STREAMS OF RESEARCH BEST PRACTICES

From Customer Value

to Engineering
Pleasurable Experiences
in Real Life and Online

Hotel companies need to appeal to all their guests’ senses on web pages that invoke pleasurable
experiences.

BY LAURETTE DUBÉ, JORDAN LE BEL, AND DONNA SEARS

T
his commentary extends a series of articles reporting
guests’ and intermediaries’ perspectives on the U.S.
lodging industry’s best practices, captured in the course
of a national study conducted in the late 1990s.1 In that study
1
See: L. Dubé and L.M. Renaghan, “Building Customer Loyalty,” Cornell
Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 6 (December
1999), pp. 78–88; L. Dubé and L.M. Renaghan, “How Hotel Attributes
Deliver the Promised Benefits,” Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administra-
tion Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 6 (December 1999), pp. 89–95; and L. Dubé
and L.M. Renaghan, “Creating Visible Customer Value,” Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 1 (February 2000),
pp. 62–72; L. Dubé, C. Enz, L.M. Renaghan, and J.A. Siguaw, American
Lodging Excellence: The Key to Best Practices in the U.S. Lodging Industry
(Washington, DC: American Express and the American Hotel Foundation,
1999); and L. Dubé, C. Enz, L.M. Renaghan, and J.A. Siguaw, “Best Prac-
tices in the U.S. Lodging Industry: Overview, Methods, and Champions,”
Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 4
(August 1999), pp. 14–27.
the researchers asked a national sample of hoteliers to report on
the best practices in the various functions of hotel management
(functional best-practices champions). Beyond performance
in specific functional areas, respondents were also asked to iden-
tify those properties or chains that were recognized as overall
leaders in the diverse segments of the industry, and in the indus-
try as a whole (overall best-practices champions). The research-
ers then interviewed a large national sample of guests and inter-
mediaries who had been customers of these best-practices
champions, inviting them to say whether the hotel or the chain
had delivered the value they expected and to specify which hotel
attributes had made the greatest contribution to such value.
The respondents also indicated whether receiving such value
had a substantial effect on their future purchase and loyalty.
© 2003, CORNELL UNIVERSITY

124 Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2003


In subsequent presentations, there were two
facets of these results that attracted readers’ and
listeners’ attention. Surprise arose first from
the discrepancy between the guests’ frequent
mention of physical attributes as an important
source of value and the minuscule number of
property-related best practices. In contrast, a
discrepancy of this kind did not exist for func-
tions related to people and processes, as both
guests and operators recognized the impor-
tance of those attributes. Since that research
was conducted, new hotel products (the brand
W, for instance) have carved profitable
niches on the basis of esthetic design qualities
or other innovative physical features, and such
attributes have become distinctive sell-
ing propositions in numerous advertising
campaigns.
Surprise persisted when managers learned
that only one out of two customers who stayed
with one of the best-practices champions was
able to remember something particularly pleas-
ant that stood out during their last visit to the
hotel. At the same time, loyalty was higher by
a factor close to 50 percent for the customers
who could recall some particular facet of the
stay (as compared to the other half of respon-
dents who could not recall anything special).
Creating visible customer value, every day and
every stay, resulted in greater loyalty—and this
was the case across all industry and customer
segments.
To further understand the source of these
champions’ leadership, it was necessary to iden-
tify the precise attributes necessary to deliver
the value guests expected. In that regard, the
researchers were able to link hotel attributes
that, at least in the customer’s mind, were criti-
cal to delivering expected benefits, typically
promised in the property’s or brand’s position-
ing. Mapping and communicating the relation-
ship between specific attributes and the dis-
tinctive benefits promised by hotel brands
emerged as important not only for guests but
also for travel agents and other intermediar-
ies. Intermediaries typically valued brands that
had a clear and strong image that would guide
guests’ choices.
OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2003
BEST PRACTICES STREAMS OF RESEARCHXX
In this article we build on that prior work
and draw from what has been called “experi-
ence engineering” or “experiential branding
and marketing” to inspire the further devel-
opment of best practices that have a high cus-
tomer payoff. We address first the challenges
involved in designing and orchestrating ob-
jective hotel attributes to create specific plea-
surable experiences that reliably define a
hotel’s or a chain’s positioning. As an ever-
increasing number of firms compete for the
consumer’s mind, heart, and wallet, even
manufacturers of commodity products need
to weave experiences around their brands to
gain competitive advantage. 2 At the same
time, travel-related purchases have become
the largest customer-spending category on the
web, and a growing proportion of commer-
cial transactions in the lodging industry is
moving to the internet.3 Consequently, it is
critical for firms to understand how best to
represent the customer experiences promised
in their brand positioning via the web envi-
ronment in a way that fosters customer ac-
quisition and retention. Having the ability
to convey the pleasurable experiences that are
at the core of a property’s or chain’s position-
ing appears essential to prevent the
commoditization of the industry that can
follow from current practice in electronic dis-
tribution of emphasizing price or general
quality levels over distinctive brand images
and experiences.4 We illustrate our argument
with preliminary results from an ongoing,
cross-industry research program on the en-
2
Marc Gobé, Emotional Branding (New York: Allworth
Press, 1999); Joseph B. Pine II and James H. Gilmore, Wel-
come to the Experience Economy (Boston: Harvard Business
School Press, 1999); Bernd H. Schmitt, Experiential Brand-
ing (New York: Free Press, 1999).
3
See: “Online Travel Spending Surpasses $1 Billion in Janu-
ary,” cyberatlas.internet.com (consulted 01/10/2003); and
The Score by comScore Media Metrix,
imediaconnection.com (consulted 01/10/2003); and Bill
Carroll and Judy Siguaw, “Evolution in Electronic Distri-
bution: Effects on Hotels and Intermediaries,” The Center
for Hospitality Research at Cornell University, 2003;
www.chr.cornell.edu.
4
Ibid.
Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 125
 STREAMS OF RESEARCH BEST PRACTICES

