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Single-phase Electric Motors

Characteristics & Applications
by Kevin Heinecke, LEESON Electric Corporation

Back to Web Merlin

Single-phase AC motors are as ubiquitous as they are useful -- serving as the
General Information prime power sources for a seemingly limitless array of small-horsepower
Mechanical applications in industry and in the home. Knowing how to apply the various
types is the key to successful design.
Electrical
Metric IEC Where three-phase power is unavailable or impractical, it's single-phase motors to the
Maintenance rescue. Though they lack the higher efficiencies of their three-phase siblings, single-phase
motors -- correctly sized and rated -- can last a lifetime with little maintenance.
Conversions/Formulas
Warranty Occasionally a manufacturing defect can result in early motor failure. However, most
failures result from inappropriate application. Pay careful attention to the application
Reference
requirements before choosing a motor for replacement of a failed one or for a new design
application. Not choosing the correct motor type and horsepower can cause repeated motor
failure and equipment downtime. Obviously, you don't want to specify a motor too small for
the application, thus resulting in electrical stresses that cause premature motor failure. But
neither should you specify a motor too powerful -- either because of its power or its inherent
design characteristics. It can also have serious effects. For example, a motor with high
locked-rotor and breakdown torques can damage the equipment it drives. Also, running a
motor at less than full rated load is inefficient, costing you money for power wasted.

The key: First, size the motor to the application but, just as importantly, understand the
characteristics of the major types of single-phase motors -- characteristics that go right to
the heart of matching a motor to an application.

In general, an ac polyphase squirrel-cage motor connected to a polyphase line will develop

starting torque. A squirrel-cage motor connected to a single-phase line develops no starting
torque, but having been started by some external means, it runs approximately like a
polyphase motor. The many types of single-phase motors are distinguished by the means by
which they are started.

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Split-phase

The split phase motor, also called an

induction-start/induction-run motor, is
probably the simplest single-phase motor
made for industrial use, though somewhat
limited. It has two windings : a start and a
main winding, Figure 1. The start winding is
made with smaller gage wire and fewer turns
relative to the main winding to create more
resistance, thus putting the start winding's
field at a different angle than that of the main
winding, and causing the motor to rotate. The
main winding, of heavier wire, keeps the
motor running the rest of the time.

A split-phase motor uses a switching

mechanism that disconnects the start winding
from the main winding when the motor comes
up to about 75% of rated speed. In most cases,
it is a centrifugal switch on the motor shaft.

The split-phase motor's simple design makes it

typically less expensive than other
single-phase motor types made for industrial use. However, it also limits performance.
Starting torques are low, typically 100% to 175% of rated load. Also, the motor develops
high starting currents, approximately 700 to 1,000% of rated. Consequently, prolonged
starting times cause the start winding to overheat and fail; so don't use this motor if you
need high starting torques.

Other split-phase motor characteristics: Maximum running torques range from 250 to 350%
of normal. Plus, thermal protection is difficult because the high locked-rotor current relative

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to running current makes it tricky to find a protector with trip time fast enough to prevent
start-winding burnout. And, these motors usually are designed for single voltage, limiting
application flexibility.

Good applications for split-phase motors include small grinders, small fans and blowers,
and other low starting torque applications with power needs from 1/20 to 1/3 HP. Avoid any
applications requiring high cycle rates or high torques.

Capacitor start/induction run

Here is a true wide-application, industrial-duty

motor. Think of it as a split-phase motor, but
with a beefed-up start winding that includes a
capacitor in the circuit to provide a start
"boost", Figure 2. Like the split-phase motor,
the capacitor start motor also has a starting
mechanism, either a mechanical or solid state
electronic switch. This disconnects not only
the start winding, but also the capacitor when
the motor reaches about 75% of rated speed.

Capacitor start/induction run motors have

several advantages over split-phase motors.
Since the capacitor is in series with the start
circuit, it creates more starting torque,
typically 200 to 400% of rated load. And the
starting current, usually 450 to 575% of rated
current, is much lower than the split-phase due
to the larger wire in the start circuit. This
allows higher cycle rates and reliable thermal
protection.

The cap-start/induction-run motor is more expensive than a comparable split phase design
because of the additional cost of the start capacitor. But the application range is much wider
because of higher starting torque and lower starting current. Use them on a wide range of
belt-drive applications like small conveyors, large blowers and pumps, as well as many
direct-drive or geared applications. These are the "workhorses" of general-purpose
single-phase industrial motors.

