6

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A lot of literature is available on delay in casting of ready mixed concrete and

addition of admixtures in concrete, but not much research is carried on delay in casting of
manually mixed concrete. Hence the review below is concentrated mainly on delay in
casting, effect of retarding admixtures and water reducers on properties of concrete.

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW ON DELAY IN CASTING

R.SriRavindrarajah [1], three series of tests were conducted on concrete. First

and second were to check the effect of retarding agent (lignin based) and superplasticizer
(naphthalene formaldehyde) on workability loss with time. The third was to check the
influence on workability and strength, if the superplasticizer addition pattern is varied.
From the study it can be observed that casting delay has no significant influence on
compressive strength, but workability loss is observed with time delay. Superplasticizers
and set retarders can improve the decrease the workability with time delay. Compressive
strength is influenced by the pattern of admixture addition to concrete.

SakirErdogdu [2], in this study effect of prolonged mixing was observed. Truck
mixer was used to mix concrete. Concrete having slump of 19cm was prepared and later
it was mixed for a duration of 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150minutes. At the end of each
duration concrete was then cast into the moulds. Three types of concrete were tested, in
first type concrete was prepared and cast after the above mentioned time delay. In the
second and third type, concrete was retempered with water and superplasticizer
(melamine based) before casting. From this study it is observed that prolonged mixing
has no much adverse effect on compressive strength of normal concrete but workability
 7

loss was observed. To overcome the workability loss concrete was retempered with water
and superplasticizer which was also not beneficial.

OnderKirca, LutfullahTuranli, Turhan.Y.Erdogan [3], in this study four

retempering processes were done to investigate there effect on properties of concrete
subjected to prolonged mixing i.e upto 4 hours. After each hour concrete was removed
from the mixer and retempered to obtain the required slump and then cast. Retempering
process was done with water, water + 1.5% S.P, water + 3% S.P, water + 4.5% S.P (S.P-
Superplasticizer- melamine based polymer dispersion). They came to the conclusion that
the temperature increase in concrete, the degree of hydration and the grinding action is
the major reason for slump loss. In order to avoid slump loss at site, if water is used to
retemper and make concrete workable; the strength of the concrete is affected. So less
amount of water can be used along with superplasticizer to retemper the concrete without
any adverse effects.

J.Sobhani, M.Najimi, A.R.Pourkhorshidi [4], in this study concrete was

retempered with water, melamine sulphonate naphthalene- based superplasticizer and
withhold water to study the effect on compressive strength and permeability of delayed
concrete. The results of this study indicated that compressive strength of delayed concrete
was increased in case of retempering with superplasticizer and with hold water. Slight
slump loss was observed by the use of withhold water. But retempering with water was
diversely effecting the properties of concrete. Therefore retempering was recommended
by either withhold water or superplasticizer.

SachinShrikanthKavathe, Jayant Govindrao Kulkarni [5], in this work the

adverse effect of concrete casting delay was studied. Concrete was retempered with
cement, retarder and superplasticizer to attain the required workability and strength after
the delay. The result revealed that retempered concrete can be used up to 60 minutes
delay. From compressive strength point of view retempering with cement and retarder
was more beneficial.
 8

Ziad.H.Abo Mustafa, Dr.Ali.S.Zregh [6],the work was carried out to study the
properties of concrete when retempered with superplasticizer (sulphonated polymer) and
water. The result revealed that retempering can be done between 15 to 60 minutes from
mixing, after that retempering leads to strength loss. Maximum strength was observed in
retempered concrete for 30 minutes delay. Retempering with superplasticizer is
recommended over water as retempered concrete with water reduces compressive
strength.

James.K.Cable [7],the study was to observe the effect of prolonged mixing in

concrete mixers. Two concrete mixers and three types of concrete at four different time
intervals were investigated. The results revealed that drum type hauling mixer have no
significant adverse effect on prolonged mixing and 60 seconds of mixing was considered
ideal.

T.Yashwanth Sai, M Sambasivarao [8],the study was carried out to understand

the effect of delay in casting of concrete and also for delay in concrete retempered with
water and admixture. The results revealed that delay in casting has no much adverse
effect on compressive strength except for concrete retempered with water. Small amount
of water can be used along with superplasticizer for retempering.

A.Baskoca, M.H.Ozkul and S.Artirma [9], in this study three types of

admixtures were used lignosulfonate-based water reducer, dextrin based water reducer
and gluconate based retarder were used to investigate their effect on concrete subjected to
prolong mixing. The results revealed no much loss in compressive strength but slump
loss was least in case of dextrin based water reducer. Prolong mixing of concrete with
admixture has no much adverse effect on flexural strength instead bond strength between
concrete and bars was improved.

SakirErdogdu, CanarArslanturk and sirinkurbetci [10],in this study fly ash

and silica fume were used as admixtures in concrete. The influence on fresh and hardened
properties of concrete were observed when subjected to prolonged agitation. By the usage
of silica fume in concrete, slump loss was increasing with time delay but strength was
 9

considerably good. On the other hand by the usage of fly ash strength was slightly
decreased compare to normal concrete, but there was no slump loss.