gineering and branding pleasurable customer action with the brand, from purchase, to use, to
experiences.5 detachment.
Recent research confirms that consumers
Branding and Engineering readily classify pleasurable experiences as being
Customer Experience one of four possible types: (1) sensory (or physi-
The best-practices study pointed to specific ho- cal) pleasure that is chiefly borne of the pleasant
tel attributes as drivers of particular benefits, such sensations induced during the experience;
as having a worry-free or comfortable stay, that (2) social pleasure derived from one’s interactions
positioned a hotel or a hotel brand in the guest’s with others (or lack thereof, as in the pleasure of
mind. The attribute that was the most impor- solitude); (3) emotional pleasure borne of feel-
ings, ideas, or mental images; and (4) intellec-
tual pleasure from appreciating the complexity
and subtleties of things around us.6 As examples,
For one customer out of two, the benefit of Banyan Tree Hotels pays particular attention to
the marriage of textures and colors in its guest
saving time was primarily linked to the effi- rooms to please the senses; elements of the Club
ciency of the check-in and check-out process. Med experience are designed to foster social
interactions; spa retreats, honeymoon destina-
tions, and selected resorts focus on creating
tant driver for a worry-free stay was top perfor- “magic” and warm emotional reactions and
mance of employees, while the quality of guest- memories; and the designs of I.M. Pei and other
room design was the foremost indicator of the architects can create an intellectual fascination
ability to deliver comfort. Furthermore, for one with certain hotels.
customer out of two, the benefit of saving time Considerable challenges await developers of
was primarily linked to the efficiency of the best practices that are in line with a brand’s expe-
check-in and check-out process. Recent devel- riential positioning. Whereas functional benefits
opments in experiential branding and market- can be specified with relative ease and translated
ing suggest that, beyond linking hotel attributes into technical specifications whose production
to the benefits they create for the customer, it is can be controlled, experiences are, by definition,
possible to orchestrate different objective ele- intangible. Even more important, for the argu-
ments under managers’ control (e.g., physical, ment we are making in this commentary, experi-
human, and communication resources) to shape ences are also personal, involving subjective re-
customers’ perceptions in a manner that creates actions, private emotions, and mental images.
pleasurable experiences. By experiential brand- Different types of experiences present distinct
ing, we refer to positioning strategies that prom- affective profiles. For instance, sensory pleasure
ise a certain type of pleasurable experience, typically is reasonably simple, arising from mere
encompassing all or part of consumers’ inter- physical hedonic responses. By contrast, a rich
constellation of affective reactions generally de-
scribes social, emotional, and intellectual plea-
5
D. Sears, J. Le Bel, and L. Dubé, “Differentiating Hedonic sures, in which simple positive responses like fun,
Consumption on the Basis of Experiential Qualities and
Emotional Make-up,” Advances in Consumer Research, ed. joy, and happiness may co-exist with more com-
Barbara E. Kahn and Mary-Frances Luce, ACR Proceedings,
Vol. 30, No. 1 (2003, in press); L. Dubé, J. Le Bel, A.
6
Mukherjee, and D. Vakratsas, “Experiential Branding in L. Dubé and J. Le bel, “The Categorical Structure of
Web Environment: Consumer Perceptions of Successful Pleasure,” Cognition and Emotion, Vol. 17 (2003), pp. 263–
Design Parameters,” The Fifth International Conference on 297; J.L. Le Bel and L. Dubé, “A Differentiated View of
Electronic Commerce Research, 2002; and J. Le Bel, D. Sears, Pleasure: Review of the Literature and Research Proposi-
and L. Dubé, “Experiential Branding for E-services: Assess- tions,” in European Advances in Consumer Research, Volume
ing Critical Web-design Parameters,” Working Paper, Fac- 5, ed. A. Groeppel-Klein and F. R. Esch (Valdosta, GA:
ulty of Management, McGill University, 2003. Association for Consumer Research, 2001), pp. 222–226.

