel Runways:
If parallel runways are 900m apart, landing and takeoff can take place simultaneously on these parallel
runways. Parallel runways can handle 100 movemetns per hour under VFR conditions.
Figure:
If lateral distance between parallel runways is less, say 210m parallel runways can handle 75 to 90 nuber
of movements per hour.
Parallel runway can be on one side / both sides of terminal building i.e. One runway on one side and
other on 2nd side of TH Building
For international Airports, at least two parallel runways are necessity.
Intersecting Runways:
Intersecting Runways are usually adopted when wind in a particular direction does not provide the
required wind coverage of 95%. The capacity of this pattern is maximum to hand le the Aircraft . When
the intersection prime of two runways is near the runway ends.
Figure:
The capacity decreases as this intersection prime is nearer the centre of the runways.
Both runways can be used simultaneously for landing and takeoff operation if the corn wind components
of two runway are favorable.
Divergent Runways:
Figure:
For divergent runways capacity may be of the order of 80 to 110 movements per hour, under VFR
conditions.
Site selection/Location of An Airport:
 The items to be considered in the selected of a site and layout for and Airport are as given below:
 Class of Airport (Domestic/International)
 Intensity of Air-Traffic (low/High traffic)
 Populated Area to be served by Airport\

 Prevailing wind velocity, direction and duration

 Cross wind component
 Altitude of Airport above MS level and Average temperature of the hottest month (Murree,
Islamabad)
 Visibility at airport Site
 Natural contours of the round and Airport Area and its Natural Drainage
 Nature of soil, subsoil and their bearing capacity
 Obstruction in airport Area and in the approaches to the Area
Factors Affecting Runway Length:
 Aerodrome elevation
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Slopes/gradient
 Weight of aircraft
Aerodrome Elevation:
An aircraft will need a longer runway at a higher altitude due to decreased density of air at higher
altitudes, which reduces lift and engine power, requiring higher take off and landing speed Basic length
may be increased by 7% per 300m rise in elevation of Airport
Temperature and Humidity:
An air craft will require a longer runway in hotter/clove humid conditions
Runway length is increased at a rate of 1% for every 1 0C rise in temperature.
Gradient:
Effective gradient is defined on the maximum difference in elevation between the highest and lowest
points on the runway, divided by the total length of runway.
Weight of Aircraft:
A runway of at least 6000ft in length is usually adequate for aircraft weighs below 200000 lbs. Large
aircrafts including wide bodies will require at least 8000 ft at sealed and somewhat more at higher altitude
airports.
International wide body flights, which carry substantial amount of fuel and are therefore heavier may
have a landing requirement of 10000ft and take off requirement of 13000 ft.
Railway Engineering:
It is amult-facetled engineering dixipline dealing with design, construction and operation of all types of
railwyy systems. OR A branch of civil Engineering dealing with the design location, construction and
maintenance of railroads for safe and effiennt movementos of trains is called Railway Engineering.

X-Section of permanent way:
Figure:
The term permanent way stands for finally completed track used for transportation of public and goods.
Various components of permanent way are
“The term Permanent way stands for completed railway as different from initially laid track without
ballast. Ballast is not laid in the initial stages to allow the earth formation to get consolidated.
 Rails
 Sleepers
 Ballast
 Fixtures
 Fastenings
 Formation/Sub-grade
Comparison between bull headed and Flat footed Rails
1. Weaker for same cross-section Stronger for same section

2. Bearing plates not required Bearing plates for fixing with wooden sleepers are required
3. Fastenings to wooden sleeper are costly fastenings to wooden sleepers are less
costly
4. Fittings difficultFittings simpler
5. Maintenance of points and crossings is complicated Maintenance of points and crossing is
simpler
6. Daily inspection is needed Daily inspection not required
7. High initial cost Lower initial cost
8. Complicated replacement Simple replacement
9. More Maintenance Less maintenance cost
10. Better suited for lateral loads More suited for both lateral and vertical
loads
Rails:
Rail is similar to steel girders. These are placed end to end to provide continuous and level surface for
train to move OR

Rails are steel sections laid along two parallel lines over sleepers in a track. They form a suitable track for
the train and should be strong 3enogh to bear stresses developed in the track due to wheel loads, lateral
and other forces such as temperature variation. They transmit axle loads of train to sleepers.
Functions fo rail:
 Provide level surface for movement of train

 Provide smooth pathway so that friction between rail and wheel become less
 Serva3e as lateral guide from running of wheels axle of train
 Transferring load axle of train into sleepers
Types of Rail Sections:
 Double Headed Rails