Rajiv Kansal, Jitendra Singh and GautamBhadauriya[11],in this study, the

effect of cement and water addition is observed on delayed concrete. Three types of
concrete was studied one with the actual control design mix, second with addition of 5%
cement and water for the control mix, third with addition of 7% cement and water to the
control mix. It was observed that the slump loss due to delay in casting was slightly
reduced with the addition of extra cement and water. Since cement and water content was
increased an increase in compressive strength was observed.

H.A.Mohamadien [12],in this study, the impact of time delay on casting the
second layer of concrete over a partially set concrete is investigated. The mechanical
properties such as compressive strength, flexural strength and split tensile strength of the
concrete with and without grout between the layers were investigated. The results
revealed that with the increase in time delay to cast the second layer a decrease in
mechanical properties was observed. Strength loss can be minimized by using grout over
the first layer before casting the second layer.

WasiuAjagbe, AbibatAdeleke, AbideenGaniyu[13],this work was done to

understand the effect of time lapse on flexural and compressive strength of concrete with
an arbitrary time lapse of 2 hours, 4 hours and 8 hours. Work was also extended to
understand the best plane to continue casting. Concrete cubes of size 100mm x100mm
x100mm and beams of size 100mm x100mm x500mm were cast for the investigation.
The results revealed that the weak plane introduced in the moulds had an influential
compressive strength loss with the increase in time delay in casting. Whereas flexural
strength was almost zero for beams cast at 8 hours, the beam specimens were broken
while demoulding. This implies that there was no proper bonding. Among the different
planes horizontal joint was the best with minimal strength loss.

R Sri Ravindrarajah and C.T.Tam[14],this study explains the effect of steel

fiber distribution and influence of delay in casting between the plain concrete and fiber
 10

concrete layers on ultimate flexural strength. Three types of beams were cast (fully
reinforced, partially reinforced, and reinforced at the bottom layer), in two to three layers
with time delay. The results revealed that the delay in casting has no significant influence
on the strength of the beams. But the fiber distribution had a significant influence on the
flexural strength of the beams. Steel fiber reinforcement increases the ultimate strength of
the beams. When compared to fully reinforced beams, the ultimate strength of the beams
with fibers distributed only in the bottom layer gave better results.

2.1.1 Conclusion of literature review on delay in casting

In case of manual mixing of concrete, delay in casting has no much adverse effect
on compressive and flexural strength instead compressive strength and tensile strengths
were improved with time delay. But a remarkable loss of workability was observed with
delay in casting. To obtain the required workability concrete can be retempered with
superplasticizer and withhold water.

In case of concrete prepared in mixers, prolonged mixing has adverse effect on

both strength and workability. Prolonged mixing rises the temperature of concrete due to
which degree of hydration process and possible grinding action causes slump loss. Slump
loss can be rectified by the addition of superplasticizer or by increasing the cement
content. Retempering can be done by using withhold water and admixturebut retempering
with water is not recommended as it badly affects the compressive strength of concrete.
To avoid cold joints it is always better to use grout between the layers.

2.2 LIRERATURE REVIEW ON EFFECT OF RETARDING ADMIXTURES ON

CEMENT AND CONCRETE PROPERTIES.

Bazid khan and Muhammad Ullah [15], in this work the effect of retarder was
studied on three different types of cement under three different curing conditions. The
test results revealed that the setting time of cement depends not only on the dosage of
 11

admixture but also on the type of cement. It also revealed that high temperature and low
humidity accelerates the setting time. At higher temperature retarding tendency is less.

Bazid khan and Bulent Baradan [16], the objective of this study was to check
the effect of sugar on different types of cement. From the test results it was concluded
that the retarding action of sugar is more efficient under normal temperature and
humidity. Sugar causes higher retardation when it is added to cement paste a few minutes
later. Higher concentration of sugar does not show retardation i.e. concentration above
0.15 %. Sugar accelerates the setting time for concentration above 0.3 %.

Akogu Elijah Abalaka [17],in this work effect of different dosage of sugar by
weight of cement is studied. The result revealed that sugar can be used as retarding agent
only up to 0.06%. No adverse effect was observed on compressive strength and slump by
the addition of sugar in lower concentration. For higher concentration slump was good
but compressive strength was decreasing with increase of sugar percentage. Soundness
was adversely effected with the increase of sugar content in cement.

Maria.C.GarciJuenger and Hamlin.M.Jennings [18],in this work the effect of

sugar on hydration and micro structure of cement paste was studied. 1% of sugar by
weight of cement was used as retarding agent. The results indicated that retardation and it
was as expected, but raise in curing temperature decrease the retardation.

Nitrogen was used to study the pore size distribution in cement with the addition of sugar.
It was observed that there is an increase of surface area and pore size distribution was
altered with the addition of sugar. The results also concluded that curing temperature
alters the rate of hydration.

AmanmyratJumadurdiyev, M.HulusiOzkul, Ali.R.Saglam and

NazmiyeParlak [19], a byproduct of sugar industry, molasses was used to study its effect
on concrete. In this study workability, bleeding, flexural strength, compressive strength,
permeability and durability properties were investigated. From the results it was revealed
that molasses increases the fluidity of concrete, slump loss was observed with time delay.
As the percentage of molasses increased bleeding was observed in concrete, but there was
 12

no adverse effect on compressive strength, flexural strength and durability properties of

concrete.