126 Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2003

 BEST PRACTICES STREAMS OF RESEARCHXX

plex ones like pride and self-accomplishment or EXHIBIT 1

even with negative feelings such as sadness, anxi-
ety, and frustration. As an example of those ap- Percentage of participants assigning category or brand
parently contrasting reactions, one’s memories of
the emotional, pleasant first family trip to Walt
to a dominant pleasure type
Disney World may include the warm and proud Category Sensory Social Emotional Intellectual
feelings of the first encounter with Mickey and Hotels and Resorts 27.8 39.5 23.0 4.8
the wonder and excitement of the rides, but at Chains
the same time one will have less pleasant memo- Club Med 15.8 57.9 26.3 0.0
Palace Resorts 31.3 62.5 0.0 6.3
ries of the fatigued children’s tantrum and wait- Sandals Resorts 30.0 35.0 30.0 5.0
ing in the long lines.
Brands that wish to position themselves on Local boutique hotels
the basis of specific pleasurable guest experiences Hôtel de la Montagne 22.2 50.0 27.8 0.0
Hôtel le Germain 21.1 52.6 21.1 5.3
must account for the fact that the portfolio of Hotel St-Paul 22.2 50.0 16.7 11.1
objective attributes assembled in designing, man- Le Saint-Sulpice Hotel 44.4 22.2 33.3 0.0
aging, and communicating the core brand prom-
ise will probably be felt and “lived” differently Airlines 22.2 42.7 18.1 10.9
Air Canada 20.0 45.0 30.0 5.0
by different guests. This presents two challenges. Air Transat 31.6 26.3 26.3 15.8
First, it requires carefully defining and deliver- American Airlines 16.7 38.9 33.3 11.1
ing a brand’s objective attributes (i.e., those things British Airways 16.7 55.6 22.2 5.6
that can be controlled operationally) that are criti-
Car rental 23.7 41.9 14.9 10.5
cal to producing the subjective experience un-
Bus, train, and other
derlying the brand promise. Second, it forces ex-
ground transportation 29.8 43.1 11.3 12.1
periential marketers to understand how different
Travel agency 17.3 42.7 18.1 16.5
customers will essentially have different experi-
ences. Given that guest experiences are idiosyn-
cratic, one may wonder whether it is possible to Note: Category-level results are extracted from L. Dubé, J. Le Bel, A. Mukherjee, and
D. Vakratsas, “Experiential Branding in Web Environment: Consumer Perceptions of
measure and to articulate systematically an ex- Successful Design Parameters,” The Fifth International Conference on Electronic
periential brand promise. The research cited Commerce Research, 2002; Brand-level results have extracted from: D. Sears,
above suggests that consumers have in mind a J. Le Bel, and L. Dubé, “Differentiating Hedonic Consumption on the Basis of Experien-
clear representation of the types of pleasurable tial Qualities and Emotional Make-up,” Advances in Consumer Research, ed. Barbara
E. Kahn and Mary-Frances Luce, ACR Proceedings, Vol. 30, No. 1 (2003, in press).
experiences that can be produced by different
products and services or by different brands. Seg-
ments of customers can be identified on this ba- study 248 participants were asked to indicate the
sis. As a result, firms can identify and own a stra- dominant types of pleasurable experience they
tegic experiential position by assessing the associate with various product and service cat-
appropriate types of pleasurable experiences and egories.7 In the second study the same question
focusing on a specific type of experience to dif- was put to a different sample of 260 respondents,
ferentiate their brand from competitors. with regard to specific brands within various cat-
In Exhibit 1 we present the experiential posi- egories.8 As shown, a noticeable majority of re-
tions that customers associated with different spondents associated various hospitality-related
travel-related product categories and with spe- services with social pleasure. Furthermore, while
cific brands. These positions were uncovered in a dominant pleasure type was associated with hos-
the course of our studies on experiential brand- pitality services, other types of pleasures were fre-
ing. In a series of separate studies, different quently cited as well, suggesting variations in the
samples of respondents were presented with a
7
definition of the four differentiated experiential- Dubé, Le Bel, Mukherjee, Vakratsas, loc. cit.
branding strategies described above. In a first 8
Sears, Le Bel, and Dubé, op. cit.

OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2003 Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 127

 STREAMS OF RESEARCH BEST PRACTICES
pleasures people derive from these services—
presumably a reflection of the wide variety of
positioning strategies adopted by various brands
within each category. A similar pattern emerged
at the brand level: the majority of travel, tour-
ism, and hospitality brands were associated with
social pleasure. The following notable exceptions
emerged, however. Disney Cruise Line was asso-
ciated with both social and emotional pleasures,
in line with the company’s positioning of pro-
viding “magical moments” for families and chil-
dren of all ages. Sandals Resorts invoked associa-
tions of three types of pleasure (i.e., sensory,
social, and emotional) with about equal fre-
quency. Le Saint-Sulpice, a recently opened bou-
tique hotel in Montreal, was associated with sen-
sory and emotional pleasures.
We believe that considerable return on invest-
ment awaits individual hotels or chains (and the
lodging industry as a whole) in developing best
practices that depict the alignment of objective
hotel attributes—whether related to the physi-
cal properties, to the people, or to the processes—
with the brand’s promise and the guest’s expec-
tations of experiential value. This appears to be a
necessary step before pleasurable guest experi-
ences can systematically and reliably enhance a
brand’s equity, support price differentiation, and
ensure repeat purchase and loyalty.
Experiencing the Web Environment
Distribution by hotels and travel and tourism
companies has been particularly affected by the
changes brought about by the internet. Even as
travel agencies’ role diminishes, electronic interme-
diaries like Expedia and Priceline are commanding
an impressive and growing share of online spend-
ing, and many major chains are making a substan-
tial share of their sales online.9 In addition to the
changes in the distribution channels and shifting
balance of power, companies are facing a new op-
portunity and challenge with regard to the internet.
Many companies have realized that merely using
the internet for brand awareness is a waste of re-
sources and an underexploitation of the power of
9
cyberatlas.internet.com, loc. cit.; imediaconnection.com,
loc. cit.; and Carroll and Siguaw, loc. cit.
128 Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly
the web. Not only is the web a point of sales, but
it is a means to communicate the specific plea-
sure at the core of the experiential promise. In
fact, a hospitality firm’s website can even become
part of the experience itself.
Regrettably, many companies look at the
internet as just another (obligatory) advertising
vehicle or a simple sales tool. Some airlines, for
instance, merely offer their customers the chance
to order tickets online. Others, like British Air-
ways and Virgin Atlantic Airlines, are actively
using their websites to promote the distinctive
aspects of the experience they deliver, even using
the online interaction to handle some services and
tasks and to build anticipatory pleasures for the
onboard experience to come.
For instance, Virgin Atlantic (VA) offers an
interactive tour of its award-winning redesigned
upper-class service—from the chauffeured ride
to the airport to the club-house lounge at the
destination airport. In addition to building brand
identity, the site is engineered to convey the many
pleasures to be experienced on a VA flight, in-
cluding the beauty-therapy area, where pampered
guests can enjoy an in-flight massage. Building
on the power of anticipation, VA also used its
site to introduce its “upper-class suite,” where
users can essentially experience their own suite
in the skies. In keeping with the experiential-
marketing concept, design and physical elements
are orchestrated to deliver a variety of pleasur-
able experiences. The site demonstrates how a
traveler can find peace and tranquility and is able
to sleep during flight to arrive well rested at des-
tination, ready for a full day of productive meet-
ings. It also shows how couples can enjoy inti-
mate moments and dine tête-à-tête, while business
associates can use the work table and ottoman to
hold a meeting. The VA case is noteworthy in
many ways. First, the site is engaging and creates
what web designers call “stickiness.” It grabs and
holds attention and invites the visitor to explore
the site. Second, the site does not simply act as a
booking agent but aims to faithfully convey what
the VA experience is all about. In this sense, the
site is consistent with the actual experience.
We propose that an important area for fur-
ther development in best practices for the lodg-
OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2003
 BEST PRACTICES STREAMS OF RESEARCHXX