 Bull Headed Rails
 Flat Footed Rails
Double Headed Rails:
These rails were used in the beginning. They consists of a dumb-bell section. The idea behid using these
rails was that when head was workout in course of time, the rail can be inverted and Reused.
But with passage of time, indentation were fromed in the lower table due to which smooth running over
the surface at top was impossible.
Bull Headed rails:

In these rails the head was made a little thicker and stronger than the lower part by adding more met to it,
so that it can withstand stresses.
Advantages:
Easier for manufacturer
Maintain better alignment
Disadvantages:
 Reduced Strength
 Costly Fittings
 Costly maintenance
Flat Footed Rails:
These are also called as Vignola’s rails. Initially the flat footed rails wer fixed to sleepers directly and no.
chairs and keys were required. Later n due to Heavy train loads; problem raised which lead to provision
of steal bearing plates between the sleeper and the rail.

Advantages:
 Strong enough ad do not require chair

 Less fittings and hence economical maintenance
Disadvantages:
 Fastenings gets loose

 Difficult to maintain points and crossings
 Under Heavy loads, rail sinks into sleepers, Hence provision of bearing plates.
Figure:
Railway Gauge/Track Gauge:
Perpendicular distance between the inner faces of rails OR
It is the spacing or rails on railway track and is measured between the inner faces of load bearing rails.
Figure:

Broad Gauge:
Adopted in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Srilanka, Brazil, Argentina.
Suitability:
 Broad Gauge is adopted under the following conditions

 When sufficient funds available for railway Projects
 When prospects of revenue are very bright
Meter Gauge:
Adopted in France, Switzerland, Argentina etc
Suitability:
 Meter gauge is suitable under the following conditions

 When funds available for railway projects are inadequate / insufficient.
 When prospect of revenue are not very bright.
Uses:
Therefore used for traces in under-developed areas and in interior areas. Where traffic intensity is small.
Narrow Gauge:
Adopted in South Africa, Britain, India
Suitability:
Narrow Gauge is suitable under the following conditions
When construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due to the providion of sharp curves, steep
gradients and narrow w bridges and tunnels.
When prospects of revenue are not very bright
Uses:
Therefore used in hilly and very thinly populated Areas
Factors Affecting the choice/Adoption of a particular Gauge:
Following are the factors which affect the adoption of a particular gauge for the track
 Intensity of population

 Intensity of traffic
 Industrial and commercial development of the locality
 Prospects of future development of the area
 Funds available for railway projects
 Topographical and Geological features of the country
Wear fo Rails:
The separation/cutting of rail due to friction and abnormal heavy load is called wear of rails. There are
three types of wear of rails
 Wear of rails on top/Head of rail

 Wear at end of rails
 Wear at side of head of rail
Wear on Head of Rail:
 Wear on Head of rail is due to abrasion on moving rails. Due to grinding action of sand/ Dust
between the rails and wheels of the train.
 When train starts/Apples brakes wheel just slide on rails causing wear o n head
 Load coming on to a track may exceed the carrying capacity of the section
 Thus causing wear on Head of rail
Figure
Wear at the ends of the rail:

It is much greater than wear on the head of the rail
This type of wear is resulted due to the blows which the rail receive when the wheel jumps the space/gape
between rail ends. The ends of the rail are battered by such blows.
Effects:
The contact surface between the sleepers and thee rail is worn as the effect of these blows increase.
The bauast under sleepers will loosen due to increase in intensity of vibrations., also the sleeper will be
depressed due to plates will get loose, under the impact of increasing vibrations.
Figure:

Wear of rails on curves/At side of react:
On the curve, they were of rail takes place both in inner and outer rails on the curve, the outer wheel has
to move through greater distance than the inner wheel and the inner wheel has to slide over the ineer rail.
Figure:
As a result of this sliding wear of inner rails occur because of this the metal in the rail Head is burnt.
At the curve, flange of outer wheel will strike the inner surface of the outer wheel due to centrifugal
force. Thus sided e of Head of rail wears out.
Figure:
Coning of wheels:
The art of providing an outward slope of 1:20 to the treads of wheel is known as coning of wheels.
Figure:

Advantages:
 Uniform wear of head of rail

 Maintenance of proper Gauge
 Increased life of sleeper
Disadvantages:
 Horizontal thrust may sometimes increase gauge distance

