THEODOLITE

Introduction::-
 Theodolite is more precise than magnetic compass.

 Magnetic compass measures the angle up to as accuracy of 30’. However a vernier theodolite
measures the angles up to and accuracy of 10’’ OR 20”.

 The following are the different purpose for which the theodolite can be used:

 Measuring Horizontal Angle

 Measuring Vertical Angles

 Measuring Deflection Angles

 Measuring Magnetic Bearing

 Measuring the horizontal distance between two points

 Finding the vertical height of an object

 Finding difference of elevation between various points

 Ranging of a line.

Types of theodolite:-

Theodolites may be of two types

a) Transit Theodolite
b) Non-Transit

In the transit theodolite, the telescope, the telescope can be revolved through
a complete revolution about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane.

In the non transit theodolite, the telescope, cannot be revolved through a

complete revolution in the vertical plane.

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Main parts of a theodolite

 Levelling head (7): Levelling head is used to attach the instrument to tripod and attach the
plumb bob along the vertical axis of the instrument.

 Lower plate/circle plate (18): an annular horizontal plate with the graduations provided all
around, from 0 to 360°, in a clockwise direction. The graduations are in degree divided in to 3
parts so that each division equals to 20 min.

 Horizontal angles are measured with this plate.

 The size of the theodolite is defined by the diameter of horizontal circle.

 Upper plate (17): Horizontal plate of smaller diameter provided with two verniers. on
diametrically opposite parts of its circumference. These verniers are designated as A and B.
They are used to read fractions of the horizontal circle plate graduations. The verniers are
graduated in 20 min and each minute is divided in 3 to 5 parts making least count 20” or 10”.

 Lower plate/circle plate (18): an annular horizontal plate with the graduations provided all
around, from 0 to 360°, in a clockwise direction. The graduations are in degree divided in to 3
parts so that each division equals to 20 min.

 Horizontal angles are measured with this plate.

 The size of the theodolite is defined by the diameter of horizontal circle.

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  Upper plate (17): Horizontal plate of smaller diameter provided with two verniers. on
diametrically opposite parts of its circumference. These verniers are designated as A and B.
They are used to read fractions of the horizontal circle plate graduations. The verniers are
graduated in 20 min and each minute is divided in 3 to 5 parts making least count 20” or 10”.

 Plate level (5):

 Spirit level with the bubble and graduation on glass cover.

 A single level or two levels fixed in perpendicular direction may be provided.

 The spirit level can be adjusted with the foot screw (21) of the levelling head (7).

 Telescope (10): The essential parts of the telescopes are eye-piece, diaphragm with cross
hairs, object lens and arrangements to focus the telescope.

 Vertical circle (1): circular plate supported on horizontal axis of the instrument between the
A-frames. Vertical circle has graduation 0-90 in four quadrants. Vertical circle moves with the
telescope when it is rotated in the vertical plane.

 Vertical circle clamp and tangent screw (11): Clamping the vertical circle restrict the
movement of telescope in vertical plane.

 Altitude level (2): A highly sensitive bubble is used for levelling particularly when taking
the vertical angle observations.

Important Definitions::-

Centring

• The setting of a theodolite exactly over a station mark by means of a plumb bob. Is known as
centering.

Transiting

• The method of turning the telescope about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane through 180
0 is termed as transiting. In other words transiting results in a change in face.

Face left

• ‘Face left’ means that the vertical circle of the theodolite is on the left of the observer at the
time of taking reading.

Face right

• This refers to the situation when the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right of the
observer when the reading is taken

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Changing face

• The operation of bringing the vertical circle from one side of the observer to the other is
known as changing face.

Swinging the telescope

• This indicates turning the telescope in a horizontal plane. It is called ‘right swing’ when the
telescope is turned clockwise and ‘left swing’ when the telescope is turned anticlockwise.

Line of Collimation

• It is an imaginary line passing through optical centre of the objective glass and its
continuation.

Axis of Telescope

• The axis is an imaginary line passing through the optical centre of the object glass and the
optical centre of the eye-peace.

Axis of the Bubble Tube

• It is an imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the bubble tube at its middle
point.