Permanent split capacitor

A permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor,

Figure 3, has neither a starting switch, nor a
capacitor strictly for starting. Instead, it has a
run-type capacitor permanently connected in
series with the start winding. This makes the
start winding an auxiliary winding once the
motor reaches running speed. Because the run
capacitor must be designed for continuous
use, it cannot provide the starting boost of a
starting capacitor. Typical starting torques of
PSC motors are low, from 30 to 150% of rated
load, so these motors are not for hard-to-start
applications. However, unlike split-phase
motors, PSC motors have low starting
currents, usually less than 200% of rated load
current, making them excellent for

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applications with high cycle rates. Breakdown

torque varies depending on the design type
and application, though it is typically
somewhat lower than with a cap start motors.

PSC motors have several advantages. They need no starting mechanism and so can be
reversed easily. Designs can be easily altered for use with speed controllers. They can also
be designed for optimum efficiency and high power factor at rated load. And they're
considered to be the most reliable of the single phase motors, mostly because no starting
switch is needed.

Permanent split capacitor motors have a wide variety of applications depending on the
design. These include fans, blowers with low starting torque needs, and intermittent cycling
uses such as adjusting mechanisms, gate operators and garage door openers, many of which
also need instant reversing.

Capacitor start/capacitor run

This type, Figure 4, combines the best of the

capacitor-start/induction-run motor and the
permanent split capacitor motor. It has a
start-type capacitor in series with the auxiliary
winding like the capacitor-start motor for high
starting torque. And, like a PSC motor, it also
has a run-type capacitor that is in series with
the auxiliary winding after the start capacitor
is switched out of the circuit. This allows high
breakdown or overload torque.

Another advantage of the

capacitor-start/capacitor-run type motor: It can
be designed for lower full-load currents and
higher efficiency. Among other things, this
means it operates at lower temperature than
other single-phase motor types of comparable
horsepower.

The only disadvantage to a cap-start/cap-run

motor is its higher price -- mostly the result of
more capacitors, plus a starting switch. But it's
a real powerhouse, able to handle applications too demanding for any other kind of
single-phase motor. These include woodworking machinery, air compressors, high-pressure
water pumps, vacuum pumps and other high torque applications requiring 1 to 10 hp.

Shaded-pole

Unlike all the previous types of single-phase

motors discussed, shaded-pole motors have
only one main winding and no start winding,
Figure 5. Starting is by means of a design that
rings a continuous copper loop around a small
portion of each motor pole. This "shades" that
portion of the pole, causing the magnetic field
in the ringed area to lag the field in the
unringed portion. The reaction of the two
fields gets the shaft rotating.

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Because the shaded pole motor lacks a start

winding, starting switch or capacitor, it is
electrically simple and inexpensive. Plus,
speed can be controlled merely by varying
voltage, or through a multi-tap winding.
Mechanically, shade-pole motor construction
allows high-volume production. In fact, these
are usually considered "disposable" motors,
meaning they are much cheaper to replace
than to repair.

The shaded pole motor has many positive features, but it also has several disadvantages. Its
low starting torque is typically 25 to 75% of full load torque. It is a high slip motor with
running speed 7 to 10% below synchronous speed. Also, it is very inefficient, usually below
20%.

Low initial cost suits shaded pole motors to low-horsepower or light-duty applications.
Perhaps their largest use is in multi-speed fans for household use. But low torque, low
efficiency, and less sturdy mechanical features make shaded-pole motors impractical for
most industrial or commercial uses where higher cycle rates or continuous duty are the
norm.

The preceding information establishes guidelines for determining the proper motor type for
your application. However, there are always special cases and applications in which it is
acceptable to vary from these guidelines. Make it a point to check with your motor
manufacturer for technical support in these areas.

Capacitor Details

Start Capacitor :The electrolytic start capacitor helps the motor achieve the most
beneficial phase angles between start and main windings for the most locked-rotor torque
per locked-rotor ampere. It is disconnected from the start circuit when the motor reaches
about 75% of full-load speed.

The start capacitor is designed for short-time duty. Extended application of voltage to the
capacitor will cause permature failure, if not immediate destruction. Typical ratings for
motor start capacitors range from 100 to 1,000 microfarad (uF) capacitance and 115 to 125
volts AC.

However, special applications require 165 to 250-Vac capacitors, which are physically
larger than capacitors of lower voltage rating for the same capacitance. Capacitance is a
measure of how much charge a capacitor can store relative to the voltage applied.

Run Capacitor : These are constructed similarly to start capacitors, except for the
electrolyte. They are designed to serve continuously in the run circuit of a capacitor-start
/capacitor-run motor. They withstand higher voltages, in the range of 250 to 370 Vac. They
also have lower capacitance, usually less than 65 uF.

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