 Sleepers under outer edges of the rail are likely to be damaged
Method s of Reducing wear of rails:
Following methods are adopted for reducing wear of rails
Use specially steel
Good mainanance of track
Reduction of expansion gap
Exchange of inner and outer rails on curves
Use of Lubricant oil.
Use of special alloy steel:

At places where, wear of rails is considerable , special alloy steel rails are used. The cost of such rail is
high/ but considerable reduction of wear of such rails justifies the extra cost.
Good Maintenance of Track:
The track should be carefully looked after and joints should be tightened if they become loose. A well
maintained track would definitely result in less wear of rails.
Reductions of expansion Gap:
If the expansion gap has increased beyond a certain limit, it should be reduced by packing the sleepers at
the joints and tightening fish bolts this will result in the reduction of wear of end of rails.
Exchange of inner and outer Rails on curves:
Mostly on curves, where there is heavy wear at the top of head of inner rail and heavy wear of the side of
head of outer rail then the top wear rail is exchanged with the side wear rail and thereby life of rail is
increased
Use of Lubricating oil:

The wear of rail can also be reduced by applying lubricating oil on curves on the side of head of rail. The
lubrication of rails can be carried out manually or mechanical equipment attached to locomotive for rail.

BALLAST:
Requirements of ballast:
 Cheap and locally available material

 it should be elastic
 It materials should be of sharp edges to get easy grip
 Should not absorb rain water
 Should drain out rain water
 Do not grinding due to passage of train
 Give firm grip to sleeper
 Should transfer the load and can uniforms to formation
Granular mattress laid over earth formation and to provides uitable bed for sleeper son which they can
rest is known as ballast
Functions of Good Ballast
 It provides longitudinal and lateral stability to the track

 It provides proper drainage of the track
 It transfer load from sleeper and spread over the large area of land
 It provides level and sound foundation for sleepers to rest
 Holds sleepers in position during passage of train
 It provides elasticity and resilience to the track for getting proper riding comfort.
Ballast:
It is a layer of granular material, broken stone ,on grave placed and packed below and around sleepers for
distributing the load from sleepers to the formation and provide drainage as well as giving longitudinal
and lateral stability to the trade.
Tpes/Material used as Ballast:
Sand:
Generally coarse sand is used as ballast because of following properties

Advantages:
 It has good drainage property, if it is free from vegetation and earth

 It provides track free from Noise
 It is cheap
Disadvantages:
 It enters moving parts of vehicles, resulting in friction

 Creates difficulties in maintenance
Moorum
Soft material forced by disintegration of laterite stone. It may be of red and yellow color
Advantages:
 Provide excellent Drainage

 It can function as soiling inc as where stone ballast is laid in second stage
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to maintain track in proper for

 It is crushed into powder resulting track becomes dirty
Kanker:
Kanker is fragmented rock of volcanic origin known as lime agglomerate. Where it is available it is used
as road metal
Advantages:
Excellent drainage property
It is cheap, where queries are present
Disadvantages:
 Rails gets corrosive

 Difficult to maintain trade due to its relative softness
 It results industry track
Broken Bricks:
Over burnt bricks when broken further from good ballast
Advantages:

 Excellent Drainage property

 Does not permit growth of vegetation
 It is a cheap material on it is obtained from over bunt bricks
Broken stone:
It satisfies all requirement of ballast. It is hard, angular, non porous and does not get disintegrated into
fallen when broken.
Mostly it is quartz, trap and granile. If its size ranges 2cm to 5cm it will provide stability to track.
Compared to other materials it is expensive but taking in to consideration the maintenance cost it is
cheaper over long period of time
Gravel:
It is naturally obtained from river beaches it is next to broken stone in terms of stability and strength.
Gravel obtained from gravel pits contains earth and Hence heeds to washed to remove earth.
Advantages:
Excellent Drainage
It is cheaper than broken stone though forms equally strong track
Disadvantages:
Smaller sized gravel needs to be screened to eliminate very small pieces while large size pieces needs to
be broken to smaller size. Gravel obtained from pits needs to be washed.
Surfaced of grave is smooth and ballast get loosened under impact of passing train.
Blast Furnace Slag:

Material obtained as by-product from blast furnace.
Advantages:
 Excellent drainage
 Being strong material holds track in correct gauge and alignment
 It is cheaper material, as strong as stone
Disadvantages:
 Its use is limited to Area where it is locally available

 Used in countries where shortage of stones
Ash/cinder/fly Ash.
There are obtained as residue obtained from locomotive and other furnaces.