Vertical Axis

• it is the axis of rotation of the telescope in the horizontal plane

Horizontal Axis

• It is the axis of rotation of the telescope in the vertical plane.

Temporary Adjustment

• The setting if the theodolite over a station at the time of taking any observation is called
temporary adjustment.

Permanent Adjustment

• When the desired relationship between the fundamental lines of a theodolite is disturbed,
then some procedures are adopted to establish this relationship. This adjustment is known as
permanent adjustment.

The Diaphragm

The diaphragm is a brass ring consisting of cross-hairs, or one containing a glass disc
with fine lines engraved on it. It is placed in position by turning four capstan-headed screws,
and can be moved up, down or sideways when required. It is fixed in front of the eye-piece.
The cross-hairs may be made of fine platinum wire.

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Temporary Adjustment of Theodolite

• Setting the theodolite over the station::-

The tripod stand is placed over the required station. The theodolite is then shifted
from the box and fixed on top of the stand by means of a wing nut or according to the fixed
arrangement provided along with the instrument.

• Approximate leveling by Tripod::-

The legs of the tripod stand are placed well apart and firmly fixed on the ground.
Then, approximately leveling is done using this stand, To do this, two legs are kept firmly
fixed on the ground and third is moved in or out, clockwise or anticlockwise, so that the
bubble is approximately at the Centre of its run.

• Centering::-

Centering is the process of setting of the instruments exactly over a station. At the
time of approximate leveling by means of the tripod stand, it should be ensured that the
plumb bob suspended from the book under the vertical axis lies approximately over the
station peg.

• Leveling::-

Before starting the leveling operation, all the foot screws are brought to the Centre of
their run. Then the following procedure is adopted.

The plate bubble is placed parallel to any pair of foot screws. By turning both these
screws equally inwards or outwards. The plate bubble is turned through 90 0 so that it is
perpendicular to the line joining the first and second foot screws. Then by turning the third
foot screw either clockwise or anticlockwise the bubble is brought to the centre.

• Focusing of the Eye Piece::-

The eye piece is focused so that the cross-hairs can be seen clearly. To do this, the
telescope is directed towards the sky or a piece of white paper is held in front of the object
glass, and the eye-piece is moved in or out by turning it in clockwise or anticlockwise until
the cross –hairs appear distinct and sharp.

PERMANENT ADJUSTMENT OF THEODOLITE ::-

A theodolite consists of several fundamental lines. In order the readings to be

accurate, certain desired relationship must exist between the fundamental lines of the
instrument. But due to improper handling or excessive use, this relationship may be disturbed
and hence from the theodolite may lead to erroneous results.

For rectifying a disturbed relationship, some procedures, termed permanent

adjustments are adopted.

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 The fundamental lines of a theodolite are:

 The vertical axis

 The axis of the plate level
 The line of collimation
 The horizontal axis or trunion axis
 The bubble line of the altitude level

The desired relationships between the fundamental lines are as follows:

• The axis of the plate level must be perpendicular to the vertical axis

• The line of collimation should coincide with the optical axis of the telescope and should also
be perpendicular to the vertical axis.

• The axis of telescope must be parallel to the line of collimation.

• The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the horizontal axis. And the vertical circle
should read zero when the line of collimation is horizontal.

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLE::-

There are two methods of measuring horizontal angles:-

i) Repetition Method.
ii) Reiteration Method.

i) Repetition Method::-
This method is used for very accurate work. In this method, the same angle is added
several times mechanically and the correct value of the angle is obtained by dividing the
accumulated reading by the no. of repetitions.

To measure horizontal angle by repetitions:-

1. Set up the theodolite at starting point O and level it

accurately.
2. Measure the horizontal angle AOB.
3. Loosen the lower clamp and turn the telescope clock –
wise until the object (A) is sighted again. Bisect B
accurately by using the upper tangent screw. The
verniers will now read the twice the value of the angle
now.

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 4. Repeat the process until the angle is repeated the required number of times (usually 3).
Read again both verniers. The final reading after n repetitions should be approximately n
X Divide the sum by the number of repetitions and the result thus obtained gives the
correct value of the angle AOB.
5. Change the face of the instrument. Repeat exactly in the same manner and find another
value of the angle AOB. The average of two readings gives the required precise value of
the angle AOB.

ii) Reiteration Method::-

This method is another precise and comparatively less tedious method of measuring the
horizontal angles. It is generally preferred when several angles are to be measured at a
particular station.