Dr.N.Balasubramanya, Adarsha.A, Vinay, VidhyadarPatil and Sunil Kumar

[20],in this study the effect of different percentages of sugar on compressive strength and
split tensile strength were observed. The results revealed that sugar can be used as a
retarding agent up to 0.08% by weight of cement. Compressive strength and tensile
strength were improved with the addition of sugar and with reduction of water cement
ratio for lower concentration of sugar.

Yogesh.R.Suryawanshi, Pankaj.N.Bhat, R.R.Shinde, S.B.Pawar and

Namrata Mote [21],in this study the effect of sugar powder on setting time and
compressive strength of cement and concrete was observed. From the experimental
results it was found that sugar acts as a retarding agent only in a range of 0.05 % to 0.015
% by weight of cement. Workability and compressive strength of concrete were
improved irrespective of the type of cement.

Giridhar.V, Gnaneswar.K and Kishore Kumar Reddy.P [22],in this work

sugar and jaggery were used as an admixture to study the properties of concrete. The
results revealed that workability, compaction factor and compressive strength of concrete
increases with the increase of admixture content (both sugar and jaggery). Segregation
and bleeding was very less because of the usage of admixture. Compared to sugar,
jaggery gave better results.

A.V.Pavan Kumar, B.Venkatesh and B.B.C.O.Prasad [23],the purpose of this

work was to study the behavior of concrete with the addition of sugar, jaggery and
sugarcane ash. Sugar and jaggery were added along with other constituents of concrete
but a small amount of cement was replaced by sugarcane ash in some amount. The results
reveal that setting time was increased by the addition on sugar and jaggery. Workability
and compressive strength was enhanced due to the addition of sugar, jaggery and
sugarcane ash for lower content.
 13

Suman Rana [24],in this work the effect of sugar on setting time and early
compressive strength was studied. Different sugar dosages were used as retarding agent
in this study. The results revealed that sugar increases the setting time up to 0.09%, but
the early compressive strength was adversely affected by addition of sugar.

JayminKumar.A.Patel and Dr.D.B.Raijiwal [25],in this study some amount of

cement was replaced by different amount of sugarcane bagasse ash (5%, 10%, 15% and
20%) by weight of cement. The result revealed that sugarcane bagasse ash addition
increases the workability of concrete. The compressive strength of the concrete was also
increased for lower percentage. The work concluded that 5% sugar bagasse ash can be
used in concrete as it enhances both workability and strength of concrete.

Hasan Yildirim and BarisAltun [26],in this work two types of admixtures i.e.
lignosulphonate based water reducer and molasses from different sources were used to
check the effect on concrete with different amount of cement. Molasses and
lignosulphonate can be used as water reducing agent. Molasses can also enhance the
compressive strength if used in small amount.

Festus Olutoge, OlatokunboOfuyatan, Araromi Rachael and

EjigaOpaluwa[27], addition of sugarcane bagasse fiber to concrete was observed.
Cubes, beams and cylinders were cast by varying proportion of fibers for this study. The
results revealed that sugarcane bagasse fiber is not suitable to use in concrete, as the
flexural strength, tensile strength and compressive strength were badly affected by it.

Amaziah Walter Otunyo and Innocent Koate [28],in this study some amount of
water used in concrete was replaced by sugarcane juice. Cubes were cast with different
proportions i.e. 3%, 5%, 10% and 15% of juice. The results revealed that setting time was
increased with the replacement of water by sugar in some amount. But the compressive
strength and slump were adversely affected.

A.W.Otunyo, S.C.Onwusiri and N.Nwaiwu [29],in this study sugarcane juice

replaced water in concrete mix by the following proportions 0%, 25%, 50% and 100%.
The results revealed that sugarcane juice increases the setting time up to 42 hours in case
 14

of 100% replacement of water by sugarcane juice. Slump was reduced with the increase
in proportions of sugarcane juice in concrete. Compressive strength of concrete was
badly affected by sugarcane juice.

AwodijiChiomaTemitope Gloria, Onwuka Davis Ogbonnaya and

AwodijiOlayinkaOlujide[30],this study was taken up to understand the influence of
hydrated lime on flexural and split tensile strength of concrete. Ordinary Portland cement
was partially replaced by hydrated lime in different percentages. Beams of size 150mm
x150mm x600mm and cylinders of size 150mm diameter and 300mm height were cast to
determine the flexural and split tensile strength respectively. The results revealed that the
influence of hydrated lime was much better on flexural strength of concrete when
compared to split tensile strength.

Somawanshi.S. P, Ansari.U.S and karale.S. A[31],This work was carried out to

investigate the effect of different dosage of molasses and treated waste water on
compressive, split tensile and flexural strength of M30 and M60 grade of concrete. The
results revealed that the setting was increased with the addition of molasses. It was also
revealed that the treated waste water has no significant ill effect on the strength on the
concrete. Finally it was concluded that molasses increases both setting time and strength
of concrete (compressive, split tensile and flexural strength). Treated waste water can be
safely used for the preparation of concrete without any adverse effect on both fresh and
hardened properties.