ing industry is in the development of websites EXHIBIT 2

that can convey the types of pleasurable experi-
ences promised by the brand in an enticing way,
Dominant pleasure type associated with web visit
while at the same time being functionally effi-
cient to ensure the success of online transactions
(percentage of participants)
and prevent customer frustration. In this regard, Website Sensory Social Emotional Intellectual
as part of a broader study linking web design to Carnival 45.8 16.7 29.2 8.3
the ability to convey experiential brand position- Celebrity Cruises 44.0 20.0 36.0 0
ing and ensure pleasant browsing experiences, we Royal Caribbean 43.5 26.1 26.1 4.3
audited the websites of three cruise lines and Club Med 66.7 16.7 12.5 4.2
four resorts in terms of their content and pre- Palace Resorts 62.5 16.7 20.8 0
sentation strategies, and measured different fac- Tremblant Ski Resort 28.0 32.0 40.0 0
ets of customers’ responses to these websites.10 Whistler-Blackcomb Resort 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0
To perform our assessment, we asked respondents All travel and tourism sites 47.2 22.4 26.7 3.6
to visit the seven websites, such that each web
site was visited and evaluated by at least 24 dif- Drawn from: J. Le Bel, D. Sears, and L. Dubé, “Experiential Branding for E-services:
ferent participants. After their visit to each site, Assessing Critical Web-design Parameters,” Working Paper, Faculty of Management,
McGill University, 2003.
participants were given a description of the four
types of pleasurable experiences and were asked
to indicate which type dominated their brows- of any ship they choose. The virtual tour, how-
ing experience. ever, includes only pictures of the physical sur-
Consider first the relationship between the roundings: stunning lobbies, deck-top pools, and
consumption experience of a brand in real life suites and amenities—but it shows no guests and
and the types of pleasure conveyed in that brand’s no interactions. This is a surprising realization,
website. As can be seen from Exhibit 2, based given that social pleasure was cited as the domi-
on the reported frequency of the dominant plea- nant pleasure associated with this brand. In fact,
sure experienced during the web visit, almost all when we inventoried the respondents’ three top-
websites were associated with sensory pleasure. of-mind mentions on completion of their visit
This result seems to indicate a lack of congru- to each of these websites, the category of people
ence between the experience with the website and and process was almost completely absent, leav-
the actual experience with the brand itself. ing center stage to physical facets of the hotel or
We examined the websites to determine the the website and to price and other marketing
source of that failed congruence. Our examina- information. This comes in sharp contrast to prior
tion of these websites found that almost all the results from the best-practices study in which
cruise and resorts sites emphasize similar ele- people and process were highly salient both as
ments. The color blue is heavily used through- a source of customer value and as a focus for
out, for instance, and scenic beaches and breath- managers’ efforts in functional best-practices
taking sunsets are common fare. Granted, resorts development.
go to great lengths to secure gorgeous locations, Perhaps the only website of the seven to fully
and majestic ocean views are part of the cruise- explore the range of pleasurable experiences is that
line experience, but those factors are not neces- of the Tremblant Ski Resort, which invoked sen-
sarily the core pleasure at the heart of the brand sory, social, and emotional pleasures with almost
experience. equal frequency. Let us discuss what it does that
The sites that we audited use many of the same other sites do not do. To begin with, Tremblant’s
devices also found on the VA site. For instance, site uses tools and techniques similar to those of
on Carnival’s site visitors can take a virtual tour other websites: an online-booking interface is
available, as is a virtual tour of the ski resort. But
10
Sears, LeBel, and Dubé, op. cit. various elements provide both subtle and obvi-

OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2003 Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 129

 STREAMS OF RESEARCH BEST PRACTICES
ous cues to the visitor about the variety of plea-
sures that awaits guests at this resort. First, the
home page welcomes visitors with the headline,
“It’s all about the fun!,” against the background
of a night scene of bars and restaurants and a
daytime scene of a skier in action. On the Carni-
val site, by contrast, the visitor is greeted with a
picture of a ship at sea accompanied by links to
other pages on the site. Second, when clicking
through the Tremblant site the visitor sees vari-
ous images that are obviously chosen to convey
not only the beauty of the scenery (as many other
resorts and cruise sites do) but the sensory plea-
sure of cold snow, the exhilaration of skiing down
the slopes, warming up by the fireplace, and the
social pleasure of friends and families sharing
good times. Beyond the home page, helpful links
provide the visitor with information on accom-
modations, directions to get there, what to see
and do while on the premises, and what to ex-
pect—a section replete with information about
local history, customs, and knowledge. The
Tremblant site illustrates that from an experience-
marketing perspective, physical elements and op-
erating policies are secondary. What matters,
beyond the breathtaking scenery or impressive
lobby, may be the pleasures and reactions that
such features instill in customers and the
marketer’s ability to invoke those pleasures on
the website and to convey them in anticipation
of the actual experience.
The second relevant facet of the results per-
tains to the relationship between the various
qualities of customers’ experience and their re-
sponses to the web visit. We asked respondents
130 Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly
to report on various emotions they may have felt
as they were visiting the seven websites and to
indicate their subsequent intent to return to the
website and make a purchase. We found that
three affects were reliable predictors of custom-
ers’ intent to return to the website, as well as to
stay at the hotel in the future: namely, the degree
of enthusiasm they had felt as they were visiting
the site, the sense of pride that the website could
evoke in them, and (as one might expect) the
intensity of their frustration in using the website.
We are now working to quantify the contribu-
tion that specific objective web-design guidelines
make in the creation of these pleasurable and less
pleasurable experiences and to the customers’
overall reaction to the website. We believe that
such knowledge can be a foundation for the de-
velopment of best practices that enable players
in the lodging industry to capitalize on the pen-
etration of electronic distribution, while preserv-
ing the human qualities that are the core appeal
of the hospitality and tourism industries.
In conclusion, we have proposed two avenues
for the future development of best practices:
(1) practices that could help establish systematic and
reliable linkages between objective hotel attributes
and the pleasurable experiences designed to differ-
entiate a hotel or a chain in the customer’s mind,
and (2) other practices that could harness the power
of the internet and other information technologies
to better set the stage for such experiences. We
believe that these two avenues can set the stage
for a future in which the art and the science of
hospitality go hand in hand for higher return on
investment for customers and hoteliers alike. ■
Laurette Dubé, Ph.D.(photo at far left), is James McGill
Professor of Consumer Psychology and Services Market-
ing and Management at McGill University (laurette.dube
@mcgill.ca). Jordan Le Bel, Ph.D. (middle photo), is an
assistant professor of marketing at the John Molson
School of Business, at Concordia University (jlebel@
jmsb.concordia.ca). Donna Sears (photo at immediate
left) is a doctoral candidate at McGill University
(donna.sears@mail.mcgill.ca).
OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2003