Procedure

Suppose it is required to measure the angles AOB, BOC and COD. Then to measure
these angles by repetition method.

i. Set up the instrument over station point O and level it

accurately.
ii. Direct the telescope towards point A which is known as
referring object. Bisect it accurately and check the reading of
vernier as 0 or 3600. Loosen the lower clamp and turn the
telescope clockwise to sight point B exactly. Read the verniers
again and the mean reading will give the value of angle AOB.
iii. Similarly bisect C & D successively, read both verniers at-each
bisection, find the value of the angle BOC and COD.
iv. Finally close the horizon by sighting towards the referring
object (point A).
v. The vernier A should now read 3600. If not note down the error .This error occurs due to
slip etc.
vi. If the error is small, it is equally distributed among the several angles .If large the readings
should be discarded and a new set of readings be taken.

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MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES:

To Measure the Vertical Angle of an object A at a station O:

i. Set up the theodolite at station point O and level it accurately with

reference to the altitude bubble.
ii. Set the zero of vertical vernier exactly to the zero of the vertical circle
clamp and tangent screw.
iii. Bring the bubble of the altitude level in the central position by using clip
screw. The line of sight is thus made horizontal and vernier still reads
zero.
iv. Loosen the vertical circle clamp screw and direct the telescope towards the object A and sight
it exactly by using the vertical circle tangent screw.
v. Read both verniers on the vertical circle, The mean of the two vernier readings gives the
value of the required angle.
vi. Change the face of the instrument and repeat the process. The mean of of the two vernier
readings gives the second value of the required angle.
vii. The average of the two values of the angles thus obtained, is the required value of the angle
free from instrumental errors.
Computation of latitude and departure ::

 Latitude of a line is the distances measured parallel to the north south of the North-South
direction

 Departure of the line is the distance measured parallel to the east-west direction

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Sources of errors in theodolite:

1. Instrumental Errors
a. Non-adjustment of plate bubble
• The axis of the plate bubble may not be perpendicular to vertical axis. So. When
the plate level are centered, the vertical axis may not be truly vertical. In such a
case, the horizontal circle would be inclined and the angle will be measured
in an inclined plane. This would cause an error in angle measured.

• This error may be eliminated by leveling the instrument with reference to the
altitude bubble.

b. Line of collimation not being perpendicular to horizontal axis

• In this case, a cone is formed when the telescope is revolved in the vertical
plane, and this causes an error in the observation.

• This error is eliminated by reading the angle from both the faces (left and
right) and take the average of the reading.

c. Horizontal axis not being perpendicular to vertical axis

• If the horizontal axis is not perpendicular to the vertical axis, there is an
angular error. This is eliminated by reading the angle from both the faces.

d. Line of collimation not being parallel to axis of telescope.

• If the line of collimation is not parallel to the axis of telescope, there is an error
in the observed vertical angle. This error is eliminated by taking reading from
both faces.

e. Eccentricity of Inner and Outer axes

• This condition causes an error in vernier readings. This error is eliminated by
taking reading from both the vernier and considering the average readings.

f. Graduation not being Uniform

• The error due to this condition is eliminated by measuring the angles several
times on different parts of the circle.

g. Vernier being Eccentric

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 • The zeros of the vernier should be diametrically opposite to each other. When
vernier A is set at 0 0, Vernier B should be at 180 0, But in some cases, this
condition may not exist.

• This error is eliminated by reading both verniers and taking the average.

2. Personal Error
1. The centering may not be done perfectly, due to carelessness. The leveling may
not be done carefully according to usual procedure. If the clamp screws are not
properly fixed, the instrument may slip. The proper tangent screw may not be
operated The focusing in order to avoid parallax may not be perfectly done.

2. The object of ranging rod may not be bisected accurately The vernier may not
be set in proper place.

3. Error would also result if the verniers are not read because of oversight.

3. Natural Errors
1. High temperature causes error due to irregular refraction.
2. High wind causes vibration in the instrument, and this may lead to wrong
readings on the verniers.

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