Shahidkha B Pathan and Dr V.V. Singh[32],In this study molasses obtained

from sugar factories was used to investigate its effect on setting time, workability,
compressive strength, split tensile and flexural strength. Three different dosage (0.04,
0.06, and 0.08% by weight of cement) of molasses was used for the investigation
program. The results revealed that the addition of molasses increases the fluidity and
setting time of cement and concrete. Workability of the concrete also improved by the
usage of molasses in concrete. With respect to the control mix flexural, split tensile and
compressive strengths were improved.
 15

Kiran M. Mane and Dr. D. K. Kulkarni [33],This study was carried out to
understand the effect of retempering on plain concrete and retarded concrete with cement
and water at different time intervals. Strength evaluation for hardened concrete
characteristics such as compressive, tensile and flexural strengths for different
retempering time was carried out. The retempering time intervals chosen were 15, 30, 45,
60, 75 and 90 minutes. Test was carried on two types of concrete one plain concrete and
another with 0.04% hydroxylated carboxylate acid retarder. The strength characteristics
of both the mixtures were tested with and without retempering them using 5% extra water
and cement at different time intervals. The results revealed that retempered admixture
concrete shows better results than the plain concrete. Thus it can be concluded that
retempering is recommended in admixture concrete but the retempering time also plays a
vital role on the strength characteristics of concrete.

SergiiTolmachov, OlenaBelichenko, and Denis Zakharov [34],this study was

carried out to analyze the effect of mineral additives, carboxylate additives, micro filler
and fibers on the flexural strength of concrete. The results reveal that the addition on
mineral additives leads to an increase in flexural strength of concrete, the addition on
miner additive along with carboxylate and fibers shows a determinate increase the
flexural strength and workability of concrete. It was also observed that the flexural
strength loss in concrete due to delay in casting can also be minimized by the addition of
superplasticizer and fibers in concrete.

Anant Kumar, Chandan Kumar, ShyamKishor Kumar, Amit Kumar[35],this

study was carried out to observe the improvement in the performance of concrete by the
addition of superplasticizer to overcome the deficiencies such as shrinkage, cracking, low
flexural and tensile strengths. M40 concrete was taken up for the study. The results reveal
that the addition of admixture improves the flexural, tensile strength, disc bending and
diameter stress of concrete.

G.L.Oyeken [36],the work was carried out to determine the effect of sugar and
sawdust on sandcrete blocks. The results revealed that sugar has a significant effect on
both setting time delay and enhancing the compressive strength. Sawdust had no
 16

appreciable effect on compressive strength, but can be used in lower percentage as an air
entraining agent.

AsmaAbdElhameed Hussein, Nasir Shafiq, Muhd Fadhil Nuruddin and

Fareed Ahmed Memon [37],this study was carried out to know the effectiveness of
sugarcane bagasse ash as a replacement material to cement in preparing concrete.
Workability, compressive strength and microstructure of concrete were observed. The
results revealed that with the increase in proportion of bagasse ash the slump value was
also increasing. Compressive strength was also improved with bagasse ash, but the
interfacial transition zone thickness was gently reducing with bagasse ash increment.

V.K.Peterson and M.C.Garci – Juenger [38], in this study the hydration of C3S
due to the addition of sucrose is observed using quasielastic neutron scattering (QENS)
and calorimetry. The results reveal that sucrose retards the setting time but decreases the
nucleation and growth reaction rate. It also revealed that the rate of hydration process
increases after the delay caused by the retarding agent.

N.L.Thomas and J.D.Birchall [39], in this work retarding action of sugar on

hydration of cement is studied. The results reveal that adsorption takes place and C-S-H
gel is poisoned by sugar. Sugar is a very good binding agent only in alkali solution. The
retarding action of sugar on cement depends on the solubilizing effect.

S.A.FitzGerald, J.J.Thomas, D.A.Neumann and R.A.Livingston [40], the

study monitored the scattering of quasi-elastic neutrons during hydration process. In this
work dependence of temperature on hydration of cement is studied. The results reveal
that higher the curing temperature lower will be the degree of hydration. At higher
temperature an impermeable product forms a layer around cement which hinders the
hydration.

S.Collepardi, L.Coppola, R.Troli and M.Collepardi [41], this work was carried
out to understand the effect of superplasticizer (naphthalene and melamine based). The
aim of using superplasticizer was to increase workability, to reduce water content and to
reduce cement content without any adverse effect on concrete. The results revealed that
 17

the effect of superplasticizer depends on its chemical composition. The superplasticizer

serves all the purposes of this study but with few hindrances such as the fluidity of the
concrete depends on the procedure of addition of superplasticizer to the concrete. Slump
loss was observed with the delay in casting period.

F.Kruml [42],this work deals with the properties of concrete, i.e., initial and final
setting time. The results reveal that the concrete setting or the hydration process can be
divided into three stages. The first stage is a chemical reaction stage which starts
immediately with the addition of water to concrete and lasts for about 4-6hours at a
normal temperature of 20oC. The second stage is the recrystallization of initial products
of hydration. The third stage is the development of strength due to the products formed in
the hydration.

Thomas.M.Greene [43], the study was on chemical admixtures and there uses.
The results on retarding agent revealed that retarders increase the setting time and
maintains the slump even in prolonged casting. Retardation rate may be increased with
the increase of percentage of retarder. But for a very high dosage of retarder, rapid
stiffening may be observed accompanied by severe slump loss and great difficulty in
concrete casting.