Advantages:
 It is almost free of cost.

 Good drainage properties
 Ease in Handling
 Economical in initial cost
Disadvantages:
 Corrodes steel
 Track becomes dirty as it gets into powder
Requirements of an ideal permanent ways:
 A permanent way should serve the following requirements

 Both rails should be at same level
 Curves should be properly designed
 Proper SE should be provided
 Track should be elastic to reduce impact between rails and moving wheels.
 Points should be properly designed
 Rails, sleepers, fixtures and fastening should be properly designed.
 Even, uniform and correct Gauge should be provided.
 Should be strong enough o resist lateral forces/stresses
 Points and crossing should be properly designed
 Proper drainage should be provided
 Repairs and renewal should not present any difficulty
 All the fixtures and fastenings such as qairs bearing plates, fish plates, fish bolts, spikes should be
strong enough o withstand stresses occurring in the track.
Sleepers:
Sleepers are the members generally laid transverse to rails, on which rails are fixed to transfer the loads
from the rails to the ballast and the sub grade.
Functions of sleeper:
 Holding rails in correct Gauge and alignment

 Providing a firm and even support for rails
 Transferring load from rails to wider area of ballast
 Absorb impacts and vibrations
 Providing lateral and longitudinal stability to the permanent way
Desirable Properties of sleeper/Requirements of an ideal sleeper:

 Should be capable to withstand vertical load, impact and vibrations

 Minimum life cucle cost (production, laying, maintenance, resale value)
Easy to handle( Moderate weight, Not easily susceptible to damage)
Gauge adjustment is possible
 Should have anti theft and Anti-sabotage features.
 Should have track circulating quality
 Strong enough to withstand bending stresses
 Should provide resistance against slide
 Should resist being pushed forward due to passage of train
 Types of sleepers:
Depending upon the position in a railway track, sleepers may be classified as
 Longitudinal sleepers
 Transverse sleepers
 Longitudinal Sleepers:
 These are the early form of sleepers not commonly used nowadays. It consists of slabs of stones
or pieces of woods placed parallel to and underneath the rails To maintain correct Gauge of the
track, iron piece are provided at regular interval.
 At present these types of sleepers are discarded mainly because of following reasons.
 Running of train is not smooth on these sleepers
 Noise created by Track is considerable
 Cost is high.
Transverse sleepers:
Transverse sleepers introduced is 1835 and since then they are universally used. They removed the
drawbacks of longitudinal sleepers i.e. transverse sleepers are economical silent in operation and running
of train over these sleepers is smooth.
Depending upon materials transverse sleepers are further classified as
 Timber/wooden sleepers
 Steel sleepers
 Cast iron sleepers
 Rcc sleepers
 Pre-stressed sleepers
Timber/wooden sleepers:
The timber sleepers nearly fulfilled all the requirements of ideal sleepers and hence they are universally
used. The wood used may be peak, sal or pine.
Advantages:
 Useful for heavy loads and high-speed

 They have long life of 10-12 years depending upon the climate condition, rain intensity nature of
traffic, quality of wood
 Good for track circuited railway tracks.
 They are able to accommodate any gauge
 Suitable for salty regions and coastal area
 Can be used with and section of rail
 Can be handled and placed easily
 They are not badly damaged in case of derailment
 They are not corroded
 Cheaper than any other sleeper
Disadvantages of Timber sleepers:
 Liable to be attacked by vermine so they must be properly treated before use

 Liable to catch fire
 Do not desist creep
 Affected by dry and wet
 Becoming expensive day by day
 Life is shorter compare to others.
Steel sleepers:
They are in the form of steel trough inverted on which rails are fixed directly by keys/nuts and bolts and
used along sufficient length of tracks
Figure:
Advantages of steel sleepers:
 Have a useful life of 20-25 years

 Free from decay and are not attacked by vermins
 Connection between rail and sleeper is stronger
 Connection between rail and sleeper is simple
 More attention is not required after laying

 Having better lateral rigidity

 Good scrap value
 Suitable for high speeds and load
 Easy to Handle
 Good resistance against creep
Disadvantages of steel sleepers:
 Liable to corrosion by moisture and slats