Jeremiah Louise Clemente, Gio Alfonso Dyquiangco and Donniel Roman

Gobway [44], the work was carried out with an intention of producing an admixture
which improves both compressive strength and setting time. The admixtures chosen for
the study were sugarcane bagasse fiber and sugarcane bagasse ash. The results revealed
that sugarcane bagasse fiber and its ash put together in concrete enhances the concrete
properties such as setting time, workability and compressive strength. But sugarcane
bagasse fiber and sugarcane bagasse ash has to be used in lower dosage to be more
effective.

Dinesh Kumar [45], the work was carried out with sugar and jaggery as an
admixture in concrete. Workability, compaction factor and compressive strength tests
were performed for the study. The results revealed that molasses enhances workability
 18

and compressive strength. It is also revealed that molasses delays setting time, reduces
segregation, bleeding and can be used as a water reducer in concrete.

Dr.SalahaldeinAlsadey [46],this work was carried out to determine the

optimumdosage of superplasticizer to enhance the properties of concrete and also to study
the adverse effect of high dosage on concrete. The results reveal that with superplasticizer
workability and strength were enhanced. The optimum value of superplasticizer dosage is
1% by weight of cement, above that dosage even though workability is good strength loss
will be observed.

Robert Ashworth [47], in this work granulated sugar of white colour is used.
Three series of tests were taken up. First, effect of different dosages of sugar on concrete.
Second, the effect of a constant sugar amount i.e., 0.05% on different types of cement.
Third, the effect of constant sugar amount i.e., 0.05% on properties of concrete such as
durability, compressive strength and workability.

The results revealed that 0.05% sugar can be recommended for concrete as it
increases the compressive strength, flexural strength, workability and setting time. No
adverse effect on shrinkage, density and adsorption properties. Sugar can also be used to
reduce the cement content in concrete. Higher amount of sugar in concrete decreases the
early strength but has no much adverse effect on long term duration. But higher content
makes concrete unsound. It was also observed that concrete with sugar gives best results
if initial retardation takes place before specimen casting.

Robert.W.Previte [48], the work was carried to understand the basic set
retardation mechanism of saccharides (commonly known as sucrose) by isothermal
calorimetry. The results indicate that retardation is related to the molecular size and
molecular formation during the process of retardation. It also reveals that aqueous alkalis
does not affect retardation. The hydration process proceeds at a faster rate after the
duration of retardation compared to normal or non-retarded concrete.

N.B.Milestone [49], compounds constituting high fraction of salts, sugar and

sugar acid salts were added to cement to observe there effect on setting time and
 19

hydration process. The results revealed that high fraction of sugar acids are more
effective in set-retardation compared to high fraction of sugar and high fraction of salts
because of their charge and stability. Sugar compounds behave as delayed accelerators.
High fraction of salts hinders the hydration process completely.

K.Luke and G.Luke [50], the work was to understand the retardation mechanism
of cement due to the addition of sucrose at different stages of hydration process. It was
confirmed that pH of cement was stable for about 90hrs. It was also observed that half-
salts were formed during hydration process by the addition of sucrose. About 80% of
sucrose was utilized within the initial hydration process. Results also revealed that
compressive strength is not effected by the addition of sucrose. The work recommends
addition of sucrose while preparing concrete, rather than delayed addition.

G.M.Bruere [51], in this work the effect of different sugars on different types of
Portland cement was investigated. Glucose, maltose, sucrose α- trehalose and starch were
used as retarding agents. The results reveal that irrespective of the type of cement,
sucrose gave best results i.e. setting time with sucrose was longest.

J.F.Young [52], in this paper retarding mechanism of admixture on cement was

reviewed for further scope. The review revealed that a layer of organic compound was
formed which results in delay of hydration process. But the aqueous phase of hydration is
still not clear. C3S features were also not explained properly.

SalahaldeinAlsadey [53],the study was to understand the effect of different

dosages of superplasticizer (acrylic polymer and sulphonated naphthalene) on fresh and
hardened properties of concrete. The results of slump and compressive strength were
considered for the study. The results reveal that with the increase of superplasticizer
dosage workability and compressive strength of concrete was improved. But
superplasticizers can be used only up to some optimum limit above which it has adverse
effect on concrete such as bleeding, segregation, cohesiveness, non-uniformity in fresh
concrete and reduction in compressive strength. Effect of superplasticizer also depends
on dosage and type of super plasticizer used.
 20

B. Blank, D. R. Rossington, and L. A. Weinland [54],in this work calcium

lignosulfonate and salicylic acid were used in an aqueous solution to observe the
mechanism of retardation. From the results it can be observed that the adsorption by tri-
calcium aluminate and tetra-calcium aluminoferrite is remarkable, whereas adsorption by
di-calcium silicate and tri-calcium silicate is negligible. From the above study it can be
concluded that due to certain modifications in cement properties by the addition of
retarder tri-calcium aluminate and tetra-calcium aluminoferrite become very active,
rendering di-calcium silicate and tri-calcium silicate to an inactive stage resulting
retardation.

P. Seligmann and N. R. Greening [55], this examined the effect on hydration of

Bogue’s compounds by addition of sucrose and lignosulfonate. It was observed that
sucrose accelerates the interaction between tri-calcium aluminate and gypsum, whereas
lignosulfonate have very little effect on the acceleration of reaction between tri-calcium
aluminate and gypsum. From results it can be concluded that the retardation mechanism
is due to the inhibition of calcium hydroxide release from tri-calcium silicate and also
suppresses the release of alkalis in the liquid phase.

K. E. Daugherty and M. J. Kawalewski, Jr.[56],this work concentrated the

effect of different chemicals on the hydration of tri-calcium aluminate. From the results it
was examined that organic acids allows or accelerates the hydration of tri-calcium
aluminate to form ettringite but inhibits its further hydration to form or attain a
metastable state. It was concluded that derivative of sugar and sugars accelerate the initial
hydration of tri-calcium aluminate but hinders the further hydration process.

G. L. Kalousek, C. H. Jumper, and J. J. Tregoning [57],in this work the effect

of different materials on clinker is studied. The materials added to the clinker where
tannic acid,fluosilicic acid, gypsum, sucrose, triethanolamine, calcium chloride and
calcium acetate. From the results it was observed that sugar was the only added material
which increased the basicity and accelerated that early hydration of aluminum
constituents in the clinker.
 21

F. C. Tamas [58],this work was carried out to compare the effect of retarders and
accelerators on cement hydration. The result revealed that retarders form a layer or film
on the cement silicates resulting in the inhibition of the reaction between water and
silicates. It was also suggested that retarders form an insoluble complex compound with
the cement aluminates.

V. S. Ramachandran [59], this work was carried out to understand chemistry of

cement by the addition of calcium lignosulfonate. An aqueous and non-aqueoussolutions
of calcium lignosulfonates were prepared to understand the effect on dry tri-calcium
silicate and hydrated tri-calcium silicate. From the results it was concluded that hydrated
tri-calcium silicate is responsible for the adsorption and form a complex compound
whereas non hydrated tri-calcium silicate is not responsible for the adsorption.

2.2.1 Conclusion of literature review on effect of retarding admixtures on cement

and concrete properties

The admixtures used were molasses, sugar, jaggery, sugarcane bagasse ash, sugar
cane fiber, sugarcane juice and sugarcane bagasse fiber and sugarcane bagasse ash put
together in concrete. As temperature increases the regarding effect of admixtures on
concrete decreases. There is no adverse effect on workability, compressive strength and
long term strength of concrete due to the addition of admixtures, but early compressive
strength (3 and 7days strength) is adversely effected by retarders. Admixtures should be
used in an optimum dosage as higher concentration of admixtures have ill effects on
concrete properties. Retarding admixtures increases fluidity of fresh concrete.

Sugar alters pore size distribution and microstructure of C-S-H gel. Sugar acts as
a delayed accelerator in concrete. Compared to sugar as a retarding admixture, jaggery
gives better results. Sugarcane juice, Sugarcane bagasse fiber and Sugarcane bagasse ash
are not recommended as retarding agents in concrete as they adversely affect the concrete
properties.
 22

Materials that cause retardation of set, such as sucrose or lignosulfonates, can also
produce a large initial acceleration of the hydration reactions. This acceleration may be
caused by inhibition of lime release by the silicates phases or by increased reactivity of
the C3A with gypsum, resulting from the very high sorption of the additive in the C3A
surface.

2.3 LIRERATURE REVIEW ON EFFECT OF WATER REDUCTION IN

CONCRETE

Tech notes [60], the study was carried out to understand the set-controllers and
water reducers effect on concrete. The results reveal that depending upon the type of
water reducer the water content in concrete may be reduced by 5% to 30%. Both set-
controllers and water reducers have significant effect on reducing the water content and
decreasing the cement content in concrete.

Khaled Marar and OzgurEren [61], the study was for understanding the
influence of different amount of cement and water on the properties of concrete. The
results reveal that with increase of cement content and decrease of water cement ratio unit
weight, slump, K-slump, compaction factor increase but w/c and setting time of concrete
decreases.

Yun-Yong Kim, Kwang Myung Lee Jin-Wook Bang and Seung-Jan Kwon
[62], in this work cement content was kept constant and water added was varied to study
the durability property of mortar. Several tests such as moisture diffusion, strength, air
permeability, saturation and chloride diffusion were carried out for the analysis. The
results revealed that with increasing water content porosity was increased but
compressive strength was decreased.

John Oral Bhaskar.T and Perumal.P [63], in this study, experiments were
conducted to observe the effect on compressive strength of M50 grade concrete by
reducing water content with the addition of admixtures. The results revealed that with
lower dosage of admixture high strength can be attained. But along with admixture if
 23

water content is also reduced the strength attained will be even better. Water reduction
should be upto 17%, if water content is reduced above that value; it has adverse effect on
compressive strength. Among the admixtures used sulphonate naphthalene polymer
superplasticizer gives better results.

OmotolaAlawode and O.I.Idowu [64], this work was carried out to study the
variation in compressive strength of hardened concrete by varying the w/c ratio. The
results reveal that with increase of water content by 10% compressive strength was
decreased in normal concrete but in lateritic concrete compressive strength increase was
observed. With an increase of water content by 45%, collapse was observed in normal
concrete but true slump was maintained in lateritic concrete but with a very low slump
value. Finally it was concluded that lateritic materials are not recommended in concrete
as workability is very poor.