 Cannot be used in tack circuited regions
 Cannot be used for all sections of rails and gauge
 Should not be laid with any other type of a ballast except stone
 Very costly
 Badly damaged under derailments
 Rail seat is weaker
 Having Good show absorber as there is not cushion between rail foot and ballast
Concrete sleepers:
RCC and pre-stressed con create sleepers are now replacing all other types of sleepers except to some
special circumstances such as crossing bridges etc have timber sleepers are used. They may be a twin
block sleepers joined by an angle iron. It may be a single block pre-stressed type
RCC sleepers
Pre-stressed concrete sleeper
RCC Sleepers:
 Trough type sleeper (one type)

 These are similar inn dimension to wooden sleepers they are not commonly used since they are
likely to crack under vibrations due to loads.
Blow and tie bar type sleeper/ compsite sleeper
It contains two blocks of RCC, one block being placed under each rail. The blows are joined by a metal
tie bar. In the form of an inverted T-Section
Figure:

Pre-Stressed concrete sleepers:
Theses sleepers may be Pretension or Post tensioned. The pre-tensioned type using high tensile steel is
tensioned before placing concrete Reinforcement is kept under tension till concrete hardens. Then wires
being released, high compressive stresses are developed in concrete.
In post-tensioned sleepers, steel is tensioned after concrete has hardened. On completion of tensioning,
tubes are forced into cement grount under pressure. Compression stresses are developed in concrete after
it has hardened.
Advantages of concrete sleepers:
 Long life of about 50 years

 Easy adjustment of Gauge
 Having less fittings
 Having stronger connections between rails and sleepers
 Having more longitudinal and lateral stability
 Less creep
 Suitable for heavy traffic
 Having low maintenance cost.
Disadvantages:
 Scrap value is nil

 Difficult in trace renewal/High maintenance
 Unsuitable to use over bridges and crossings
 Handling is difficult
 Easy to fasten with rails
CI (cast iron) sleepers:

Pot or Bowl type sleepers
CST-a sleeper
Pot or Bowl type sleepers:
The sleepers consists of two oval shaped bowls or pots, inverted under each rail on the ballast sleepers are
connected across the track by means of tie bar with associated fittings such as gibs, key and cotter.
Figure:

CST – a sleepers:
This is most commonly used sleeper having features of plate, pot and box sleepers incorporated in it.
Figure:
Advantages of CI sleepers:
 Lesser corrosion
 Easy handling due to light weight
 High scrap value
 Long life up to 50-60 years
 Can be manufactured locally
 Prevent and check creep of rail\
 Not attached by vermins.
Disadvantages of CI sleepers:
 They are expensive

 Lack of good shock absorber
 Can badly damaged under devilment
 Not suitable for track circuited portion
Creep in Rails:
Creep in rails is defined as longitudinal movement of rails in the track in the direction of motion of
locomotives
Magnitude of creep:
Magnitude of creep varies from almost nothing to about 6 inches or 16cm.
Creep is not constant over a given periods it is not continue in one direction or at uniform rate Both rails
of track may creep in same direction or one rail creep in opposite direction to that of other.
Causes of creep:

 Creep in rails can be broadly classified into two categories

 Major causes of creep/Principal causes
 Minor causes of creep
Major causes:
Wave theory:
The train wheels cause depression under themselves forming lifts or crests immediately at the rear and in
from This action pushes the rail forward resulting creep in direction of motion.
Figure:
 Direction of movement
 Lift in front of wheel
 Lift at rear of wheel
 Normal surface of wheel
Creeps develops due to unequal expansion and contraction owing to change in temperatiure
Percussion Theory:
According to this theory , compact of wheels at end of iacing rail at each fishplate joint result in
depression of trailing rail with resulting creep in forward direction
Figure:
 Wheel
 Direction of movement
 Trailing rail
 Facing rail
 Sleeper
 Joint
Due to deceleration/stopping of train, the braking action tends to push the rail forward resulting creep in
the forward direction.

Minor causes of creep:
 Rails are not properly fixed to sleepers

 Bad Drainage of ballast
 Bad quality of sleepers
 Gauge fixed too tight/too slack
 Incorrect adjustment of SE on curves
 Rails Joints maintained in bad condition that in straight portion
 Creep is more on track within steep gradient
Prevention of creep/ improving methods against creep/ correction cf creep:
There are two methods used for correction of creep
 Pulling back method

 Use of Anchors/Anti creepers
Pulling back Method:

In pulling back method rails are pulled back equal to the amount of creep either by manpower or by the
use of jacks
For this purpose, the sleeper fittings are made loose, the fish bolts at one end of rail are removed while at
other end they are made loose. Pushing is done by inserting short length of rod through bolt hold and then
pushing the rail forward by means of crowbar.
Pulling is done by inserting hook through the bolt hole and then hauling the bolt hole be means of rope
attained to it.
Figure:
Following points should be kept in mind in correction of creep
 Track below sleepers should be properly packed after pulling and pushing operation
 Al the fish bolts should be remove, cleaned and oiled and then refixcd and tightened up.
Use of creep Anchors/Anti creepers:
In this method, specially constructed device known and creep anchors/ant used to grip the rails. Creep
Anchors are provided for every third/fourth sleeper

This arrange met prevents the movement of rails because the sleepers which are embedded in the ballast
will have to move, if the creep has to take place. It is cheap and economical method that that of pulling
back method.
Figure
Following points should be kept in mind in case of creep Anchors
 Creep Anchors should be strong enough to resist stresses produced b due to creep
 Number of creep anuurs should be according to intensity of creep produced
 These are provided at places where creep originals
 Creep Anchors should not be provided over railway bridges
Sites selection for a railway station:
Railway Station:
A railway station is defined as any place on a railway line where traffic is booked and dealth with and
where an authority to proceed is given to the trains
Following factors should be considered while selecting a site for a railway station
 Drainage
 Water Supply
 Future Allowances
 Gradient
 Location/Horizontal Alignment
 Vertical Alignment
 Accessibility
 Visibility
 Facilities
Drainage:
The proposed site should be on a fairly level ground and it should be well drained
Water supply:
There should be plentiful supply for water a t the site of station

Future Allowance:
There should be sufficient land available for the purpose of future extension along both sides
Gradient:
The site should be such that permissible maximum gradient can be obtained without much difficulty. The
vehicles may start moving with wind which is Hazardous.
Horizontal gradient/Alignment:
The location of station yards should be such that it is neither located near a curve nor on a curve.
Vertical Alignment:
The train should not be suited in a sag but it should be on a summit
Accessibility:
The station yards should be such that it is easily accessible from city/town. There should be well
developed and efficient transportation system which leads the people and their goods to station with much
ease.
Visibility:
The environment Ground the site selected for a station should be such that their exists clear and improved
visibility for the drivers of trains. There should be certain enough arrangements made which
improvements made which improves the visibility of a station
Facilities:
The site selected for the station should be such that for the passengers of trains machinery works, garages,
workshops etc.


Airport and Railway Engin

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Airport and Railway Engin

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Airport and Railway Engineering

Whereas widthe of runway depends upon with of air craft.

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

Longitudinal gradient for taxiway not exceed 3% transverse gradient

The transition of passengers from ground to air occurs in terminal Area.

 Loading apron & Holding apron

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

 There are two types of storage and service hangers

Apron (loading)/Parking Inserting apron:

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

Whereas width of runway depends upon with of air craft

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

It may be sufficient area to accommodate three/four aircrafts of largest size.

Automobile Parking Places:

Control Tower and Telecommunication Sites:

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

Site Selection of An Airport:

Factors are listed below:

Proximity to other Airport:

A raised ground/Hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an Airport.

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

Grading, drainage and site attics:

Smaller air craft’s are particularly affected by these cross-winds.

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

Cross wind component:

ICAO Guidelinges on corss-sind component:

Runway length cm) ACW component (km/hr)

 X-tics of wind Rose:

Methods to be used for plotting wind Rose Diagram:

 Radial lines represent wind direction

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

 Those method Accounts for direction, duration and intensity of wind.

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

 Circles on Diagram represents’ wind velocity

Classification of Airports According ICAO

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

Code Letter Runway length in Meters

A 2500 AND ABOVE

Table showing ICAO classification of Airports by runway length:

Table showing ICAO classification of Airports by pavement strength:

Code Single isolated Tire pressure in

Classification of Airports by department of civil Aviation of government of Pakistan:

Aerodromes in Pakistan are classified as follows

 Central Government Aerodromes for civil use

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

 Air force Aerodromes (Available for Limited civil use)

 Commercial Served Airports

Commercial Service Airport:

Non-Primary commercial Service Airports:

Primary commercial Service Airport:

Cargo Service Airports:

General Aviation Airports:

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID

An organization that provides schedules flight for passengers/cargo

ICAO International Civil Aviation organization):

Runway Patterns/Airport configuration:

 Number of Runways depends upon Air traffic volume

 T. Building should be located so as to provide easy and timely access to runway.

Following are the patterns of runways.

For international Airports, at least two parallel runways are necessity.

Site selection/Location of An Airport:

PREPARED BY: ATEEQ KHALID