C.Arum and A.O.Olotuah [65], this work was carried to achieve a durable and
strong concrete by altering the ingredients and using good quality materials. Results
reveal that by using well graded, clean, proper shaped aggregates with a lower w/c ratio
and effective curing results a strong and durable concrete. The work has also identified a
tree liquid which can be used as an effective bio-based retarding agent. By using this bio-
based retarding agent the concrete w/c ratio can be reduced to achieve a workable, strong
and durable concrete.

H.Ati-Aider, N.E.Hannachi and M.Mouret [66], this study was carried out to
understand the importance of water cement ratio in hot climate. In this work extra water
was added to the fresh concrete to maintain the slump loss in hot weather condition. The
extra water to be added to the mix was estimated using ACI (American Concrete
Institute) abacuses. The study revealed that increase in water content upto a certain limit
in hot weather condition, have no determinate ill effect on the strength of concrete.
 24

2.3.1 Conclusion of literature review on effect of water reduction in concrete

In normal concrete strength increases with the reduction of water. The water
content in concrete may be reduced by 5% to 30%, depending upon the type of water
reducer used. Increase of cement content and decrease of water cement ratio decreases
the setting time of concrete.Lateritic materials are not recommended in concrete as water
reducers as they adversely affect workability.Along with the addition of admixture if
water content is also reduced then such concrete is more effective both in fresh and
hardened state.

2.4 LIRERATURE REVIEW ON FTIR SPECTROSCOPY SCANNING AND

CALORIMETRY

M.Horgnies, J.J.Chen and C.Bouillon [67], this study gives a brief summery on
the use of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrum to understand the mechanism of cement
hardening. This work provide knowledge and understanding on why FTIR analysis is
more convenient. FTIR spectroscopy is convenient as small amount of sample is required
for analysis and interpolation of results is quite fast. For more specific and precise results
Attenuated total reflection (ATR) can be used for analysis. The results reveal that this
method not only detects the compound but also indicates the presence of different
compounds/layers formed on cement molecules during hydration process.

Antony.J.Casale, Johanna Doukakis, HusamNajm and Kimberly Davis [68],

in this work concrete with admixtures is scanned and analyzed. The admixtures used in
this study are retarders, air-entrainers, accelerators, water reducers and combination of
these admixtures. The results reveal that this method can be used to check the variation in
different batches of concrete. It also helps us to understand the effect of different
admixtures on concrete and the compounds formed due to the addition of admixtures to
concrete. The scanned results help us to know the reason behind the alteration in fresh
and hardened properties of concrete.
 25

RikardYlmen and Ulf Jaglid [69], this study is to understand the natural ageing
process i.e. carbonation. Diffuse reflection of FTIR spectroscopy along with freeze
drying technique was implemented to know the variations occurred during the
carbonation process. The results reveal that carbonation process occurs in a faster rate
when cement is in plastic state or during hydration process, but it is not active with the
dry cement. The carbonation process also breaks C-S-H and forms silica and calcium
carbonate. Carbonation does not occur in moist nitrogen atmosphere.

Anthony.J.Casale III [70], the study was carried out to understand the
correlation between admixtures and steel paints. The admixtures used are accelerators,
water reducers, air- entraining agents, retarders and their combinations. The analysis was
done using Infrared Spectroscopy Scanning. The results reveal that concrete admixtures
show more variations compared to steel paints under IR scanning.

M.Chollet and M.Horgnies [71], in this study FTIR spectroscopy and Raman
was used to analyze the concrete surface. The work was carried out to understand the
hydration process of clinker. The results reveal that the components or constituents of the
materials were easily identified. In case of demoulded concrete the organic oil layer over
surface was identified. The process of hardening phases were also identified.

N.B.Singh, S.S.Das, N.P.Singh and V.N.Dwivedi [72], an attempt for

preparing composite ecofriendly cement was taken up in this work. 10% by weight of
total cement was replaced by sugarcane leaf ash, which was obtained by burning
sugarcane leaf in open atmosphere.

Hydration of 10% sugarcane leaf ash (SCLA) was studied by techniques such as
FTIR Spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimeter. The results of 10% SCLA
cement was compared with normal 53 grade OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement). The
results revealed that the rate of chemical reaction in 10% SCLA cement is high compared
to 53 grade OPC due to the presence of pozzolanic material in high percentage. From the
above work it is concluded that cement can be replaced by SCLA upto 10% without any
adverse effect on characteristic properties of both fresh and hardened cement.
 26

D.Govindarajan and G.Jayalakshmi[73],in this work cement paste was

prepared by replacing 10% calcined sugar cane bagasse ash was studied. Compressive
strength of cement paste was analyzed using FTIR.

High percentage of pozzolanic material was analyzed by FTIR results, which indicates
the improvement of compressive strength of sugar cane bagasse ash cement paste
compared to OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement). It was concluded that cement can be
replaced by sugar cane bagasse ash upto 10%. Results also revealed that usage of sugar
cane bagasse ash increases the compressive strength of cement.

P.Jagadesh, A.RamachandraMurty, R.MurugesanamdK.Sarayu [74],in this

work an attempt was made to understand the morphology, type, form, nature and
concentration of pozzolanic materials present in sugar cane bagasse ash in order to use it
as a cement replacement in production of concrete using FTIR.

The results revealed that the pozzolanic activity of sugar cane bagasse ash is a
temperature dependent factor. Cristobalite, which is a form of quartz combines with
calcium in the presence of water to form C-S-H. Quartz present in sugar cane bagasse ash
contributes towards the compressive strength and as a result sugar cane bagasse ash can
be used as an effective cement replacement.

Monica Adriana Trezza[75], Hydration of OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement)

was studied by IR and calorimeter in the presence of zinc ions. Results revealed that zinc
retards the early hydration of OPC which was assessed by the identification of the split of
peaks by IR and the amount of heat released during the hydration process by differential
calorimeter.

RikardYlmen, Ulf Jaglidand ItaiPanas[76],This is a comparative study where

two types of concrete ex-situ and in-situ were monitored for the progress of hydration
using Diffuse Reflection Fourier Transform Infrared (DR-FTIR), and Attenuated Total
Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) along with calorimetry. The results
revealed that calorimetry compliments the ATR-FTIR and DR-FTIR. ATR-FTIR is more
sensitive than DR-FTIR as gives a clear and detailed picture of hydration process like
 27

commencement of the process, formation of compounds etc. ATR-FTIR results are

complemented with the calorimetric results i.e. heat liberation vs time. It is also
mentioned that IR results are superior to calorimetric results as small changes are missed
in calorimetric results due to large amount of heat liberation during the process of
hydration.

Byung Wan Jo, Muhammad Ali Sikandar,Sumit Chakraborty and Zafar

Baloch[77],thiswork investigated the effect of hydrogen-rich water (HRW) on the
strength and durability of Portland cement mortars. The results indicate that the use of
HRW significantly improves the compressive, flexural, and splitting tensilestrength of
mortars at both the early and later ages of curing. The improvedmechanical and durability
properties of mortar prepared using hydrogen rich water was determined using Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). It was observed that HRW accelerates the
formation of CSH, as the band is quite reinforced in HRW mortar samples compared to
the control mix. The FTIR analysis thus helps to confirm the formation of more hydrated
products with fewer voids in the hydrogenrichenvironment.

RikardYlmen, Ulf Jaglid, Britt-Marie Steenari, ItaiPanas [78], Diffuse

Reflectance Infrared DR-FTIR spectroscopy was employed to monitor chemical
transformations in pastesof Portland limestone cement.After 60 min, spectroscopic
signatures of polymerizing silica start to emerge. A hump at 970–1100 cm−1in
conjunction with increasing intensity in the waterbending mode region at 1500–1700
cm−1indicates the formation of Calcium Silicate Hydrate, C-S-H.Simultaneously with the
development of the C-S-H signatures, a dip feature develops at 800–970 cm−1, reflecting
the dissolution of alite.

D. Govindarajan, R. Gopalakrishnan [79], thisstudy was carried out to analyze

the effect of sea water on Portland cement. The FTIR spectroscopic study was carried out
for Indian Portland cement hydrated with distilled and sea water in a water to cement
ratio of 0.4. The results indicate that sea water accelerates the cement hydration at early
stage but retards in the latter stage of hydration.
 28

The shifting of ν3 Si-O band and variation in intensity of ν4 and ν2 Si-O bands
are enhanced by sea water usage and were observed in early age. Up to 1 week, the
intense sulfate bands at 1100-1160 cm-1 are observed and it implies that sea water
enhance the C4AF formation than distilled water. The observed variation in intensities of
the band at 919-970 cm-1, 525 cm-1 and 455 cm-1 are higher and occur from early age
onwards. This indicates that the initial reactions are faster due to the higher amount of
chloride and sulfate ions present in the sea water. At 4 weeks, the intensity of the band
observed at 970 cm-1, 525 cm-1 and 455 cm-1 are less when compared to 1 week
hydration. This may be due to disappearance of mineral contents in sea water. Hence it
wasconcluded that sea water accelerate the cement hydration at early stage but in latter
stage slightly retarded.

Maximilienne Bishop and Andrew R. Barron [80], this study was carried out to
analyze cement hydration inhibition with sucrose, tartaric acid, and lignosulfonate by
spectroscopic study. It was concluded that sucrose acts via nucleation poisoning/surface
adsorption while lignosulfonates involve the formation of a semipermeable layer on the
cement grains. The formation of calcium tartrate is clearly the most important step in
tartaric acid inhibition; however, tartaric acid only exhibits a dissolution-precipitation
mechanism for C3A. Under conditions of excess calcium, the formation of a calcium
tartrate over layer does not require the pre-dissolution of the mineral.

2.4.1 Conclusion of literature review on FTIR Spectroscopy Scanning and

Calorimetry

FTIR Spectroscopy Scanning is beneficial as small amount of sample is required

for testing and quick interpretation of results can be done. From FTIR test the
constituents of material can be detected, the compounds formed during hydration process
can be identified. If cement or concrete is coated with some layer/compound, it can also
be observed by spectroscopy. To measure the heat released during hydration process
Calorimeter can be used.
 29

2.5 CONCLUSION ON LITERATURE REVIEW

Most of the literature available on casting delay concentrates on delay of ready

mix concrete. According to the literature on admixture addition to concrete, retarding
admixture can be used only in optimum percentage to concrete and sugar acts as a
delayed accelerators. The effect of longer delay on manually mixed concrete, the
mechanism of retarding agent and the optimum percentage of retarding agent to be used
in concrete is not very clear.